Vernacular Literature in China (13th – 18th century)

1. China’s Historical Events from 13th to 18th Century

There are two major dynasties that ruled China between the 13th to the 18th

century, the Ming Dynasty and the Ch’ing Dynasty. The Ming dynasty came to existence

on the year 1368, after a rebellion has overthrown the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. Due to

the surmounting financial problems of the newly-established dynasty, an admiral named

Cheng Ho undertook several naval expeditions from 1405 to 1421 in Southeast Asia, Sri

Lanka, and the coasts of Africa for tribute and trade. These expeditions halted in the year

1433 as has not resumed since. The second emperor of the Ming Dynasty moved the

country’s capital from Nanjing to Peking (Beijing) in the year 1421. There was a period

in the late Ming where radical subjectivism arose. The authority of nobility, particularly

that of the emperor, and the continued observance of tradition was put in question.

Western ideas have found itself a place in the Ming Dynasty through the Christian

missionary Matteo Ricci, who has served his missionary duties in China for almost three

decades (1583–1610). The reign of the Ming Dynasty ended with the invasion of the

Manchus in the year 1644.

The Manchus established the Ch’ing Dynasty after the victory of their invasion.

During the reign of the Manchus, China has achieved its greatest territorial expansion by

including Nepal, Outer Mongolia, Tibet, and Turkistan to the empire. Aside from the

dynasty’s territorial successes, its economy and art also flourished, with the rise of the

Beijing Opera and “literati painting”. But despite the dynasty’s continuing prosperity, the

Manchu Dynasty maintained a suppressive campaign against subversive artists and

 writers who, in the government’s opinion, tries to instill rebellious thoughts against the

dynasty. The Manchu Dynasty opened its doors to foreign influences that, through time,

became one of the factors that led to the dynasty’s ultimate collapse upsurge of various

rebellions like the Taiping Rebellion and the Boxer Uprising.

2. Literary Events of the Ming Dynasty and Ch’ing Dynasty

Before the establishment of the Ming Dynasty, Chinese literature, which is mostly

based on Confucian teachings, has been abolished from government-related matters,

especially on the principles which set the standard for imposing law and order in the

country.

During the Ming and Ch’ing Dynasties, vernacular literature was widespread.

Vernacular Chinese literature often derived from the classical ones, like Wu Ch’eng-en’s

“Journey to the West” being based on the Buddhist monk, Tripitaka’s pilgrimage from

China to India. This kind of literature became known for its ability to elaborate

creatively on plots of earlier works by filling in details or perhaps even by articulating

what had been omitted. The vernacular literature deals with sex, violence, satire, and

humor, which are the figures that Confucianism tries to retrain, but these kinds of

writings are more favored than the traditionalist, classical literature.

The literature in the Ch’ing Dynasty has veered from the concept of subjectivism

which was prevalent during the Ming Dynasty and has instead made use of historical and

philosophical interpretations. Various literary pieces were studied as to how they may
 have been used in their original contexts. Classical Chinese writings suffered a major

blow due to the period of “literary inquisition.”

3. Yuan Hongdao 袁宏道 (1568-1610)

One of the Three Yuan Brothers, Yuan Hongdao (sometimes spelled as

Yüan/Yuan Hung-tao) is the best-known poet and critic of the Gong’an School. Yuan

Hongdao values the idea that the best kind of poetry is true to the writer’s feelings and

must not be made out of artificiality. He also values the novelty in verse and believes that

the unique expression of self is more important that the traditionalist functions of

literature. Like most of the writers of his time, Yuan Hongdao does not support the

traditionalist kind of writing in China, instead, he promotes freedom in writing. His

straightforward poems made him to be known as and one of the most vulgar and

controversial writers of the Ming dynasty.

“I would rather be modern and vulgar, and I refuse to pick up a single word from

others.” says Yuan Hongdao. What he meant by the word others are the classical

writings/writers that the vernacular writers of the Ming Dynasty so avidly avoided.
A Jocular Song about the Land of Happy Drunks

By Yuan Hongdao

Wine in heaven makes it stand upright,

Wine in a nation stops all strife.

When a true king appears,

Benevolence comes only after generations.

Why must virtue be used to govern?

Punishment to bring order?

Just make a river of wine,

And pile up yeast as high as a wall.

Wherever the sun and moon shall shine,

Wherever the frost and dew fall,

Of those who have blood and breath,

None are not drowsy with wine,

The dead do not know they are dead,

The living do not know that they are alive.

Only when thoroughly soused can the crafty devil be known.

Why worry about the world not being at peace?

pp. 81, Yüan Hung-tao and the Kung-an School

REFERENCES:

Chou, Chih-P’ing, Yüan Hung-tao and the Kung-an School. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]; New
York : Cambridge University Press. 1998

Schmidt, Jerry Dean. Harmony Garden: The Life, Literary Criticism, and Poetry of Yuan Mei.
London: RoutledgeCurzon. 2003

"Ming." The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2008. Encyclopedia.com. 5 Oct. 2010

<http://www.encyclopedia.com>.

"Ch'ing." The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2008. Encyclopedia.com. 5 Oct. 2010

<http://www.encyclopedia.com>.

“Section 16 : Vernacular Literature in China”. The Norton Anthology of World Literature. 2003.

5 Oct. 2010 <http://www.wwnorton.com/college/english/worldlit2e/full/s16_overview.htm>

“Timeline 16 : Vernacular Literature in China”. The Norton Anthology of World Literature.

2003. 5 Oct. 2010 <http://www.wwnorton.com/college/english/worldlit2e/full/timelines/16.htm>