DCL Lecture Module Compilation PDF

Understanding Computer System Fundamentals, DCL – Data Communication and Local Computer Systems Servicing
its Architecture, Installation, and Basic Servicing Area Networks (CSS) NC II
Gateways Institute of Science and Technology
Understanding Computer Networks,

Connectivity Media, Protocols and Basic Structure
Computer Systems Servicing (CSS) NC II
Student’s Name:
Course / Session:
Class Schedule:
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Table of Contents
Lecture Module
1. Introduction to Communication and Networks -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3
2. LAN Topologies ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
3. Network Connectivity Devices ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11
4. Network Protocols and Standards ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 17
5. Computer Operating System ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20
6. Network / Transmission Media ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 21
7. Network Cable Construction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25
8. 7 Layers of OSI Model & IP Addressing ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 28
9. P2P Connection ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 33
10. File and Printer Sharing --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 36
Activity
1. Constructing Ethernet Cable --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37
2. P2P Connection ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 38
3. File & Printer Sharing ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 39
Quizzes
#1 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 40
#2 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 41
#3 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 42
#4 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 43
#5 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 44
#6 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 45
#7 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 46
#8 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 47
#9 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 48
# 10 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 49
# 11 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 50
# 12 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 51
# 13 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 52
# 14 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 53
# 15 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 54
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Lecture Module 1:
Introduction to Communication and Networks
1.1. Communication
 Communication – describes a process in which two or more computer or devices transferring data, instructions, and
information.
Data – considered as the input of a system; also called unprocessed information
Instruction – set of process or method used in transforming data into a meaningful information
Information – considered as the output of a system; also called processed data
Communication Paradigm
Input / Process / Output /

Data Instruction Information
1.2. History of Data Communication and Networks

Data communications has an ancient history, as people have always had an interest in communicating with each other.
Different methods have been used and associated with each method are various advantages and disadvantages. A major
problem with communications is ensuring that the receiver gets the message sent by the transmitter.
1.3. Elements of Communication

1. transmitter (sender, source)
2. receiver (destination)
3. message to be communicated
4. medium (how message is carried)
Anything that interferes with the message is technically called Noise.
1.4. Convergence of Computing and Communications

Communication facilities have an ancient history, but we tend to think of the advent of the telegraph and later the
telephone as the beginning of modern communications. Extensive telegraph and telephone networks were established all over
the world, decades before the emergence of computers.
The first public telephone exchange was opened in the U.S. in 1878 and operators were used to connect subscribers.
Strowger invented the automatic exchange (switch) in 1891 and this system remained in use until the 1960s when crossbar
switches were introduced. The connection between two exchanges is called a trunk and trunk switches in each exchange
route calls. The connection between a subscriber and the local exchange is called the local loop. In the 1970‘s computer
controlled switches were introduced and digital switching began. Here, voice signals are converted to digital signals.
In the telegraph network text was transmitted using codes, beginning with Morse, and then Baudot codes. These were
predecessors of the modern ASCII code, which is frequently used in computers to represent text.
The concept of a start-stop code system was developed to tell a receiver that a character was being transmitted.
Seven pulses were transmitted on the line. Five were used to represent the character. A start pulse indicated that a character
was to be transmitted and a stop pulse that the character was finished.
This idea is the basis of the RS232 serial interface. The serial interface is the communications interface used between
computers and devices such as modems, printers and computer terminals. RS232 is the name of the standard that defines the
interface (e.g. how many wires are used, what each wire is used for and so on).
This type of transmission is asynchronous. Characters are transmitted independently of each other as opposed to
synchronous transmission where blocks of characters are transmitted and precise timing is critical.
1.5. Transmission Direction

A given transmission on a communications channel between two machines can occur in several different ways. The
transmission is characterized by:
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 the direction of the exchanges

 the transmission mode: the number of bits sent simultaneously
 synchronization between the transmitter and receiver
1.5.1. Simplex, Half-duplex and Full-duplex connections
There are 3 different transmission modes characterized according to the direction of the exchanges:
 A simplex connection is a connection in which the data flows in only one direction, from the transmitter to the receiver.
This type of connection is useful if the data do not need to flow in both directions (for example, from your computer to the
printer or from the mouse to your computer...).
 A half-duplex connection (sometimes called an alternating connection or semi-duplex) is a connection in which the data
flows in one direction or the other, but not both at the same time. With this type of connection, each end of the connection
transmits in turn. This type of connection makes it possible to have bidirectional communications using the full capacity of
the line.
 A full-duplex connection is a connection in which the data flow in both directions simultaneously. Each end of the line
can thus transmit and receive at the same time, which means that the bandwidth is divided in two for each direction of data
transmission if the same transmission medium is used for both directions of transmission.
1.5.2. Analog / Digital / Serial and Parallel Transmission
The transmission mode refers to the number of elementary units of information (bits) that can be simultaneously
translated by the communications channel. In fact, processors (and therefore computers in general) never process (in the case of
recent processors) a single bit at a time; generally they are able to process several (most of the time it is 8: one byte), and for
this reason the basic connections on a computer are parallel connections.
1.5.2.1. Parallel connection
Parallel connection means simultaneous transmission of N bits. These bits are sent simultaneously over N different
channels (a channel being, for example, a wire, a cable or any other physical medium). The parallel connection on PC-type
computers generally requires 10 wires.
These channels may be:
 N physical lines: in which case each bit is sent on a physical line (which is why parallel cables are made up of several wires
in a ribbon cable)
 one physical line divided into several sub-channels by dividing up the bandwidth. In this case, each bit is sent at a different
frequency...
Since the conductive wires are close to each other in the ribbon cable, interference can occur (particularly at high speeds)
and degrade the signal quality...
1.5.2.2. Serial connection
In a serial connection, the data are sent one bit at a time over the transmission channel. However, since most
processors process data in parallel, the transmitter needs to transform incoming parallel data into serial data and the receiver
needs to do the opposite.
These operations are performed by a communications controller (normally a UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver
Transmitter) chip). The communications controller works in the following manner:
 The parallel-serial transformation is performed using a shift register. The shift register, working together with a clock,
will shift the register (containing all of the data presented in parallel) by one position to the left, and then transmit the most
significant bit (the leftmost one) and so on:
 The serial-parallel transformation is done in almost the same way using a shift register. The shift register shifts the
register by one position to the left each time a bit is received, and then transmits the entire register in parallel when it is full:
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1.5.3. Synchronous and asynchronous transmission
Given the problems that arise with a parallel-type connection, serial connections are normally used. However, since a single
wire transports the information, the problem is how to synchronize the transmitter and receiver, in other words, the receiver can
not necessarily distinguish the characters (or more generally the bit sequences) because the bits are sent one after the other.
There are two types of transmission that address this problem:
 An asynchronous connection, in which each character is sent at irregular intervals in time (for example a user sending
characters entered at the keyboard in real time). So, for example, imagine that a single bit is transmitted during a long
period of silence... the receiver will not be able to know if this is 00010000, 10000000 or 00000100...
To remedy this problem, each character is preceded by some information indicating the start of character transmissio n (the
transmission start information is called a START bit) and ends by sending end-of-transmission information (called STOP
bit, there may even be several STOP bits).
 In a synchronous connection, the transmitter and receiver are paced by the same clock. The receiver continuously receives
(even when no bits are transmitted) the information at the same rate the transmitter sends it. This is why the transmitter and
receiver are paced at the same speed. In addition, supplementary information is inserted to guarantee that there are no errors
during transmission.
During synchronous transmission, the bits are sent successively with no separation between each character, so it is
necessary to insert synchronization elements; this is called character-level synchronization.
The main disadvantage of synchronous transmission is recognizing the data at the receiver, as there may be differences
between the transmitter and receiver clocks. That is why each data transmission must be sustained long enough for the receiver
to distinguish it. As a result, the transmission speed cannot be very high in a synchronous link.
1.6. Interferences
In communications and electronics, especially in telecommunications, interference is anything which modifies, or
disrupts a signal as it travels along a channel between a source and a receiver. The term typically refers to the addition of
unwanted signals to a useful signal. Common examples are:
 Electromagnetic interference (EMI)

 Co-channel interference (CCI), also known as crosstalk
 Adjacent-channel interference (ACI)
 Inter symbol interference (ISI)
 Inter-carrier interference (ICI), caused by Doppler shift in OFDM modulation (multi-tone modulation).
 Common-mode interference (CMI)
 Conducted interference
Interference is typically but not always distinguished from noise, for example white thermal noise.
Radio resource management aims at reducing and controlling the co-channel and adjacent-channel interference.
1.7. Introduction to Computer Network
 Network – a collection of computer and devices connected together via communication devices through a transmission
media
Devices – e.g. PC, cellphone, scanner, printer, telephone etc.
Communication devices – e.g. NIC, Hub, Router, Switches, Modem
Transmission media – wired (physical) or wireless (infrared, radiowave, satellite, etc)
1.8. Importance of Computer Network

 Provides a communication between the users, and provides access to information
 Use for resource sharing and information sharing
 Serves as a communication medium and back-up support
 Can store virtually any kind of data and retrieve it from a central location within the network
 Can provide computer remote access
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1.9. Types of Networking Layout Procedures

 LAN (Local Area Network)
- Computers are geographically close together
- Limited in size (typically spanning few hundred meters but no more than a mile)
- With an accumulated speed of approximately 10mbps to 10gpbs
 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

- A data network designed for a town or city
- Composed of several LAN
- Handles bulk communication activity across a region
 WAN (Wide Area Network)

- Covers broad area
- Utilized by business and government entities
- Composed of widespread LANs and MANs
- Covers large geographical area such as countries and even the entire world
- Combines many types of media such as telephones, cables, and radiowaves
- INTERNET is the world‘s largest WAN
1.10. Advantages of Computer Network in Communication

 Sharing of devices such as printers and scanners
 Sharing of program and software
 Sharing of files, data, and information
 Sharing of single high-speed internet connection
 Better communication using internet services such as email, mailing list, and internet relat chat (IRC)
1.11. Network Architecture

 Overall design of the computer network that describes how a network is configured and what strategies are being used
 Focuses mainly on the functionality of the network
 Also known as Network Model or Network Design
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1.11.1. Two Main Network Architecture

Client – Server
Peer-to-Peer
1.12. Client-Server
 One computer act as a server that provides services to the workstations
(clients)
 A server controls the access to the hardware/software and other resources
on the network and provides a centralized storage for program and data
 A client is a computer that request services from a server computer
 Usually used in small and large networks
 Easy to manage
1.13. Peer-to-Peer
 Simple, inexpensive network that typically connects fewer than 10
computers.
 All computers in the network have equal capabilities to use the resources
(hardware, software, data, and file etc.)
 Cheaper cabling cost
 Hard to manage
 Allow installation of individual software in each computers
 No server required
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Lecture Module 2:
Local Area Network Topologies
LANs can be organized into various different structures. The key thing is that there are physical and logical
topologies. The physical topology is how wires are organized. The logical topology is how the network behaves logically.
2.1 Addressing
To support several transfer modes, there are several different addressing schemes.
• Unicast: Addressing is one-to-one, where one computer sends a frame to another computer. Even though many stations can
receive the same data, they should ignore it since it is not addressed to them.
• Multicast: Addressing is one-to-many, where one computer is sending a frame to many other computers. This can be done via
a list of addresses, or some masking scheme that selects a subset of addresses.
• Broadcasting: Addressing is one-to-all, where one computer sends data to all computers connected to the LAN.
2.2 Broadband vs. Baseband

Transmission on LANs can either use the whole bandwidth capacity of the medium, or split it into channels. Baseband
is when the whole capacity of the medium is used, while Broadband is when the medium capacity is split into channels.
Baseband is generally used for digital transmissions, while Broadband is generally used for analog transmissions.
2.3 Physical Topologies

There are six primary physical topologies: Bus, Ring, Star, Tree, Mesh, and Hybrid.
2.4 Bus Topology
The bus topology is basically a wire that all devices connect to using a passive
interface (they listen, but don‘t amplify/repeat). There are terminators on both
ends of the wire to remove the frame. Since all computers are connected to the
medium, they all get all the frames sent. The terminators are responsible for
the removal of the frame. In baseband setup, each computer sends frames in all
(both, as there are 2) directions. In broadband setup, the transmission is
unidirectional (but then it can use a separate channel for transmissions in the
opposite direction). The bus topology generally uses coaxial cable.
Characteristics of Bus topology:

• Failure of the medium disrupts communication.
• Failure of devices doesn‘t affect the communication (passive interface).
• There is a limit on the length of the network (devices don‘t amplify/repeat the signal).
• The propagation delay isn‘t effected by the number of devices.
Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology

 Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
 Requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology

 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
 Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
 Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.
2.5 Ring Topology
Ring topology is somewhat different from the bus topology. The major differences are:
• There is no need for terminators (the receiving or sending stations remove the frame).
• Devices are active: they receive a message and then they retransmit it.
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• All transmissions are baseband, and go in a single direction.

The connected devices can be in several modes, the bypass mode, and
operational mode. In bypass mode, the device is not connected to the
medium. In operational mode, the device can be either listening or
transmitting.
2.5.1 Removing Frames

The major issue in ring topology is who gets to remove the
frame. If the frame is removed by the destination, then we can only
have unicast transmissions (one-to-one). If the source removes the
frame (after the frame has gone around the ring), then we can have
unicast, multicast, and broadcasting capability.
Characteristics of Ring topology:

• Failure of the medium seriously disrupts communication.
• Malfunctioning of the interface can seriously effect communication (devices are active).
• There is no limitation on the length of the network (devices repeat/retransmit the frame).
• Propagation speed is effected by the number of stations (because each station reads and retransmits the frame).
• The network can use any medium, like twisted pair, coax, or fiber.
2.6 Star Topology
In a star topology, each station is connected to a central node, or hub (or

switch). Each station only talks to the central node. Each station
generally has two connections to the hub; one to send data to the hub,
and another to get data from the hub. Thus, each connection is
unidirectional.
The Star topology can use either broadband or baseband transmissions.

Baseband is used for guided media (like wire), while broadband is used
for unguided (wireless). The central hub can be either active or passive.
A passive hub just links all workstations together (without

retransmitting). An active hub reads and then retransmits the frame to
all workstations.
Normally, the hub retransmits data to all the connected stations. If a

switch is used, it can learn to only send data to the destination station. It does that by first operating like a regular hub, and then
observing and recording which addresses appear on which interfaces. If the star uses a hub, then addressing works just like in
the bus network. If the star uses a switch, then the destination is determined by the switch (as in, unicast works just as
expected, while broadcasting and multicasting has to be supported by the switch).
Characteristics of Star topology:

• Failure of the medium does not seriously disrupt communication.
• Malfunctioning of the station doesn‘t seriously effect the communication.
• The network can use guided or unguided media.
• Failure of the hub disrupts the communication.
Advantages of a Star Topology

 Easy to install and wire.
 No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
Disadvantages of a Star Topology

 Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
 If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
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 More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the concentrators.
The protocols used with star configurations are usually Ethernet or LocalTalk. Token Ring uses a similar topology, called the
star-wired ring.
2.7 Tree Topology
Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In its
simplest form, only hub devices connect directly to the tree bus and each
hub functions as the "root" of a tree of devices. This bus/star hybrid
approach supports future expandability of the network much better than a
bus (limited in the number of devices due to the broadcast traffic it
generates) or a star (limited by the number of hub connection points) alone.
Advantages of a Tree Topology

 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
 Supported by several hardware and software venders.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
2.8 Mesh Topology

Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the previous
topologies, messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several
possible paths from source to destination. (Recall that even in a ring,
although two cable paths exist, messages can only travel in one direction.)
Some WANs, most notably the Internet, employ mesh routing.
A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a

full mesh. As shown in the illustration below, partial mesh networks also
exist in which some devices connect only indirectly to others.
2.9 Hybrid Topology

A combination of any two or more network topologies.
Note 1: Instances can occur where two basic network topologies, when connected together, can still retain the basic network
character, and therefore not be a hybrid network. For example, a tree network connected to a tree network is still a tree
network. Therefore, a hybrid network accrues only when two basic networks are connected and the resulting network topology
fails to meet one of the basic topology definitions. Note 2: A hybrid topology always accrues when two different basic network
topologies are connected.
2.10Considerations When Choosing a Topology

 Money. A linear bus network may be the least expensive way to install a network; you do not have to purchase
concentrators.
 Length of cable needed. The linear bus network uses shorter lengths of cable.
 Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by adding another concentrator.
 Cable type. The most common cable in schools is unshielded twisted pair, which is most often used with star
topologies.
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Lecture Module 3:
Network Connectivity Devices
3.1. Network Interface Controller
A network interface controller (NIC, also known as a network interface card, network adapter, LAN adapter,
and by similar terms) is a computer hardware component that connects a computer to a computer network.
Early network interface controllers were commonly implemented on expansion cards that plugged into a computer
bus; the low cost and ubiquity of the Ethernet standard means that most newer computers have a network interface built into
the motherboard.
Network interface controller
A 1990s Ethernet network interface controller card which connects to the motherboard
via the now-obsolete ISA bus. This combination card features both a BNC
connector (left) for use in (now obsolete) 10BASE2 networks and an8P8C connector
(right) for use in 10BASE-Tnetworks.
Common manufacturers
Connects to
Motherboard via one of: Intel
Realtek
 Integrated Broadcom
 PCI Connector 3Com
 ISA Connector
 PCI-E
 FireWire
 USB
 Thunderbolt
Network via one of:
 Ethernet
 Wi-Fi
 Token ring
 ATM
Hubs
Hubs are commonly used LAN connectivity devices. They serve as the
central connection points for LANs). A basic hub contains no active
electronics and therefore cannot be used to extend a LAN It basically
organizes your cables and relays data signals to all the computers on the
LAN.
Hubs are most commonly used on networks that use twisted-pair cabling.
Ports available on the back of the hub provide the connection points for the
devices on the network. Computers and other devices are attached to the hub by individual network cables. Hubs come in many
sizes and shapes and supply different numbers of ports.
In cases where the LAN outgrows the size of the hub, a new hub can be attached (the hubs are "daisy chained" together using a
short connection cable often referred to as a rat tail) to the current hub, thus providing greater port density
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 Hubs provide the central connection points for LANs.

 Hubs come in all sizes and shapes and are available in a wide range of prices.
 Typically, the more ports on the hub, the more expensive the hub.
 Hubs that support faster varieties of Ethernet, such as Fast Ethernet, will also cost more.
Repeaters
A repeater takes the signal that it receives from computers and other devices on the LAN and
regenerates the signal so that the signal maintains its integrity along a longer media run than is
normally possible.
Repeaters don't have any capabilities for directing network traffic or deciding the particular
route certain data should take; they are simple devices that just sit on the network, boosting the
data signals they receive. The problem with repeaters is that they amplify the entire signal that
they receive, including any line noise. So, in worst-case scenarios, they pass on data traffic that
is barely discernable from the background noise on the line.
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Bridges
A bridge is an internetworking device used to help conserve the bandwidth

available on the network. When LANs really start to grow, network data traffic
can begin to overwhelm the available bandwidth on network media.
One strategy for conserving network bandwidth is to chop the network up into
smaller segments. These segments are connected to a bridge. Bridges are smarter
than hubs and repeaters and actually use some software to help get the job done. A bridge is able to read the MAC address
(also known as the hardware address—remember it's burned onto the NIC in each computer on the network) of each data
packet circulating on the network segments connected to the bridge. By learning which MAC addresses live on each of the
network segments, the bridge can help keep data traffic that is local to a particular segment from spreading to the other network
segments that are serviced by the bridge.
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Switches
A switch is another internetworking device used to manage
the bandwidth on a large network. A switch, which is often
referred to as a "bridge on steroids," controls the flow of
data by using the MAC address that is placed on each data
packet (which coincides with the MAC address of a
particular computer's network card). Switches divide
networks into what are called Virtual LANs or VLANs.
The great thing about a VLAN, which is a logical grouping
of computers on the network into a sort of communication
group, is that the computers don't have to be in close
proximity or even on the same floor. This allows you to
group computers that serve similar types of users into a
VLAN. For example, even if your engineers are spread all
over your company's office building, their computers can
still be made part of the same VLAN, which would share bandwidth.
Switches use a combination of software and hardware to switch packets between computers and other devices on the network.
Switches have their own operating system. Understanding what is being shown in this figure requires an understanding of the
switch's OS. Basically, this particular screen shows the hardware/MAC address of the switch and the IP address of the switch.
Other statistics relate to the number of packets sent and received by the switch (which are all at 0 because the switch has just
been placed on the network).
Because switches can offer a high density of connection ports, they can even replace the hub on a network. This means that
each computer on the network can be connected to its own port on the switch. When PCs are directly connected to a switch, it
can supply each PC with a dedicated amount of bandwidth. For example, users on a 10Mbps Ethernet network can realize
bandwidth of 10Mbps. The computers don't compete for the bandwidth the way computers do on a network that is connected
via a hub.
Routers
A router links computers to the Internet, so users can share the connection. A router acts as a dispatcher, choosing the best
path for information to travel so it's received quickly.
Switches create networks, routers connect networks.
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Modem
A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that modulates signals to encode digital

information and demodulates signals to decode the transmitted information. The goal is to
produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded to reproduce the original digital
data.
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Lecture Module 4:
Network Protocols and Standards
4.1 Network Protocol
A network protocol defines rules and conventions for communication between network devices. Protocols for
computer networking all generally use packet switching techniques to send and receive messages in the form of packets.
Network protocols include mechanisms for devices to identify and make connections with each other, as well as
formatting rules that specify how data is packaged into messages sent and received. Some protocols also support message
acknowledgement and data compression designed for reliable and/or high-performance network communication. Hundreds of
different computer network protocols have been developed each designed for specific purposes and environments.
4.2 Internet Protocols

The Internet Protocol family contains a set of related (and among the most widely used network protocols.
Beside Internet Protocol (IP) itself, higher-level protocols like TCP, UDP, HTTP, and FTP all integrate with IP to provide
additional capabilities. Similarly, lower-level Internet Protocols like ARP and ICMP also co-exist with IP. In general, higher
level protocols in the IP family interact more closely with applications like Web browsers while lower-level protocols interact
with network adapters and other computer hardware.
4.3 Routing Protocols

Routing protocols are special-purpose protocols designed specifically for use by network routers on the Internet.
Common routing protocols include EIGRP, OSPF and BGP.
4.4 How Network Protocols Are Implemented

Modern operating systems like Microsoft Windows contain built-in services or daemons that implement support for
some network protocols. Applications like Web browsers contain software libraries that support the high level protocols
necessary for that application to function. For some lower level TCP/IP and routing protocols, support is implemented in
directly hardware (silicon chipsets) for improved performance.
Groups of network protocols that work together at higher and lower levels are often called a protocol family. Students
of networking traditionally learn about the OSI model that conceptually organizes network protocol families into specific
layers for teaching purposes.
Assembling the physical pieces of a computer network by itself is insufficient to make it function – connected devices
also require a method of communication. These communication languages are called network protocols.
4.5 Purpose of Network Protocols

Without protocols, devices would lack the ability to understand the electronic signals they send to each other over network
connections. Network protocols serve these basic functions:
 address data to the correct recipient(s)
 physically transmit data from source to destination, with security protection if needed
 receive messages and send responses appropriately
Consider a comparison between network protocols with how a postal service handles physical paper mail. Just as the postal
service manages letters from many sources and destinations, so too do network protocols keep data flowing along many paths
continuously. Unlike physical mail, however, network protocols also provide some advanced capabilities like delivering a
constant flow of messages to one destination (called streaming) and automatically making copies of a message and delivering it
to multiple destinations at once (called broadcasting).
4.6 Common Types of Network Protocols

No one protocol exists that supports all the features every kind of computer network needs. Many different kinds of
network protocols have been invented over the years, each attempting to support certain kinds of network communication.
Three basic characteristics that distinguish one type of protocol from another are:
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1. simplex vs. duplex. A simplex connection allows only one device to transmit on a network. Conversely, duplex network
connections allow devices to both transmit and receive data across the same physical link.
2. connection-oriented or connection-less. A connection-oriented network protocol exchanges (a process called a handshake)

address information between two devices that allows them to carry on a conversation (called a session) with each other.
Conversely, connectionless protocols deliver individual messages from one point to another without regard for any similar
messages sent before or after (and without knowing whether messages are even successfully received).
3. layer. Network protocols normally work together in groups (called stacks because diagrams often depict protocols as boxes
stacked on top of each other). Some protocols function at lower layers closely tied to how different types of wireless or
network cabling physically works. Others work at higher layers linked to how network applications work, and some work at
intermediate layers in between.
4.7 The Internet Protocol Family

The most common network protocols in public use belong to the Internet Protocol (IP) family. IP is itself the basic
protocol that enables home and other local networks across the Internet to communicate with each other.
IP works well for moving individual messages from one network to another but does not support the concept of a
conversation (a connection over which a stream of messages can travel in one or both directions). The Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) protocol extends IP with this higher layer capability, and because point-to-point connections are so essential on
the Internet, the two protocols are usually paired together and known as TCP/IP.
Both TCP and IP operate somewhere in the middle layers of a network protocol stack. Popular applications on the
Internet have sometimes implemented their own protocols on top of TCP/IP. HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is used by
Web browsers and servers worldwide. TCP/IP in turn runs on top of lower-level network technologies like Ethernet. Other
popular network protocols in the IP family include ARP, ICMP and FTP.
4.8 How Network Protocols Work

The Internet and most other data networks work by organizing data into small pieces called packets. These packet
switching networks require packets to be organized in specific ways according to the protocols the network supports. This
approach works well with the technology of modern networks as these all handle data in the form of bits and bytes (digital ‗1‘s
and ‗0s‘).Each network protocol defines rules for how its data packets must be organized (formatted). Because protocols like
Internet Protocol often work together in layers, some data embedded inside a packet formatted for one protocol can be in the
format of some other related protocol (a method called encapsulation).Protocols typically divide each packet into three parts –
header, payload and footer. (Some protocols, like IP, do not utilize footers.) Packet headers and footers contain contextual
information required to support the network, including addresses of the sending and receiving devices, while payloads contain
the actual data to be transmitted. Headers or footers also often include some special data to help improve the reliability and or
performance of network connections, such as counters that keep track of the order in which messages were sent, and
checksums that help network applications detect data corruption or tampering.
4.9 How Network Devices Use Protocols

The operating systems of network devices include built-in support for some lower level network protocols. All
modern desktop computer operating systems support both Ethernet and TCP/IP, for example, while many smartphones
support Bluetooth and protocols from the Wi-Fi family. These protocols ultimately connect to the physical network interfaces
of a device, like its Ethernet ports and Wi-Fi or Bluetooth radios.
Network applications in turn support the higher level protocols which talk to the operating system. A Web browser,
for example, is capable of translating addresses like 'http://wireless.about.com/' into HTTP packets that contain the necessary
data that a Web server can receive and in turn send back the correct Web page.
4.10 International Networking Standards Organizations
The rise of open standards not owned by any one company has been a great boon to customers of computer and
networking products, as well as the manufacturers that sell to them. In order to facilitate the development of open standards,
however, organizations are needed that will coordinate the creation and publishing of these documents. Generally, these are
18
non-profit organizations that specifically take a neutral stance regarding technologies and work for the betterment of the
industry as a whole.
Here are some of the standards organizations that you are likely to encounter when reading about networking and the
Internet:
o International Organization for Standardization (ISO): Probably the biggest standards organization in
the world, the ISO is really a federation of standards organizations from dozens of nations. In the networking world,
the ISO is best known for its OSI Reference Model.
o American National Standards Institute (ANSI): ANSI is the main organization responsible for
coordinating and publishing computer and information technology standards in the United States. While they are
commonly thought of as developing and maintaining standards, they do neither. Instead, they oversee and accredit the
organizations that actually create the standards, qualifying them as Standards Developing Organizations or SDOs.
ANSI also publishes the standards documents created by the SDOs, and serves as the United States' representative to
the ISO.
o Information Technology Industry Council (ITIC): ITIC is a group of several dozen companies in the
information technology (computer) industry. ITIC is the SDO approved by ANSI to develop and process standards
related to many computer-related topics. It was formerly known as the Computer and Business Equipment
Manufacturers Association (CBEMA).
o National Committee for Information Technology (NCITS): A committee established by the ITIC to
develop and maintain standards related to the information technology world. NCITS was formerly known by the
name Accredited Standards Committee X3, Information Technology, or more commonly, just X3. It maintains several
sub-committees that develop and maintain standards for various technical subjects.
o Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): The IEEE (pronounced ―eye-triple-ee‖) is
a well-known professional organization for those in the electrical or electronics fields, including computers and
networking. IEEE's main claim to fame in the networking industry is the IEEE 802 Project, which encompasses many
popular networking technologies including Ethernet.
o Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA): The EIA is an international industry association that is best known
for publishing electrical wiring and transmission standards.
o Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA): The TIA is the communications sector of the EIA,
and is responsible for developing communications standards. Since communications, wiring and transmission are all
related, and since the TIA and EIA organizations are also related, standards produced by the EIA or TIA are often
labeled with the combined prefixes ―EIA/TIA‖ or ―TIA/EIA‖.
o International Telecommunication Union - Telecommunication Standardization Sector

(ITU-T): ITU-T is another large international body that develops standards for the telecommunications industry. The
ITU-T was formerly named the International Telephone and Telegraph Consultative Committee or CCITT (the
abbreviation was of the French version of the organization's name, Comité consultatif international téléphonique et
télégraphique.)
o European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI): An organization with members from

dozens of countries both within and outside Europe that is dedicated to developing telecommunications standards for
the European market (and elsewhere). ETSI is known for, among other things, regulating the use of radio bandwidth
in Europe and developing standards such as HiperLAN.
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Lecture Module 5:
Computer Operating System
5.1 What Is a Computer Operating System?
Computers use low-level software called an operating system (O/S) to help people build and run their own programs.
Operating system software runs not just on laptop computers but also on cell phones, network routers and other so-called
embedded devices.
5.2 Types of Operating Systems

The best-known operating systems are those used on personal computers:
 Microsoft Windows
 Mac OS X
 Linux
Some operating systems are designed for certain types of equipment, such as
 Google Android (a variant of Linux), and Symbian - for cell phones
 Solaris, HP-UX, DG-UX, and other variants of Unix - for server computers
 DEC VMS (Virtual Memory System) - for mainframe computers
Other operating systems enjoyed a period of notoriety but are of only historical interest now:
 Novell Netware was a popular O/S for PCs in the 1990s
 IBM OS/2 was an early PC O/S that competed with Microsoft Windows for a time but had limited success
 Multics was an especially innovative operating system created in the 1960s for mainframes, that influenced the later
development of Unix
5.3 Network Operating Systems

A modern O/S contains much built-in software designed to simplify networking of a computer. Typical O/S software
includes an implementation of TCP/IP protocol stack and related utility programs like ping and traceroute. This includes the
necessary device drivers and other software to automatically enable a device's Ethernet interface. Mobile devices also normally
provide the programs needed to enable Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, or other wireless connectivity.
The early versions of Microsoft Windows did not provide any computer networking support. Microsoft added basic
networking capability into its operating system starting with Windows 95 and Windows for Workgroups. Microsoft also
introduced its Internet Connection Sharing (ICS) feature in Windows 98 Second Edition (Win98 SE). Contrast that with Unix,
which was designed from the beginning with networking in view. Nearly any consumer O/S today qualifies as a network
operating system due to the popularity of the Internet.
5.4 Embedded Operating Systems

A so-called embedded system supports no or limited configuration of its software. Embedded systems like routers, for
example, typically include a pre-configured Web server, DHCP server, and some utilities but do not allow the installation of
new programs. Examples of embedded operating systems for routers include:
 Cisco IOS (Internetwork Operating System)
 DD-WRT
 Juniper Junos
An embedded OS can also be found inside an increasing number of consumer gadgets including phones (iPhone OS), PDAs
(Windows CE), and digital media players (ipodlinux).
20
Lecture Module 6:
Network Media or Transmission Media
Network Media – also known as ―Transmission Media‖. It refers to the medium over which signals can travel in a
network.
6.1 Magnetic Media
One of the most convenient way to transfer data from one computer to another, even before the birth of networking,
was to save it on some storage media and transfer physical from one station to another. Though it may seem odd in today‘s
world of high speed Internet, but when the size of data to transfer is huge, Magnetic media comes into play.
In these kinds of cases, data backup is stored onto magnetic tapes or magnetic discs and then shifted physically at
remote places.
6.2 Twisted Pair Cable
A twisted pair cable is made of two

plastic insulated copper wires twisted
together to form a single media. Out of
these two wires only one carries actual
signal and another is used for ground
reference. The twists between wires
are helpful in reducing noise (electro-
magnetic interference) and crosstalk.
There are two types of twisted pair cables available:
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
STPcables comes with twisted wire pair covered in metal foil. This makes it more
indifferent to noise and crosstalk.
UTPhas seven categories, each suitable for specific use. In computer networks,
Cat-5, Cat-5e and Cat-6 cables are mostly used. UTP cables are connected by RJ45
connectors.
Categories of Twisted-Pair
There are two types of twisted-pair: UTP and STP. In STP, a metallic shield around the wire pairs minimizes the
impact of outside interference. Most implementations today use UTP.
Twisted-pair is divided into categories that specify the maximum data rate possible. In general, the cable category term refers
to ANSI/TIA/EIA 568-A: Commercial Building Telecommunications Cabling Standards. The purpose of EIA/TIA 568-A was
to create a multiproduct, multivendor standard for connectivity. Other standards bodies—including the ISO/IEC, NEMA, and
ICEA—are also working on specifying Category 6 and above cable.
The following are the cable types specified in ANSI/TIA/EIA 568-A:
 Category 1—Cat 1 cable was originally designed for voice telephony only, but thanks to some new techniques, long-
range Ethernet and DSL, operating at 10Mbps and even faster, can be deployed over Cat 1.
 Category 2—Cat 2 cable can accommodate up to 4Mbps and is associated with token-ring LANs.
 Category 3—Cat 3 cable operates over a bandwidth of 16MHz on UTP and supports up to 10Mbps over a range of
330 feet (100 m). Key LAN applications include 10Mbps Ethernet and 4Mbps token-ring LANs.
 Category 4—Cat 4 cable operates over a bandwidth of 20MHz on UTP and can carry up to 16Mbps over a range of
330 feet (100 m). The key LAN application is 16Mbps token ring.
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 Category 5—Cat 5 cable operates over a bandwidth of 100MHz on UTP and can handle up to 100Mbps over a range
of 330 feet (100m). Cat 5 cable is typically used for Ethernet networks running at 10Mbps or 100Mbps. Key LAN
applications include 100BASE-TX, ATM, CDDI, and 1000BASE-T. It is no longer supported, having been replaced by
Cat 5e.
 Category 5e—Cat 5e (enhanced) operates over a bandwidth of 100MHz on UTP, with a range of 330 feet (100 m).
The key LAN application is 1000BASE-T. The Cat 5e standard is largely the same as Category 5, except that it is made
to somewhat more stringent standards. Category 5e is recommended for all new installations and was designed for
transmission speeds of up to 1Gbps (Gigabit Ethernet). Although Cat 5e can support Gigabit Ethernet, it is not currently
certified to do so.
 Category 6—Cat 6, specified under ANSI/TIA/EIA-568-B.2-1, operates over a bandwidth of up to 400MHz and
supports up to 1Gbps over a range of 330 feet (100 m). It is a cable standard for Gigabit Ethernet and other network
protocols that is backward compatible with the Cat 5/5e and Cat 3 cable standards. Cat 6 features more stringent
specifications for crosstalk and system noise. Cat 6 is suitable for 10BASE-T/100BASE-TX and 1000BASE-T (Gigabit
Ethernet) connections.
 Category 7—Cat 7 is specified in the frequency range of 1MHz to 600MHz. ISO/IEC11801:2002 Category 7/Class F
is a cable standard for Ultra-Fast Ethernet and other interconnect technologies that can be made backward compatible
with traditional Cat 5 and Cat 6 Ethernet cable. Cat 7, which is based on four twisted copper pairs, features even more
stringent specifications for crosstalk and system noise than Cat 6. To achieve this, shielding has been added for
individual wire pairs and the cable as a whole.
The predominant cable categories in use today are Cat 3 (due to widespread deployment in support of 10Mbps Ethernet—
although it is no longer being deployed) and Cat 5e. Cat 4 and Cat 5 are largely defunct.
6.3 Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cables have two wires of copper. The core wire lies in center and is made of
solid conductor. Core is enclosed in an insulating sheath. Over the sheath the second
wire is wrapped around and that too in turn encased by insulator sheath. This all is
covered by plastic cover.
Because of its structure coax cables are capable of carrying high frequency signals than
that of twisted pair cables. The wrapped structure provides it a good shield against
noise and cross talk. Coaxial cables provide high bandwidth rates of up to 450 mbps.
There are three categories of Coax cables namely,
 RG-59 (Cable TV),

 RG-58 (Thin Ethernet) and
 RG-11 (Thick Ethernet. RG stands for Radio Government.
Cables are connected using BNC connector and BNC-T. BNC terminator is
used to terminate the wire at the far ends.
Advantages of Coaxial Cable

 Broadband system—Coax has a sufficient frequency range to support multiple channels, which allows for much greater
throughput.
 Greater channel capacity—Each of the multiple channels offers substantial capacity. The capacity depends on where
you are in the world. In the North American system, each channel in the cable TV system is 6MHz wide, according to the
National Television Systems Committee (NTSC) standard. In Europe, with the Phase Alternate Line (PAL) standard,
the channels are 8MHz wide. Within one of these channels, you can provision high-speed Internet access—that's how
cable modems operate. But that one channel is now being shared by everyone using that coax from that neighborhood
node, which can range from 200 to 2,000 homes.
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 Greater bandwidth—Compared to twisted-pair, coax provides greater bandwidth system wide, and it also offers greater
bandwidth for each channel. Because it has greater bandwidth per channel, it supports a mixed range of services. Voice,
data, and even video and multimedia can benefit from the enhanced capacity.
 Lower error rates—Because the inner conductor is in a Faraday shield, noise immunity is improved, and coax has lower
error rates and therefore slightly better performance than twisted-pair. The error rate is generally 10–9 (i.e., 1 in 1 billion)
bps.
 Greater spacing between amplifiers—Coax's cable shielding reduces noise and crosstalk, which means amplifiers can
be spaced farther apart than with twisted-pair
Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable
 Problems with the deployment architecture—The bus topology in which coax is deployed is susceptible to congestion,
noise, and security risks.
 Bidirectional upgrade required—In countries that have a history of cable TV, the cable systems were designed for
broadcasting, not for interactive communications. Before they can offer to the subscriber any form of two-way services,
those networks have to be upgraded to bidirectional systems.
 Great noise—The return path has some noise problems, and the end equipment requires added intelligence to take care
of error control.
 High installation costs—Installation costs in the local environment are high.
 Susceptible to damage from lightning strikes—Coax may be damaged by lightning strikes. People who live in an area
with a lot of lightning strikes must be wary because if that lightning is conducted by a coax, it could very well fry the
equipment at the end of it.
6.4 Power Lines
Power Line communication is Layer-1 (Physical Layer) technology which uses power cables to transmit data signals.
Send in PLC modulates data and sent over the cables. The receiver on the other end de-modulates the data and interprets.
Because power lines are widely deployed, PLC can make all powered devices controlled and monitored. PLC works
in half-duplex.
Two types of PLC exists:
 Narrow band PLC

 Broad band PLC
Narrow band PLC provides lower data rates up to 100s of kbps, as they work at lower frequencies (3-5000 kHz). But can
be spread over several kilometers.
Broadband PLC provides higher data rates up to 100s of Mbps and works at higher frequencies (1.8 – 250 MHz). But
cannot be much extended as Narrowband PLC.
6.5 Fiber Optics
Fiber Optic works on the properties of light. When light ray hits at critical angle it
tends to refracts at 90 degree. This property has been used in fiber optic. The core
of fiber optic cable is made of high quality glass or plastic. From one end of it light
is emitted, it travels through it and at the other end light detector detects light
stream and converts it to electric data form.
Fiber Optic provides the highest mode of speed. It comes in two modes; one is
single mode fiber and second is multimode fiber. Single mode fiber can carries
single ray of light whereas Multimode fiber is capable of carrying multiple beams
of light.
Fiber Optic also comes in unidirectional and bidirectional capabilities. To

connect and access Fiber Optic special type of connectors are used. These can be
SC (Subscriber Channel), ST (Straight Tip) or MT-RJ.
23
Advantages of Fiber Optics

 Extremely high bandwidth—Fiber offers far more bandwidth than any
other cable-based medium.
 Elastic traffic-carrying capacity—Without having to change the fiber,
assuming that it's the correct generation of fiber, you can add equipment that provides
additional capacity over the original fiber alone. This, along with DWDM's capability
to turn various wavelengths on and off at will, enables dynamic network bandwidth
provisioning to accommodate fluctuations in traffic.
 Not susceptible to electromagnetic impairments or interference—Because fiber is not susceptible to electromagnetic
impairments or interference, it has a very low bit error rate, 10–13, which means fiber-optic transmissions are virtually
noise free.
 Secure transmission and early detection—By constantly monitoring an optical network and measuring the time of light
reflection, you can detect splices in the cable.
 Low in weight and mass—Because fiber is low in weight and mass, much less human installation power is needed than
with traditional copper cable or coax bundles.
Disadvantages of Fiber Optics
 High installation costs, but dropping—Fiber installation is still relatively costly, although the cost has been dropping
by about 60% per year, depending on the components. As the cost keeps dropping and the performance increases, fiber is
finally moving out of its major application in the carrier backbone realm and into the local loop, supporting subscriber
broadband access via techniques such as FTTx and PONs.
 Special test equipment required—When you start putting in fiber, you have to acquire specialized test equipment
because none of the test equipment you use on an electrical network will work with fiber. You need an OTDR, and when
you get into more sophisticated optical networks, you need highly specialized optical probes that can be quite costly—
and you need one at each location.
 Vulnerability to physical damage—Fiber is a small medium, so it can very easily be cut or otherwise damaged during
construction activities. Similarly, because many railroad companies sell rights-of-way for fiber installation, railroad car
derailments pose a threat, potentially affecting large numbers of service providers and users. When you choose fiber as
the primary medium, you have to address backup, restoration, and survivability from the start because the likelihood of
damage is great.
 Vulnerability to damage caused by wildlife—A number of flora and fauna cause damage to fiber. Some birds really
like the Kevlar reinforcing material and think it makes lovely nests for their babies, so they peck away at fiber-optic
cables to get at that Kevlar material. Rodents such as beavers like to sharpen their teeth on exposed cable. Several
different types of ants seem to enjoy the plastic shielding in their diet, so they nibble at the underground fibers. Sharks
have been known to chomp on cable near the repeating points. A plant called the Christmas tree plant thinks that fiber-
optic cable is a tree root and wraps itself around it very tightly and chokes it off.
TWISTED PAIR CABLE COAXIAL CABLE FIBER-OPTIC CABLE
24
Lecture Module 7:
Network Cables Construction: Straight-Through and Crossover Cable
7.1 Straight-Through Wired Cables
Straight-Through refers to cables that have the pin assignments on each end of the cable. In other words Pin 1
connector A goes to Pin 1 on connector B, Pin 2 to Pin 2 etc. Straight-Through wired cables are most commonly used to
connect a host to client. When we talk about cat5e patch cables, the Straight-Through wired cat5e patch cable is used to
connect computers, printers and other network client devices to the router switch or hub (the host device in this instance).
End Segment 1 End Segment 2

Pin # Color Code Pin # Color Code Function
1 White Orange 1 White Orange Transmit
2 Orange 2 Orange Transmit
3 White Green 3 White Green Receive
4 Blue 4 Blue Neutral
5 White Blue 5 White Blue Neutral
6 Green 6 Green Received
7 White Brown 7 White Brown Neutral
8 Brown 8 Brown Neutral
7.2 Crossover Wired Cables

Crossover wired cables (commonly called crossover cables) are very much like Straight-Through cables with the
exception that TX and RX lines are crossed (they are at opposite positions on either end of the cable. Using the 568-B standard
as an example below you will see that Pin 1 on connector A goes to Pin 3 on connector B. Pin 2 on connector A goes to Pin 6
on connector B etc. Crossover cables are most commonly used to connect two hosts directly. Examples would be connecting a
computer directly to another computer, connecting a switch directly to another switch, or connecting a router to a router.
End Segment 1 End Segment 2

Pin # Color Code Pin # Color Code Function
1 White Orange 1 White Green Transmit
2 Orange 2 Green Transmit
3 White Green 3 White Orange Receive
4 Blue 4 Blue Neutral
5 White Blue 5 White Blue Neutral
25
6 Green 6 Orange Received

7 White Brown 7 White Brown Neutral
8 Brown 8 Brown Neutral
MATERIALS:
1. Cat5e Ethernet cable -

2. RJ-45 connectors
3. Crimper Tool - capable of crimping 8 wire (RJ-45) and 6 wire (RJ-11). Most tools have built in cutters too.
4. Stripper Tool
5. Scissors
6. Cable Tester / LAN Tester - For testing that your cable connections are good and there are not any open or crossed wire
PROCEDURES:
Cut into the plastic sheath about 1 inch (2.5 cm) from the end of the cut cable. The
crimping tool has a razor blade that will do the trick with practice. 1 inch is about
the size of your finger units.
Unwind and pair the similar colors so that arranging the individual wires will be
easier and faster. Is the individual wires are loosely twined, tie a knot at the middle
section of the UTP cable. This will prevent the colored wires from sliding
unconditionally.
Pinch the wires between your fingers and straighten them out as shown. The color
order is important to get correct.
Use scissors to make a straight cut across the wires1/2 Inch (1.3 cm) from the cut
sleeve to the end of the wires.
Push the wires into the connector. Note the position of the plastic shielding. Also
note how the wires go all the way to the end. RJ-45 has its locking mechanism
upon crimping. This pushes a part of the RJ-45 to the plastic shielding.
26
A view from the top. All the wires are all the way in. There are no short wires. The
middle section of the RJ-45 serves as a scale window to see if the wires are cut
straight.
WRONG WAY - Note how the plastic sleeve is not inside the connector where it
can be locked into place. The wires are too long. The wires should extend only 1/2
inch from the cut sleeve.
WRONG WAY - Note how the cables do not go all the way to the end of the
connector. This happen if the colored wires are cut very short.
CRIMPING THE CABLE - Carefully place the connector into the Ethernet
Crimper and cinch down on the handles tightly. The copper splicing tabs on the
connector will pierce into each of the eight wires. There is also a locking tab that
holds the outer plastic sleeve in place for a tight compression fit. When you remove
the cable from the crimper, that end is ready to use.
For a standard "Straight Through" cable, repeat all steps and wire color order on
the other end of cable. For a ―Crossover‖ cable, the other end will have a different
color order.
Make sure to test the cables before installing them.
NOTE - The maximum cable length of CAT-5, CAT-5e or CAT-6 Ethernet cable is 328 feet or 100 meters.
27
Lecture Module 8:
7 Layers of Open System Interconnection (OSI) Model
And Internet Protocol (IP) Addressing
8.1.OSI, or Open System Interconnection

The OSI, or Open System Interconnection, model defines a networking framework to implement protocols in seven
layers. Control is passed from one layer to the next, starting at the application layer in one station, and proceeding to the
bottom layer, over the channel to the next station and back up the hierarchy.There's really nothing to the OSI model. In fact, it's
not even tangible. The OSI model doesn't do any functions in the networking process; it is a conceptual framework so we can
better understand complex interactions that are happening. The OSI model takes the task of internetworking and divides that up
into what is referred to as a vertical stack that consists of the following layers:
Physical (Layer 1)
This layer conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or radio signal -- through the network at the electrical and
mechanical level. It provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data on a carrier, including defining cables, cards
and physical aspects. Fast Ethernet, RS232, and ATM are protocols with physical layer components.
- Layer 1 Physical examples include Ethernet, FDDI, B8ZS, V.35, V.24, RJ45.
The physical layer, the lowest layer of the OSI model, is concerned with the transmission and reception of the unstructured
raw bit stream over a physical medium. It describes the electrical/optical, mechanical, and functional interfaces to the physical
medium, and carries the signals for all of the higher layers. It provides:
 Data encoding: modifies the simple digital signal pattern (1s and 0s) used by the PC to better accommodate the
characteristics of the physical medium, and to aid in bit and frame synchronization. It determines:
o What signal state represents a binary 1
o How the receiving station knows when a "bit-time" starts
o How the receiving station delimits a frame
 Physical medium attachment, accommodating various possibilities in the medium:
o Will an external transceiver (MAU) be used to connect to the medium?
o How many pins do the connectors have and what is each pin used for?
 Transmission technique: determines whether the encoded bits will be transmitted by baseband (digital) or broadband
(analog) signaling.
 Physical medium transmission: transmits bits as electrical or optical signals appropriate for the physical medium, and
determines:
o What physical medium options can be used
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o How many volts/db should be used to represent a given signal state, using a given physical medium
Data Link (Layer 2)

At this layer, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits. It furnishes transmission protocol knowledge and
management and handles errors in the physical layer, flow control and frame synchronization. The data link layer is divided
into two sub layers: The Media Access Control (MAC) layer and the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. The MAC sub layer
controls how a computer on the network gains access to the data and permission to transmit it. The LLC layer controls
frame synchronization, flow control and error checking.
- Layer 2 Data Link examples include PPP, FDDI, ATM, IEEE 802.5/ 802.2, IEEE 802.3/802.2, HDLC, Frame Relay,
The data link layer provides error-free transfer of data frames from one node to another over the physical layer, allowing
layers above it to assume virtually error-free transmission over the link. To do this, the data link layer provides:
 Link establishment and termination: establishes and terminates the logical link between two nodes.
 Frame traffic control: tells the transmitting node to "back-off" when no frame buffers are available.
 Frame sequencing: transmits/receives frames sequentially.
 Frame acknowledgment: provides/expects frame acknowledgments. Detects and recovers from errors that occur in the
physical layer by retransmitting non-acknowledged frames and handling duplicate frame receipt.
 Frame delimiting: creates and recognizes frame boundaries.
 Frame error checking: checks received frames for integrity.
 Media access management: determines when the node "has the right" to use the physical medium.
Network (Layer 3)
This layer provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical paths, known as virtual circuits, for
transmitting data from node to node. Routing and forwarding are functions of this layer, as well as addressing,internetworking,
error handling, congestion control and packet sequencing.
- Layer 3 Network examples include AppleTalk DDP, IP, IPX.
The network layer controls the operation of the subnet, deciding which physical path the data should take based on network
conditions, priority of service, and other factors. It provides:
 Routing: routes frames among networks.
 Subnet traffic control: routers (network layer intermediate systems) can instruct a sending station to "throttle back" its
frame transmission when the router's buffer fills up.
 Frame fragmentation: if it determines that a downstream router's maximum transmission unit (MTU) size is less than
the frame size, a router can fragment a frame for transmission and re-assembly at the destination station.
 Logical-physical address mapping: translates logical addresses, or names, into physical addresses.
 Subnet usage accounting: has accounting functions to keep track of frames forwarded by subnet intermediate systems,
to produce billing information.
Communications Subnet
The network layer software must build headers so that the network layer software residing in the subnet intermediate
systems can recognize them and use them to route data to the destination address.
This layer relieves the upper layers of the need to know anything about the data transmission and intermediate
switching technologies used to connect systems. It establishes, maintains and terminates connections across the intervening
communications facility (one or several intermediate systems in the communication subnet).
In the network layer and the layers below, peer protocols exist between a node and its immediate neighbor, but the
neighbor may be a node through which data is routed, not the destination station. The source and destination stations may be
separated by many intermediate systems.
Transport (Layer 4)
This layer provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and is responsible for end-to-end error
recovery and flow control. It ensures complete data transfer.
- Layer 4 Transport examples include SPX, TCP, UDP.
The transport layer ensures that messages are delivered error-free, in sequence, and with no losses or duplications. It
relieves the higher layer protocols from any concern with the transfer of data between them and their peers.
29
The size and complexity of a transport protocol depends on the type of service it can get from the network layer. For a
reliable network layer with virtual circuit capability, a minimal transport layer is required. If the network layer is unreliable
and/or only supports datagrams, the transport protocol should include extensive error detection and recovery.
The transport layer provides:

 Message segmentation: accepts a message from the (session) layer above it, splits the message into smaller units (if not
already small enough), and passes the smaller units down to the network layer. The transport layer at the destination
station reassembles the message.
 Message acknowledgment: provides reliable end-to-end message delivery with acknowledgments.
 Message traffic control: tells the transmitting station to "back-off" when no message buffers are available.
 Session multiplexing: multiplexes several message streams, or sessions onto one logical link and keeps track of which
messages belong to which sessions (see session layer).
Typically, the transport layer can accept relatively large messages, but there are strict message size limits imposed by
the network (or lower) layer. Consequently, the transport layer must break up the messages into smaller units, or frames,
prepending a header to each frame.
The transport layer header information must then include control information, such as message start and message end
flags, to enable the transport layer on the other end to recognize message boundaries. In addition, if the lower layers do not
maintain sequence, the transport header must contain sequence information to enable the transport layer on the receiving end to
get the pieces back together in the right order before handing the received message up to the layer above.
End-to-end layers
Unlike the lower "subnet" layers whose protocol is between immediately adjacent nodes, the transport layer and the
layers above are true "source to destination" or end-to-end layers, and are not concerned with the details of the underlying
communications facility. Transport layer software (and software above it) on the source station carries on a conversation with
similar software on the destination station by using message headers and control messages.
Session (Layer 5)
This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between applications. The session layer sets up,
coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges, and dialogues between the applications at each end. It deals with session
and connection coordination.
- Layer 5 Session examples include NFS, NetBios names, RPC, SQL.
The session layer allows session establishment between processes running on different stations. It provides:
 Session establishment, maintenance and termination: allows two application processes on different machines to
establish, use and terminate a connection, called a session.
 Session support: performs the functions that allow these processes to communicate over the network, performing
security, name recognition, logging, and so on.
Presentation (Layer 6)
This layer provides independence from differences in data representation (e.g., encryption) by translating from
application to network format, and vice versa. The presentation layer works to transform data into the form that the application
layer can accept. This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network, providing freedom from compatibility
problems. It is sometimes called the syntax layer.
- Layer 6 Presentation examples include encryption, ASCII, EBCDIC, TIFF, GIF, PICT, JPEG, MPEG, MIDI.
The presentation layer formats the data to be presented to the application layer. It can be viewed as the translator for the
network. This layer may translate data from a format used by the application layer into a common format at the sending station,
then translate the common format to a format known to the application layer at the receiving station.
The presentation layer provides:

 Character code translation: for example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
 Data conversion: bit order, CR-CR/LF, integer-floating point, and so on.
 Data compression: reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
 Data encryption: encrypt data for security purposes. For example, password encryption.
30
Application (Layer 7)
This layer supports application and end-user processes. Communication partners are identified, quality of service is
identified, user authentication and privacy are considered, and any constraints on data syntax are identified. Everything at this
layer is application-specific. This layer provides application services for file transfers, e-mail, and
other network software services. Telnet and FTP are applications that exist entirely in the application level. Tiered application
architectures are part of this layer.
- Layer 7 Application examples include WWW browsers, NFS, SNMP, Telnet, HTTP, FTP
The application layer serves as the window for users and application processes to access network services. This layer
contains a variety of commonly needed functions:
 Resource sharing and device redirection

 Remote file access
 Remote printer access
 Inter-process communication
 Network management
 Directory services
 Electronic messaging (such as mail)
 Network virtual terminals
8.2.IP ADDRESS
An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device (e.g., computer, printer)
participating in a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. An IP address serves two principal
functions: host or network interface identification and location addressing. Its role has been characterized as follows:
"A name indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there.
8.3.IP address classes
1st Octet 1st Octet High Network/Host ID Default Subnet Number of Host per Network
Class
Decimal Range Order Bits (N=Network, H=Host) Mask Networks (Usable Addresses)
A 1 – 126* 0 N.H.H.H 255.0.0.0 126 (27 – 2) 16,777,214 (224 – 2)
16,382 (214 –
B 128 – 191 10 N.N.H.H 255.255.0.0 65,534 (216 – 2)
2)
2,097,150
C 192 – 223 110 N.N.N.H 255.255.255.0 21 254 (28 – 2)
(2 – 2)
D 224 – 239 1110 Reserved for Multicasting
E 240 – 254 1111 Experimental; used for research
Note: Class A addresses 127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 cannot be used and is reserved for loopback and diagnostic functions.
8.4.Private IP Addresses
Class Private Networks Subnet Mask Address Range
A 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255
31
B 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.0.0 255.240.0.0 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255
C 192.168.0.0 255.255.0.0 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255
8.5. Public and Private Addresses

If your intranet is not connected to the Internet, any IP addressing can be deployed. If direct (routed) or indirect (proxy
or translator) connectivity to the Internet is desired, there are two types of addresses employed on the Internet, public
addresses and private addresses .
8.5.1 Public Addresses

Public addresses are assigned by InterNIC and consist of class-based network IDs or blocks of CIDR-based addresses
(called CIDR blocks) that are guaranteed to be globally unique to the Internet.
When the public addresses are assigned, routes are programmed into the routers of the Internet so that traffic to the assigned
public addresses can reach their locations. Traffic to destination public addresses are reachable on the Internet.
For example, when an organization is assigned a CIDR block in the form of a network ID and subnet mask, that [network ID,
subnet mask] pair also exists as a route in the routers of the Internet. IP packets destined to an address within the CIDR block
are routed to the proper destination.
8.5.2 Illegal Addresses

Private intranets that have no intent on connecting to the Internet can choose any addresses they want, even public
addresses that have been assigned by the InterNIC. If an organization later decides to connect to the Internet, its current address
scheme might include addresses already assigned by the InterNIC to other organizations. These addresses would be duplicate
or conflicting addresses and are known as illegal addresses . Connectivity from illegal addresses to Internet locations is not
possible.
8.5.3 Private Addresses

Each IP node requires an IP address that is globally unique to the IP internetwork. In the case of the Internet, each IP
node on a network connected to the Internet requires an IP address that is globally unique to the Internet. As the Internet grew,
organizations connecting to the Internet required a public address for each node on their intranets. This requirement placed a
huge demand on the pool of available public addresses.
For the hosts within the organization that do not require direct access to the Internet, IP addresses that do not duplicate
already-assigned public addresses are required. To solve this addressing problem, the Internet designers reserved a portion of
the IP address space and named this space the private address space. An IP address in the private address space is never
assigned as a public address. IP addresses within the private address space are known as private addresses. Because the public
and private address spaces do not overlap, private addresses never duplicate public addresses.
The private address space specified in RFC 1918 is defined by the following three address blocks:
 10.0.0.0/8
The 10.0.0.0/8 private network is a class A network ID that allows the following range of valid IP addresses: 10.0.0.1
to 10.255.255.254. The 10.0.0.0/8 private network has 24 host bits that can be used for any subnetting scheme within
the private organization.
 172.16.0.0/12
The 172.16.0.0/12 private network can be interpreted either as a block of 16 class B network IDs or as a 20-bit
assignable address space (20 host bits) that can be used for any subnetting scheme within the private organization. The
172.16.0.0/12 private network allows the following range of valid IP addresses: 172.16.0.1 to 172.31.255.254.
 192.168.0.0/16
The 192.168.0.0/16 private network can be interpreted either as a block of 256 class C network IDs or as a 16-bit
assignable address space (16 host bits) that can be used for any subnetting scheme within the private organization. The
192.168.0.0/16 private network allows the following range of valid IP addresses: 192.168.0.1 to 192.168.255.254.
32
Lecture Module 9:
Application of Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Connection
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this actual practice / presentation, the students should be able to:
 Create a simple peer-to-peer network between two PC‘s.
 Identify the proper cable to connect the two PCs.
 Configure workstation IP address information.
 Test connectivity using the ‗ping‘ command.
BACKGROUND:
 PEER-TO-PEER (P2P) CONNECTION
Peer-to-peer (P2P) computing or networking is a distributed application architecture that partitions tasks or
workloads between peers. Peers are equally privileged, equipotent participants in the application. They are said to form a peer-
to-peer network of nodes.
Peers make a portion of their resources, such as processing power, disk storage or network bandwidth, directly
available to other network participants, without the need for central coordination by servers or stable hosts. Peers are both
suppliers and consumers of resources, in contrast to the traditional client–server model in which the consumption and supply of
resources is divided. Emerging collaborative P2P systems are going beyond the era of peers doing similar things while sharing
resources, and are looking for diverse peers that can bring in unique resources and capabilities to a virtual community thereby
empowering it to engage in greater tasks beyond those that can be accomplished by individual peers, yet that are beneficial to
all the peers.
The first P2P distributed system platform was Pipes Platform by PeerLogic. One of PeerLogic's first licensees
was Texas Instruments in 1993. While P2P systems were used in many application domains, the architecture was popularized
by the file sharing system Napster, originally released in 1999. The concept has inspired new structures and philosophies in
many areas of human interaction.
 TCP / IP
Short for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, TCP/IP also commonly abbreviated as TCP was
developed in 1978 and driven by Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf. Today, TCP/IP is a language governing communications among all
computers on the Internet.
TCP/IP is two separate protocols, TCP and IP that are used together. The Internet Protocol standard dictates
how packets of information are sent out over networks. IP has a packet-addressing method that lets any computer on the
Internet forward a packet to another computer that is a step (or more) closer to the packet's recipient. The Transmission
Control Protocol ensures the reliability of data transmission across Internet connected networks. TCP checks packets for
errors and submits requests for re-transmissions if errors are found.
MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT NEEDED:

 2 computers with an Ethernet 10/100 NIC installed
 Crossover cable for connecting the 2 PCs
 Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) or Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
PROCEDURES:
The steps described below are provided as a general guide that will work for most home networking situations.
However, it may not work for all scenarios. Use the following steps to help you set up your own inclusive home network:
1. Make sure both systems have Network Interface Cards (NICs) installed and are using the proper cables.
2. For PCs with Windows XP, the home networking wizard can be used to set up Windows for your network.
a. Click Start, and then Control Panel.
33
b. Select Network and internet connections.

c. Double-click Network setup wizard and follow the on-screen instructions.
If the Network setup wizard is unsuccessful, continue with the steps below.
3. Click Start, Control Panel, Network and Internet Connections, and then Network Connections. Right-click the
connection icon and select Properties.
4. Click on the General tab.
5. A device name should appear under "connect using." If not, there is a hardware issue and Windows is not recognizing the
network hardware. This issue must be fixed before continuing.
6. Make sure the following are installed:
 Client for Microsoft Networks
 Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
 QoS Packet Scheduler
 File and Printer Sharing for Microsoft Networks
If any of the above components are not installed, install them by selecting Add or Install, and then selecting the missing
component, and clicking Add.
7. Click TCP/IP (Your Ethernet Adapter name) and select Properties.
a. At the IP Address tab, select Specify IP Address.
b. Enter 192.168.0.1 as the unique IP Address for the first machine. For each other PC add one to the last number in the
NOTE: 192.168.0.x is an IP Address reserved for private networks and is not routable to the Internet.
8. In the Subnet mask field enter: 255.255.255.0
All PCs on the same network use the same Subnet mask.
9. Click OK .
10. Click Start , right-click My Computer , and then select Properties .
11. Click the Computer Name tab and click the Change button.
12. Enter a name that describes the PC in the Computer Description field. For Example, KIDSPC1, MOMSPC2, or WORKPC3 .
13. Enter the workgroup name for your network. Use the same workgroup name for all PCs on the network. Spelling is important
in this step. The term WORKGROUP may also be applied.
14. Repeat these steps for each PC on the network.
PC – 1 PC – 2
IP Address: 192.168.0.1 IP Address: 192.168.0.2
Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0 Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
Default Gateway: Not required Default Gateway: Not required
15. Wait two minutes after Windows opens on all PCs, and then double-click the Network Neighborhood icon on the desktop.
If all went well, you should see all the PC names on the network when files and folders are being shared. If you do not see
them, press F5 to refresh the screen.
16. If, after refreshing the network window, the other PCs still do not appear, check the firewall settings that may be interfering
with the communication.
TESTING NETWORK CONNECTIVITY

A. Open the command prompt window on both computers.
B. Test the connectivity from one PC to the other by pinging the IP address of the opposite computer. Use the following
command on the command prompt.
C:/>ping 192.168.0.1 or C:/>ping 192.168.0.2
Ping Information
Sent/received: Total number of packets sent and received.
Packet loss (%): Packet loss in percentage.
Min resp. time: Minimum response time in milliseconds.
Max resp. time: Maximum response time in milliseconds.
Average resp. time: Average response time in milliseconds.
Note: If the computer does not reply, check the cable and computer connections.
C. Confirm the TCP/IP network settings by running the ipconfig command from the MS-DOS prompt.
C:/>ipconfig
34
Disk Operating System (DOS) Networking Commands

 hostname – displays the host name of the current PC; Host Name also called the Domain Name of the PC, is use to
identify the current PC in the network system.
 ping - is a computer network administration utility used to test the reaching/continuity ability of a host on an Internet
Protocol (IP) network and to measure the round-trip time for messages sent from the originating host to a destination
computer.
 getmac - returns the Media Access Control (MAC) address and list of network protocols associated with each
address for all network cards in each computer, either locally or across a network.
 Ipconfig - displays all current TCP/IP network configuration values and refreshes Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP) and Domain Name System (DNS) settings. Used without parameters,ipconfig displays the IP
address, subnet mask, and default gateway for all adapters.
 ipconfig/release – remove/release the IP address for the specified adapter.
 ipconfig/renew – restore/renew the IP address for the specified adapter
 cls – clear the screen output of the DOS-Command Window/DOS Pane
 ipconfig/all – display full configuration information of IP address of the current PC
 nbtstat - display protocol statistics and current TCP/IP connections using NBT (NetBIOS over TCP/IP);
netBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System) is a program that allows applications on different computers to
communicate within a local area network (LAN).
 netstat - displays active TCP connections, ports on which the computer is listening, Ethernet statistics, the IP routing
table, IPv4 statistics (for the IP, ICMP, TCP, and UDP protocols), and IPv6 statistics (for the IPv6, ICMPv6, TCP
over IPv6, and UDP over IPv6 protocols). Used without parameters, netstat displays active TCP connections.
Lecture Module 10:

Application of File and Printer Sharing
in a Network System
1. Prepare your PCs that are running Windows XP
Follow these steps on each of your PCs running Windows XP.
35
2. Run the Network Setup Wizard

1. Click Start, click Control Panel, and then click Network and Internet Connections.
2. Click Network Setup Wizard, and then follow the instructions on your screen.
3. On the Name your network page, type the same workgroup name used by your other PCs.
4. On the File and printer sharing page, select Turn on file and printer sharing.
3. Specify what you want to share

1. Right-click the folder that you want to share, and then click Sharing and Security.
2. If you are sharing a drive, on the Sharing tab, click If you understand the risk but still want to share the root of the
drive, click here.
3. Select the Share this folder on the network check box.
Note: To share individual files in Windows XP, either put them in a folder and share the folder, or share them using the
Public folder.
4. Share your files and printers

Now that you‘ve prepared the PCs on your network, the next step is to indicate which files, folders, and printers you want to
share. Go to the PC where you store the items you want to share.
4.1. To share a file or folder

To share a file or folder, right-click it, click Sharing and Security, and then select the people or groups you want to share
with. You can also assign permissions so that those people can or cannot make changes to the file or folder you shared.
5. To share a printer
When you first connect a printer to your PC, you have the option of sharing it. But even if you didn't choose to share it
originally, you can still do it later. Here's how:
1. Click Start, and then click Printers and Faxes.
2. Right-click the printer you want to share, and then click Sharing.
3. Click Share this printer, and then click OK.
6. Access the shared files and folders

Now we're ready for the final step—accessing the shared files and folders. Instructions for accessing shared printers are on the
following tab.
6.1. To access shared files or folders
1. Click Start, and then click My Computer.
2. Under Other places, click My Network Places.
3. Under Network Tasks, click View workgroup computers.
4. Double-click the PC you want to access, and then type your user name and password.
5. Navigate to the folder you want.
7. Access the shared printers

Here's how to access the printers you've shared. Instructions for accessing shared files and folders are on the previous tab.
7.1. To access shared printers
1. Click Start, and then click Printers and Faxes.
2. In the left pane, click Add a printer.
3. In the wizard that appears, click Next, and then select A network printer, or a printer attached to another
computer.
4. Select Browse for a printer, and then click Next.
5. Double-click the name of the PC that the printer is attached to, select the printer you want to access, and then
click Next.
6. On the dialog box that appears, click Yes, and then complete the rest of the wizard.
Branch:Gateways Institute of Science and Technology Score:

Name: Data Communication and Local Area Network (
DCL )
Course / Session: Activity No. 1:
36
Constructing Straight-Through and Crossover Ethernet Cable

Schedule: Instructor: Date:
PARTS FAMILIARIZATION. Draw all the materials and tools used in constructing the network cables and describe
each.
A. Crimping Tool
B. Wire Cutter
C. RJ-45
D. LAN Tester
Note: You can draw at the back page of the sheet
STRAIGHT-THROUGH CABLE
Actual
Generalization Remarks Rating
Presentation
(50 pts.)
Cabling /
Construction
(50 pts.)
Testing
CROSSOVER CABLE
Actual
Generalization Remarks Rating
Presentation
(50 pts.)
Cabling /
Construction
(50 pts.)
Testing
Branch: Gateways Institute of Science and Technology Total Score:

Name: Activity 2:
Application of Peer-to-Peer Connection
Course / Session: Data Communication and Local Area Network
37
( DCL )
Application of Peer-to-Peer Connection

1. Construct a Crossover Network Cable and test it.
2. Demonstrate:
PC – 1 PC – 2
IP Address: 10.0.2.15 IP Address: 10.0.2.20
Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0 Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
Default Gateway: 10.0.2.2 Default Gateway: 10.0.2.2
2.1. Does it work? _____Why?
 Try omitting the values the Default Gateway on both devices then try the connectivity procedures.
2.2. Does it work? _____Why?
Based on you analysis, what is the main function of the TCP/IP address?
3. How about the Computer Name?
4. On your opinion, simply describe how a peer-to-peer network connection works.
5. What is the function of the following DOS networking commands?

 hostname
 ping
 getmac
 ipconfig
 ipconfig/release
 ipconfig/renew
 cls
 ipconfig/all
6. Define the following:

 IP
 TCP
 HTTP
7. Enumerate:
 3 basic functions of network protocols
1.
2.
3.
 3 common types of network protocols

1.
2.
3.
Branch:Gateways Institute of Science and Technology Score:

Name: Activity No. 3:
File Sharing and Printer Sharing
Course / Session: Data Communication and Local Area Network
38

Demonstrate the following:
1. Setup a Network
2. Specify Sharable Elements
3. Create a folder on the desktop with a folder name activity_(surname_firstname)
4. Create a text file with the following information:
Name (surname, first name, middle initial)

Course / Section
Address
Contact No.
Email Address
---This is a test print ---
Instructor’s Initial _________________________

Date _________________________
Save this text file using the file name activity_(surname_firstname)and save it on the folder you created.
5. Share the file or folder
6. Add and Share a printer
7. Access the shared files and folders.
8. Access the shared printers
9. Print the file created on the other device within the network connection. (Print the file that your classmate had created)
10. Troubleshoot any problems encountered
Seat No.: Gateways Institute of Science and Technology Score:

Name: Data Communication and Local Area Network
Course / Session: Quiz / Introduction to Communication and Network
Schedule / Branch: Instructor: Date:
39
Instruction: Enumerate all or some of the best answers according to the specified items to be enumerated.
A. Construct the Communication Paradigm
B. Four (4) elements of communication
C. Three (3) transmission direction
D. Three (3) modes of transmission
E. Two (2) transmission transformation
F. Two (2) types of transmission that address the problem that arises on the transmission transformation
G. Four (4) examples of interference

40
Enumeration
A. Three (3) importance of computer network
B. Three (3) types of networking layout procedures
C. Two (2) main network architecture
D. Three (3) characteristics of the 1st type of network architecture
E. Three (3) characteristics of the 2nd type of network architecture
F. Five (5) sharable elements in computer network

41
General Instructions:
 Use uppercase letter only.
 Strictly no erasures.
 Any form of cheating is strictly prohibited.
a. Data f. Sender and Receiver k. Communication paradigm p. MAN
b. Communication media g. Transmission media l. Network q. Communication
c. Computer architecture h. LAN m. Use for resource sharing devices
d. WAN i. Devices n. Interference r. Signal
e. Communication j. Instruction o. Information s. Wave
Multiple Choice
Instruction: Choose the letter of the best answer within the given choices.
1. It describes the process in which two or more computer or devices transferring data, instructions, and information.
2. Set of processes or methods used in transforming data into meaningful information
3. Considered as the output of a system; also called processed data
4. Considered as the input of a system; also called unprocessed information
5. Major elements of communication
6. Messages and request travels through a network in a form of _________
7. A collection of computers and devices connected together via communication devices through a transmission media
8. Also called a medium in which signal travels through a network; categorized as wired (physical) or wireless (infrared,
radiowave, satellite, etc.)
9. Also called transmission media or network media
10. _________ are object being connected such as PC, printer, scanner, etc.
11. e.g. NIC, Hub, Router, Switch, Modem etc
12. One (1) Importance of Computer Network
13. A data network designed for towns or cities and handles bulk communication activity across a region
14. Composed of widespread LANs and MAN and being utilized by business and government entities. Internet is the world‘s
largest of this type of network
15. Type of network in which computers are typically closed together and it is limited in size. It has an accumulated speed of
approximately 10mbps to 10gbps
16. Overall design of the computer network that describes how a network is configured and what strategies are being used. It
focuses mainly on the functionality of the network

Course / Session: Quiz / LAN Topologies
42

 Use uppercase letter only.
 Strictly no erasures.
 Any form of cheating is strictly prohibited.
Identification
Topology Broadband Star Web Internet
Physical topology Baseband Hybrid Circular Root / Peak
Logical topology Unguided Ring Chain
Unicast Guided Tree Pyramid
Multicast Bus Concentrator Cluster
Broadcasting Mesh Backbone Media
1. ___________ refers to the layout of connected devices on a network.

2. The _______________ is how wires are organized within a network.
3. The _____________ is how the network behaves logically within a computer system.
4. An addressing scheme in which the addressing is one-to-one, where one computer sends a frame to another
computer.
5. An addressing scheme in which the addressing is one-to-many, where one computer is sending a frame to many
other computers.
6. An addressing scheme in which the addressing is one-to-all, where one computer sends data to all computers
connected to the LAN.
7. ____________ is when the whole capacity of the medium is used, generally used for digital transmissions.
8. ____________ is when the medium capacity is split into channels, generally used for analog transmissions.
9. A kind of transmission using wireless connection.
10. A kind of transmission using wired connection.
11. A topology using a single cable, called the backbone, functions as a shared communication medium that devices
attach or tap into with an interface connector.
12. A topology that involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the previous topologies, messages sent on this
network topology can take any of several possible paths from source to destination.
13. A topology in which each station is connected to a central node, or hub (or switch). Each station only talks to the
central node. Each station generally has two connections to the hub; one to send data to the hub, and another to
get data from the hub.
14. A combination of any two or more network topologies.
15. In a ____________ topology, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication purposes. All messages
travel through a circle in the same direction (either "clockwise" or "counter-clockwise").
16. ____________ topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In its simplest form, only hub
devices connect directly to the ________ bus and each hub functions as the "root" of a ______ of devices.
17. The central hub connection in a star topology is called a _________ or a central node.
18. The common connection in a bus topology is called the ____________ of the network.
19. Alternate name for star topology.
20. Alternate name for ring topology.
21. Alternate name for bus topology.
22. Alternate name for tree topology.
23. Alternate name for mesh topology.
24. The hardware used to transmit data across the network is called the _______. It may include copper cable, fiber
optic, or wireless transmission.
25. ___________ is the world‘s largest WAN and typically connected using a mesh topology.

43

Enumeration
Instruction: Enumerate all or some of the best answers according to the specified items to be enumerated.
a. 3 Characteristics of a bus topology
b. 3 Characteristics of a ring topology
c. 3 Characteristics of a star topology
d. 3 Characteristics of a mesh topology
e. 4 What to consider when choosing a topology
f. Construct a simple network using hybrid topology

44

TRUE or FALSE
 Write true if the given statement is correct and appropriate, if not, write false.
 Right minus Wrong method of correction.
 If you are sure with your answer, write it. If not, I advise you to leave it blank.
1. The maximum length of cat 5, cat 5E, and cat 6 upon installation is 100 m. (approx 330 ft.).
2. Physical topology can also be call as network architecture.
3. Topology came from the greek word ―topos‖ which means network and ―logos‖ which means
communication.
4. Topology is the understanding of something that is being arranged according to functionality of each
element.
5. Tree topology can be define according to the idea presented by a collection star topology arranged in a
single bus topology.
6. Hybrid can exist in a single unit of topology presented in a network.
7. Peer-to-peer network architecture is hard to manage.
8. In peer-to-peer network, each host devices (e.g. PC) can function as servers in a network.
9. Client/server network architecture is not limited to small scale network.
10. In star topology, the entire network is affected severely when a device connected to the hub fails to
function.
11. A linear bus topology exists with a presence of a common connection and a terminator connected to it.
12. In bus and star topology respectively, the common connection can be in a form of a hub or switch, while
the central connection can be in a form of wired transmission media.

45
Quiz / Network Connectivity Devices, Standards and

Course / Session:
Protocols
Network Connectivity Devices

Network Interface Card (NIC)
Description and
Function
Connects to
Speeds
Common Manufacturers
Write a short description and function of the following Network Connectivity Devices
Hub
Repeaters
Bridges
Switches
Routers
Modem
46
Understanding Computer Networks, Connectivity DCL – Data Communication and Local Computer Systems Servicing
Media, Protocols and Basic Structure Area Networks (CSS) NC II

Course / Session:
Protocols
Network Protocol
1. A ______________________ defines rules and conventions for communication between network devices.
2. Protocols for computer networking all generally use__________________ techniques to send and receive
messages in the form of ______________.
3. Groups of network protocols that work together at higher and lower levels are often called a
____________________.
4. A ________________________ allows only one device to transmit on a network. Conversely,
________________________ allow devices to both transmit and receive data across the same physical link.
5. A ____________________ network protocol exchanges (a process called a handshake) address information
between two devices that allows them to carry on a conversation (called a session) with each other.
6. Conversely, ______________ protocols deliver individual messages from one point to another without regard
for any similar messages sent before or after (and without knowing whether messages are even successfully
received).
7. Network protocols normally work together in groups (called _____________ because diagrams often depict
protocols as boxes stacked on top of each other).
8. __________________________ is itself the basic protocol that enables home and other local networks across
the Internet to communicate with each other.
9. The ________________________ protocol extends IP with this higher layer capability, and because point-to-
point connections are so essential on the Internet, the two protocols are usually paired together and known
as TCP/IP.
10. Protocols typically divide each packet into three parts: ________________, _________________,
and ______________________.
47

Course / Session:
Protocols
Network Standards
Identify the following acronyms.
1. ISO -
2. ANSI -
3. ITIC -
4. NCITS -
5. IEEE -
6. EIA -
7. TIA -
8. ITU-T -
9. ETSI –
10. DCL –
48

Course / Session: Quiz / Network Operating System
 Fill-in the blanks with the terms that satisfies the given statements
Computer Operating System

Computers use (1)_____________________ called an operating system (O/S) to help people build and run their own
programs. Operating system software runs not just on laptop computers but also on
(2)_________________,(3)____________________ and other so-called (4)____________________.
Types of Operating Systems

The best-known operating systems are those used on personal computers:
(5)__________________________
(6)__________________________
(7)__________________________
Some operating systems are designed for certain types of equipment, such as
(8)_________________________ (a variant of Linux), and (9)______________________ for cell phones
(10)________________________ and other variants of Unix - for server computers
(11)________________________ - for mainframe computers
Other operating systems enjoyed a period of notoriety but are of only historical interest now:
(12)________________________was a popular O/S for PCs in the 1990s
(13)________________________was an early PC O/S that competed with Microsoft Windows for a time but had limited success
(14)________________________ was an especially innovative operating system created in the 1960s for mainframes, that
influenced the later development of Unix
Network Operating Systems

A modern O/S contains much built-in software designed to simplify networking of a computer. Typical O/S software
includes an implementation of (15)_________________ protocol stack and related utility programs like ping and traceroute.
The early versions of (16)______________________________ did not provide any computer networking support.
Microsoft added basic networking capability into its operating system starting with (17)________________________ and
Windows for Workgroups. Microsoft also introduced its (18)____________________________________________ feature in
Windows 98 Second Edition (Win98 SE). Contrast that with (19)_____________________, which was designed from the
beginning with networking in view. Nearly any consumer O/S today qualifies as a network operating system due to the popularity
of the Internet.
Embedded Operating Systems

A so-called embedded system supports no or limited configuration of its software. Embedded systems like routers, for example,
typically include a pre-configured (20)______________,(21)___________________server, and some utilities but do not allow the
installation of new programs. Examples of embedded operating systems for routers include:
(22)_________________________
(23)_________________________
(24)_________________________
An embedded OS can also be found inside an increasing number of consumer gadgets including phones (iPhone OS), PDAs
(Windows CE), and (20)____________________ (ipodlinux).
49

Course / Session: Quiz / Transmission Media
Identification
1. __________ cable is made of two plastic insulated copper wires twisted together to form a single media. Out
of these two wires only one carries actual signal and another is used for ground reference. The twists between
wires is helpful in reducing noise (electro-magnetic interference) and crosstalk.
2. __________ network cable operates with the exception that TX and RX lines are crossed (they are at opposite
positions on either end of the cable. Using the 568-B standard such that Pin 1 on connector A goes to Pin 3 on
connector B. Pin 2 on connector A goes to Pin 6 on connector B ect. These cables are commonly used to
connect two hosts directly.
3. ___________ cable works on the properties of light. When light ray hits at critical angle it tends to refracts at
90 degree. This property has been used in fiber optic. The core of fiber optic cable is made of high quality
glass or plastic.
4. ___________ cable is made up of several layers of protection and insulation. It is commonly used for
commercial purposes.Because of its structure, these cables are capable of carrying high frequency signals than
that of twisted pair cables.
5. ___________ cables comes with twisted wire pair covered in metal foil. This makes it more indifferent to
noise and crosstalk.
6. ___________ network cable refers to cables that have the pin assignments on each end of the cable. In other
words Pin 1 connector A goes to Pin 1 on connector B, Pin 2 to Pin 2 ect. It is the wired cables that are
commonly used to connect a host to client. It uses the 568-A color code standard.
Write the term defined by the given acronym

7. UTP
8. STP
9. RJ
10. RG
11. NTSC
12. PAL
13. Hz
50

TRUE or FALSE
 Write true if the given statement is correct and appropriate, if not, write false.
 Right minus Wrong method of correction.
 If you are sure with your answer, write it. If not, I advise you to leave it blank.
1. In a satellite transmission, the messages travels within the earth‘s horizon, then to the outer space directly
transmitting to the satellite, then back to the earth‘s horizon for confirmation.
2. Infrared transmission functions as a long range application.
3. Broadband transmission scheme refers to the wired transmission media that are being used upon the
construction of a system network.
4. Baseband transmission scheme uses the whole capacity of the medium upon data transmission.
5. The white-banded twisted wire on UTP, the metal foil of the STP, and the copper/aluminum mesh of the
coaxial all functions as an active line for the individual transmission media given.
6. Messages travelling into a network can be in a form of electrical impulse, digital signal, and configured light
beams.
7. BNC connector is used for coaxial cable while RJ-45 and RJ-11 is used as a connector for UTP/STP cable.
8. The term ―wire‖ is different with the term ―cable‖ in terms of their applications and functionality.
9. Straight-through cable uses both the 568-A and 568-B color code standard upon construction, with the
specification of having the same color code standard on both terminal ends of the network cable.
10. The LAN tester is composed of the separating parts namely the master control as the access point and the
remote control as the reference point.
11. A typical crimping tool has available features of a basic crimper, a wire stripper, and a cutter.
12. Fiber-optic cable uses solid copper conductor that acts as the main line upon transmitting messages from
source to destination.
13. The outer insulator covering the coaxial cable is made of rubber-plastic-foam material that absorbs, heat,
impact, tension, and pressure to the cable upon relative application.
51

Complete the given table
Category of
Characteristic or Data Rate or Application or Operating Bandwidth Size
Twisted Pair
Cat 1
Cat 2
Cat 3
Cat 4
Cat 5
Cat 5e
Cat 6
Cat 7
Enumeration
Two (2) types of network architecture
1.
2.
Six (6) types of network topology
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Four (4) considerations when using a topology
9.
10.
11.
12.
Five (5) structural parts of coaxial cable
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Three (3) categories of coaxial cable
18.
19.
20.
568-A standard color code configuration
568-B standard color code configuration
52

Course / Session: Quiz / OSI Model and IP Addressing
OSI Layer Model
Description or Designation on the Network System
Application Layer
Presentation Layer
Session Layer
Transport Layer
Network Layer
Data Link Layer
Physical Layer
53

Course / Session: Quiz / OSI Model and IP Addressing
IP address classes
Complete the following table
1st Octet Network/Host ID (N=Network,

Class Default Subnet Mask
DecimalRange H=Host)
A 1 – 126*
B N.N.H.H 255.255.0.0
C 192 – 223 255.255.255.0
D Reserved for Multicasting
E 240 – 254
Private IP Addresses
Complete the following table
Class Private Networks Subnet Mask Address Range
A 10.0.0.0 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255
B 255.240.0.0 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255
C 192.168.0.0 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255
54

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Understanding Computer System Fundamentals, DCL – Data Communication and Local Computer Systems Servicing

its Architecture, Installation, and Basic Servicing Area Networks (CSS) NC II

Gateways Institute of Science and Technology

Understanding Computer Networks,

Computer Systems Servicing (CSS) NC II

Input / Process / Output /

1.2. History of Data Communication and Networks

1.3. Elements of Communication

Anything that interferes with the message is technically called Noise.

1.4. Convergence of Computing and Communications

1.5. Transmission Direction

 the direction of the exchanges

1.5.1. Simplex, Half-duplex and Full-duplex connections

1.5.2. Analog / Digital / Serial and Parallel Transmission

1.5.2.1. Parallel connection

These channels may be:

1.5.2.2. Serial connection

1.5.3. Synchronous and asynchronous transmission

 Electromagnetic interference (EMI)

1.8. Importance of Computer Network

1.9. Types of Networking Layout Procedures

 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

 WAN (Wide Area Network)

1.10. Advantages of Computer Network in Communication

1.11. Network Architecture

1.11.1. Two Main Network Architecture

2.2 Broadband vs. Baseband

2.3 Physical Topologies

2.4 Bus Topology

Characteristics of Bus topology:

Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology

Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology

2.5 Ring Topology

• All transmissions are baseband, and go in a single direction.

2.5.1 Removing Frames

Characteristics of Ring topology:

2.6 Star Topology

In a star topology, each station is connected to a central node, or hub (or

The Star topology can use either broadband or baseband transmissions.

A passive hub just links all workstations together (without

Normally, the hub retransmits data to all the connected stations. If a

Characteristics of Star topology:

Advantages of a Star Topology

Disadvantages of a Star Topology

Advantages of a Tree Topology

Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

2.8 Mesh Topology

A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a

2.9 Hybrid Topology

2.10Considerations When Choosing a Topology

Network interface controller

 Hubs provide the central connection points for LANs.

A bridge is an internetworking device used to help conserve the bandwidth

A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that modulates signals to encode digital

4.2 Internet Protocols

4.3 Routing Protocols

4.4 How Network Protocols Are Implemented

4.5 Purpose of Network Protocols

4.6 Common Types of Network Protocols

2. connection-oriented or connection-less. A connection-oriented network protocol exchanges (a process called a handshake)

4.7 The Internet Protocol Family

4.8 How Network Protocols Work

4.9 How Network Devices Use Protocols