Paper No.

: 04 Indian Anthropology
Module : 05 Unity And Diversity In Indian Society And Culture

Development Team
Prof. Anup Kumar Kapoor
Principal Investigator
Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi

Prof. Anup Kumar Kapoor

Paper Coordinator
Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi

Dr. Meenal Dhall

Content Writer
Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi

Prof. Subir Biswas

Content Reviewer
Department of Anthropology, West Bengal State University

Indian Anthropology
Anthropology
Unity And Society In Indian Society And Culture
 Description of Module

Subject Name Anthropology

Paper Name Indian Anthropology

Module Name/Title Unity and diversity in Indian society and culture

Module Id 05

Indian Anthropology
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Unity And Society In Indian Society And Culture
 Contents of this unit
1. A BRIEF HISTORY
1.1. The Introduction
1.2. The Evolution of the Indian Culture and Diversity
1.2.1. Tracing through the Archaeological Findings
1.2.1.1. The Pre-History of India
1.2.1.2. The Proto-History of India
1.2.1.3. The Vedic Period
1.2.1.4. The Impact of other cultures on the Indian Population
1.2.1.5. In a Nutshell
2. THE CURRENT POPULATION DYNAMICS
2.1. The Composition and Distribution of the Indian Population
2.1.1. The Ethnic Groups
2.1.2. The Linguistic Distribution
2.1.3. The Religious Diversity of India
3. THE UNITS OF SOLIDARITY
3.1. The Indian Family, Kinship and Society
3.2. The Status of a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular and Democratic Country
3.3. The Sharing of Elements of Tolerance, Acceptance and Adaptability
3.4. The Socialist Reformers
4. THE SUMMARY

Learning Objectives:
 To study the importance of the unity and diversity of the Indian society and culture.
 To know about the origin of diversity in India through history.
 To study the distribution of the diverse elements of the Indian population.
 To understand the reasons leading to unity in India.

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 1. A BRIEF HISTORY
1.1 The Introduction:
The Indian sub-continent can be rightly regarded as a galaxy of diverse elements whose preponderance
can be felt in every strata of Indian culture and society. Through years of isolation and intermixing,
subjugation and uprising, tolerance and penetrance, India has witnessed a history of experimenting
cultures giving rise to new forms, whose diversity can be felt in the plurality of ethnic groups,
religions, languages, occupational units and social and political groups.

This diversity can be readily attributed to the past comprising of years of migration, intermixing,
invasions and comparative isolation through the natural geographical boundaries. The period of change
and amalgamation can be traced to over a rich five thousand years since the first civilization emerged
in India. Over this period the country has observed evolution from the primitive hunting- gathering life
to the settled agriculture based occupation, the development of local art paved ways for expansion of
the broad arenas where human mind can delve and explore its limitations and innovate technologies to
surmount them.

In the current scenario, standing with a total population of 1.21 billion, India presents a kaleidoscope of
varying cultures and traditions. Moving from the pre-historic period to the Vedic period, we find the
emergence of faith, although it was in the incipient form, it diffused from one region to the other. Then,
with the advent of the Aryans, the penetrance of Aryanized values differed in different local
communities, giving rise to different interpretations and analogous inheritance over generations.
Though, the hierarchical system was common everywhere, its rigidity varied from region to region. So,
Hinduism emerged but not much as a religion but as a conglomeration of different practices but same
ideology. With the immigration of other stronger religious communities in India, especially Islam and
Christianity which persisted over a long period in India, an amalgamation of customs, the fusion of
teachings, development of tolerance and togetherness enriched the soil of India. The religions like
Judaism and Zoroastrianism, which came from the other lands of the world confined themselves to the
small pockets of the Indian sub-continent, whereas, the other religions like Buddhism, Jainism and
Sikhism which developed in India restricted themselves to fixed zones and didn’t diffuse much.

Similar influence of migration was seen when people belonging to different ethnic groups came and
settled in India. They mixed with the local population, exchanged and adopted their socio- biological
traits and articulated new forms of customs and social designs resulting in a diversity of physical
features, forms and lifestyles. The affiliation of people to such a diverse linguistic- family proves the
strength of the cultural roots of India. Similar distribution is still prevalent in the tribal diversity of
India, some of which are still away from the present world of urbanization and modernization,
following their ancient traditional values.

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 Our country passed through the stages of cultural evolution, from where it moved from the nature,
spirit and ancestor worship to following one or more religious teachings. It has faced the complexity of
the caste system to the agony of proselytization. Despite the differences observed in our societal
structural formulation, we find acceptance, tolerance and adjustability at its very core. Our constitution
grants us the status of a sovereign, secular, socialist and democratic republic, which we all enjoy with
pride and joy. We are diverse yet united and it is the key to our strength.

1.2 The Evolution of the Indian Culture and Diversity:

The history of the Indian culture has the oldest continuity in tradition. From the pre-historic period to
the evolution of agriculture and the emergence of the present 20 th century technology, India has
endured both the ravages and aids of climate, time and people.

1.2.1. Tracing through the Archaeological Findings

Though it is difficult to trace the true picture of the pre-history of India due to the lack of written
records and missing oral traditions, we rely on the evidences obtained through archaeological findings
which are again incomplete and disputed in many ways.

1.2.1.1. The Pre-History of India

According to the available proofs the pre-history of India can be traced back to the second Inter-Glacial
period, between 400,000 and 200,000 B.C., when the use of stone tools is recorded. The presence and
use of different stone tools mark the beginning of different Paleolithic cultures in India:

CULTURAL SUB- TOOL-TYPES IMPORTANT SITES

CHRONOLOGY STAGES
Paleolithic(First
Ice- Age upto the
end of third Ice-
Age)
Chopper And North:Sohan Valley (now in Pakistan),
Chopping Chauntra and Guler (Himachal Pradesh),
Tools, Some Singrauli Basin (U.P.), Chhotanagpur
Handaxes And Plateau (Bihar) etc.
Cleavers
Central: The banks of Narmada River
Lower (between Narsimhapur and
paleolithic Hoshangabad), Bhimbetka (Raisen,
Madhya Pradesh), Adamgarh
(Hoshangabad), Gujarat and Saurashtra
peninsula etc.

South: Attirampakkam and Vadamadurai

(Chennai), Kibhanhalli and Anagwadi
(Karnataka), Nagarjun Konda and
Karempudi (Andhra Pradesh), Nasik and
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 Nevasa (Maharashtra)

Middle- Side- scrapers Nevasa, Bel Pandhari and Surgaon

Paleolithic with subtypes, (Maharashtra), Taminhal, Bagalkot,
points with Anagwadi (Karnataka), Kurnool,
triangular Chittoor and Nalgonda (Andhra
cross-sections, Pradesh), Narmada, Betwa, Shivna,
borers, bifacial Chambal valley, Bhimbetka, Gonchi,
handaxes and Sihora (Madhya Pradesh), Bhadar
some chopper (Gujarat), Luni Valley (Rajasthan), Belan
and chopping Valley (Uttar Pradesh) etc.
tools

Upper- Renigunta, Nallagundlu, Chundi,

Paleolithic Yerragondapalem,
Blade
MuchchatlaChintamanugavi (Andhra
subtypes,
Pradesh), Shorapur Doab, Meralbhavi
Burins,
(Karnataka), Patna (Maharashtra),
Scrapers
Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh) etc.

Mesolithic(End Microliths, Bagor and Tilwara (Rajasthan), Langhnaj

of the last Ice Retouched (Gujarat), Sarai Nahar Rai (Uttar
Age) Blade, Pen Pradesh), Birbhanpur (West Bengal),
Knife, Flake- Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh), Teri Sites
- points, (Tamil Nadu) etc.
Trapeze,
Lunate,
Microburins
etc.

North:Burzahom, Gulfkral and Martand

Polished and
(Jhelum Valley, Srinagar)
Ground tools:
Centre and East: DeojaliHading
Axe, Adze,
(Assam), Chirand (Bihar), Koldihwa
Neolithic - Chisel,
(Uttar Pradesh), Kuchai
Wedges, Hoe,
(Orissa)South:Tekkalkota, Brahmagiri,
Pick,
Sangankallu and Hallur (Karnataka),
Ringstone etc.
Piklihal and Nagarjun Konda (Andhra
Pradesh), Paiyampalli (Tamil Nadu)

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 The other archaeological evidences include: cave paintings, burial sites, skeletal remains, ornaments,
pottery, bone tools, megalithic remains with the use of iron, bronze and even gold, along with the
metaphysical thoughts of the ancient people through the remains found around their skeletons and
dwelling sites.

1.2.1.2 The Proto- History of India:

When the rest of India was passing through the Stone Age, the emergence of the Indus Valley
Civilization in the western frontier marked the beginning of the Proto- Historic culture of India. This
was an advanced civilization which flourished between 2500- 1500 B.C. The Indus Valley Civilization
was extensively distributed from Alamgirpur in the East to SutkagenDor on Pakistan- Iran border in
the South- West and from river Chenab in the North to Lothal in Gujarat in the South. The major cities
included Mohenjodaro and Harappa, (now in Sindh, Pakistan), Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Ropar
(Punjab), Chanhudaro (Pakistan) and Lothal (Gujarat).
The Indus Valley Civilization is known for its town planning, the dockyard, agricultural practice,
domestication of animals, tools and technology including cloth weaving, ornament making, use of
metals, wheel, pottery etc., political organization and architecture, trade (especially with
Mesopotamians), craftwork (use of terracotta, seals, figurines etc.), religion (worship of Mother
Goddess, the Lingam and Lord Shiva) and their unique script which has still not been deciphered.
The most appealing feature of this civilization is seen in its conservatism over years followed by a
sudden disappearance. Many scholars have worked upon the probable reasons of their disappearance
but no theory has still been proved convincing.

1.2.1.3 The Vedic Period:

The advent of the Vedic era started with the arrival of Aryans in India. The migration happened in
smaller groups of related tribes over centuries. These Aryans were the nomadic pastorals who also
practiced agriculture for fulfilling their basic needs. They did not bring any civilization with them but
owned a strong culture rooted in their beliefs, practices and crafts. They had a flair for poetry,
philosophy and art. They composed hymns in praise of their gods and handed it down over generations
through oral tradition without any written records. They tended horses and used fast moving chariots.
They were “racists” and considered themselves to be superior over the other indigenous inhabitants of
India whom they referred by derogatory names. They practiced endogamy and brought the concept of
purity and pollution to India for the first time. This led to the emergence of Varna and later the Jati
system in India and laid the foundation of the first structural and behavioral social system in India.

1.2.1.4 The Impact of the other cultures on the Indian Population:

Over the years, the pillars of cultural diversity in India have been:
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 i. The long history of migration
ii. Ecological diversity
iii. Cultural ethos

In India, migration took place principally from three regions:

a. The North- West Corridor: The migration of The Indo- European speakers from Central Asia,
Persia, Afghanistan, Turkey, Greece, Mongolia etc. took place.
b. The North- East Corridor: Because of the hostile and rugged terrain, restricted migration from
Myanmar, Tibet, and China etc. took place which led to their scattered settlement in the zones of
isolation.
c. The Malabar Coast, Kerala: Islam and Christianity first entered India from the Malabar Coast.
These cultures brought the distinctiveness and richness of their traditions and practices to India, whose
impact can be seen in the languages spoken in their settlement area. The geographical isolation and
suitability helped them to inculcate their local practices. These supplemented the development of more
diverse cultural forms.

1.2.1.5 In a Nutshell
Traversing over ages from the pre-historic India to the post- Vedic period, we can observe a chain of
events from development and modification to extinction. For the pre- historic period, we have
evidences in the form of skeletons and stone tools which tells a divine history of changing forms of
technology over generations. The locations where they were found directs towards the availability of
necessary resources for their survival and their initial inhabitation followed by consequent migration to
other places when conditions became adverse. The transition from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic
period demonstrates the development of technology, skills and most importantly expression which is
depicted in the art forms in caves and most probably language which finally might have led to the
spread of technology to other zones, especially that of agriculture which involves intensive division of
labor and associated co-ordination facilitated through the exchange of ideas.
The traces of the Indus Valley Civilization shows the presence of Proto- Australoid, Mediterranean,
Alpine and Mongoloid traits which might belong the indigenous population or the people from other
countries with whom trade relations were established. They brought the concept of Shiva worship in
India. With the arrival of the Indo- Aryans, the hierarchical system differentiating between ours (pure)
and others (pollution) started. They brought the rules of endogamy, taboos, rituals and physical contact
with them. Complementing their nomadic lifestyle, their spread to the other regions created a wave of
“Aryanization” which was assimilated but at different degrees in different cultures. The battle of ten
kings shows a period of cultural conflict and warfare as Aryans moved from Panchnad (Punjab) to The
Indo- Gangetic plains. Simultaneously, an internal change in the social structure of Aryans was taking
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 place. They were gradually shifting from pastoral to agricultural economy which involved greater
harmony and interaction with the locals. On the same front, the non- Aryans were adopting some
elements of the Indo- Aryan rituals and imbibing their philosophy of social organization. This resulted
in mixing of the cultures and traditions of both giving rise to diverse social practices. Some tribal
groups who refused to take up their rituals moved to the inaccessible forests and hilly areas; and those
who were non-Aryans but powerful ethnic groups, like Reddy of Andhra Pradesh, the Nayars of
Kerala, the Maravas of Tamil Nadu and the Marathas of Maharashtra, obtained a Kshatriya status on
the basis of their dominance and control.
In short, the three important stages leading to diversity in India were:

i. The interaction of the Indo- Aryan speakers with the indigenous people
ii. The original population which did not get influenced by the Indo- Aryans
iii. The waves of migration
These evidences though do not show a sudden transition to the modern world embracing all the
elements of the current variegated dimensions of society and culture, but they help us in plotting the
distribution of human population over the entire sub-continent in a significant period of time.

2. THE CURRENT POPULATION DYNAMICS

2.1. The Composition and Distribution of the Indian Population
India is the second most populous country of the world after China with the estimated decadal
growth of 17.64% according to the 2011 census. Its population density is 382 per sq. km. and the
average sex ratio is 940 females per 1000 males.
This huge population is characterized by varying elements of diversity which are expressed in different
forms in different regions. A few of them include:

2.1.1 The Ethnic Groups:

Almost all of the world’s major genetic elements are found in India. Bhasin and Walter (2011) said that
India is a home for over 4,000 Mendelian populations. A major eleven types of racial elements have
been identified in India, which include: Indo- Aryans, Dravidians, Proto- Australoids, Negrito,
Mediterranean, Scythians, Mongoloids, Nordics, Alpines, Dinaric and Armenoids. These racial groups
are classified on the basis of their distinct physical characteristics which makes them common to a
particular stock and different to the other, thus tracing the origin and migration of human beings over
centuries.

The most accepted classification of racial elements is that given by B.S. Guha in 1935, where he
identified six different ethnic groups in India (The Negritos, the Proto- Australoids, the Mongoloids,
the Mediterranean, the Western Brachycephalic and the Nordics) which are further divided into nine
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 sub-types. He selected 29 standard somatometric measurements and worked on 34 ethnic groups in
India. Out of the six racial groups defined by him, the anthropologists have a consensus that the
Negritos, the Proto- Australoids and the Mongoloids were the autochthones of India and the
Mediterraneans, the Western Brachycephalic and the Nordics came later.

The important characteristic features of the different ethnic groups by Guha are:
i. The Negritos: They have dark brown to black skin color, wooly hair, small- round to medium-
long head, bulbous forehead, smooth supra-orbital ridges, dark eyes, straight, flat and broad nose
and short stature. These are represented by the Kadars and Pulayans of Cochin and Travancore, the
Irulars of Tamil Nadu and Onges and Andamanese of the Andaman Islands.
ii. The Proto- Australoids: they have dark brown skin color, dark and slightly wavy and curly hair,
long head, less developed and slightly receding forehead, dark eyes and broad and depressed nose.
They are found commonly among the forest dwelling tribes of the Eastern and Central India. Some
examples include: Urali, Baiga, Chenchu, Kannikar, Bhil, Santhals, Oraon etc.
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 iii. The Mongoloids: These are divided into two sub-types:
a. Palaeo Mongoloid: These are particularly long headed (dark- light brown skin color, dark and
straight hair, long head, short and fat face, not fully developed supra- orbital ridges, prominent
cheek bones and medium- statured) who are represented by some tribal groups of Assam and some
Limbu groups of Nepal or broad headed (dark skin color, broader head, epicanthic fold and
medium stature) who are found among the Lepchas of Kalimpong and among the Chakmas and
Maghs of Chittagong (Bangladesh).
b. Tibeto Mongoloid: They have light brown skin color, broad and massive head, long- flat face,
epicanthic fold and medium to long nose. They are represented by the Tibetans of Bhutan and
Sikkim.
iv. The Mediterranean: They are divided into two sub- types:
a. Palaeo-Mediterranean: They have dark skin color, dark wavy and curly hair, dolicocephalic
and bulbous head, narrow face with pointed chin, dark eyes, small and broad nose and medium
stature. This population is represented by some Brahmins of Madurai and Andhra Pradesh.
b. Mediterranean: They have light skin color, arched forehead, well developed chin, brownish
dark eyes and medium to tall stature. This racial element is represented by some Brahmins of
Cochin and Allahabad and the Marathas of Maharashtra.
Fisher has classified some Mediterraneans as Oriental types who are similar to the Mediterranean sub-
type except in the nose which is long and convex in the Orientals. They are represented by the
inhabitants of Punjab (Pathans) and Sindh, and also some Rajputs.
v. The Western Brachycephalics: They are divided into three sub-types:
a. Alpinoids: They have light skin color, brownish dark hair which are sometimes wavy, broad
head, round occipit, dark- brown eyes and prominent nose and are medium statured. These are
represented by the Bania and Kathis of Gujarat and Kayasthas of Bengal.
b. Dinaric: They have darker skin color than Alpinoids, dark hair, long head, dark eyes, long and
often convex nose and tall stature. They are represented by the Kanarese Brahmins of Mysore and
some inhabitants of Bengal, Orissa and Karnataka.
c. Armenoids: Most of their features are similar to those of the Dinaric, except they have a more
prominent, narrow and curved nose and a more prominent occiput. These are represented by the
Parsis of Mumbai.
vi. The Nordics: These are very fair, have brown to dark hair, long head, more prominent and
protruding occiput, arched forehead, strong jaws, eyes with a bluish tinge and a tall and well-built
body. These are represented by the inhabitants of Northern India (Punjab and Rajasthan)

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 2.1.2 The Linguistic Distribution
India being a country of pluralistic traditions and values owing to its geographical terrain and
boundaries, the social contact, the migration pattern and their transfer over generations has influenced
the regional language of India to a great extent. It gives a person his social identity and a means to
build relationships on being at a distance from his cultural group.

Sir George Grierson (1903- 1923), worked on languages and identified 179 languages and 544 dialects
in India. In 1961 census, a survey was conducted which concluded that around 187 languages are
spoken by different sections of the country, out of which 94 languages are spoken by less than 10,000
people of India. There are 22 official languages recognized by the Constitution of India.

According to the linguistic distribution of the nation, four major language families have been identified
which also demonstrate the tribal diversity of our country:

i. The Austro-Asiatic Family: It is said to have originated in the Indo- China and spread towards
the East. The Austrics are the offshoots of the Mediterranean people who came to India from the
West and were regarded as Nishads by the Aryans. Its sub-family includes:
a. Munda: Spoken by the inhabitants of the hill tribes of Bihar, Chota Nagpur and other parts of
Central India. The languages spoken includes: Mundari, Birhor, Korku, Juang, Gadaba, Kherwari
etc.
b. Mon-Khmer: Spoken by the the Khasi, Jaintia and some Nicobaris.

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 ii. The Sino-Tibetan Family: The speakers are generally of Mongoloid origin who seem to have
come from the Eastern Frontier. They were regarded as Kiratas by the Aryans. Their sub-families
are:
a. Siamese: It includes the “Tai” group of languages under which only one language i.e.,
Khamtifalls.
b. Tibeto-Burman: Under the Tibeto-Himalayans Branch, the Bhatia group is represented by
languages like Ladhakhi, Lahuli, Bhotia, Sherpa etc. and the Himalayan Group by the languages
like Tamang, Rai, Dhimal, Chamba, Jangali, Lepcha, etc. The North Assam Branch Is Spoken By
The Inhabitants Of The N-E Frontier And Includes Languages Like Aka, Adi, Miri, Mishmi, etc.
The Assam Burmese Branch has the following groups:
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  Boro: Languages include Bodo, Lalung, Dimasa, Garo, Tripuri, Mikir, etc.
 Naga: Languages include Angami, Ao, Kabui, Rengma, Tangkhul, Konyak, etc.
 Kachim: Languages include Kawri and Singpho.
 Kuki-Chin: Languages include Kuki, Ralte, Mizo, Aimol, Kom, Hmar, etc.
 Arakan-Burmese: includes Meitei Language.

iii. The Dravidian Family: The sub-families include:

a. South: Languages Include Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada, Telugu, Toda, Kota, Coorg, etc.
b. Central: Languages Include Kui, Kolami, Gondi, Koya, Kondh, Parji etc.
c. North: Languages Include Oraon And Malto.

iv. The Indo-European Family: The sub-families include:

a. Iranian: includes languages of the foreign origin like Persia, Pashto, Balochi etc.
b. Dardic: includes the languages like Wai Ala (Kaffir), Khowar And Dardi, Shina, Kashmiri And
Kohistani (Dard)
c. Indo-Aryan: The outer branch consists of languages like Punjabi and Sindhi (North-Western),
Marathi And Konkani (South) And Oriya, Bihari, Bengali and Assamese (Eastern). The inner
Branch consists of languages like Hindi, Urdu, Punjabi, Gujarati, Rajasthani (Central) and the
Pahari Group Consists of languages like Nepali (Eastern), Kumaoni and Garhwali (Central) And
Jaunsari, Sirmauri, Handuri, Mandi, Baghatietc. (Western).

2.1.3 The Religious Diversity Of India:

The land of India is rich in varying religious affinities of its people. According to the 2001 census, out
of the total population, Hindus hold a majority of 80.5% of the population, whereas Muslims account
for 13.4%, christians constitute 2.3%, sikhs for 1.9%, buddhists for 0.8%, jains for 0.4% and the other
religions for 0.6% of the total Indian population. So the Hindus and the Muslims of India form a major
section of the population with a total of 828 million and 138 million respectively, out of the total
population of approximately 1,029 million.
The major religions of India can be described as:

Hinduism
Hinduism, though has the maximum number of followers in India, it is not considered as a religion by
most of the scholars of the world. It is more considered as an ideology, or a broad group of
interconnected traditions arising in different indigenous forms within India itself. It has no founding
figure unlike most of the other religions of the world and is not so rigid in standards of doctrine and

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 practice. It is considered to be one of the oldest religions of the world, though its recorded documents
can only be traced back to 1,200 b.c.; also it is one of the youngest religions of the world which in the
19th century identified more indigenous forms like its own and recognized them following the same
school of thought.

The term “Hinduism” derives originally from the Indo- Aryan word, “sindhu” which means sea or
contextually the Indus river. The Persians modified the term phonologically to “hind”, and used it to
refer to the land of the Indus valley. Later Greek and Latin borrowed the term, and modified it to the
word “India” to designate the geographical designation of the land beyond Indus. The Muslims used
the term Hindu to refer specifically to the native people of south Asia who did not convert to Islam.
Later during the colonial rule in India, the British used the term hinduism to refer to a set of religious
practices and beliefs which did not fall under other religious segments.
The Hindus are now broadly divided into shaivite (who worship shiva), vaishnava (who worship
Vishnu and his incarnations), shakta (who worship the mother goddess) and smarta (who worship all
three- Shiva, Vishnu and the mother goddess). These are further sub- divided based on their ritual
practices and doctrines. Sects and cults are an extension to the categorization of the Hindu religion.

The important religious texts of the Hindus constitute the Vedas, the epics, the puranic theologies of
Vishnu and Shiva, the medieval texts of bhakti movements and the fresh formulations by the modern
reformers.

Islam
Mohammed, the prophet of Islam, was a member of the Arab tribe when he started receiving
revelations around 610 CE (Common Era) which continued until his death in 632 CE. These
revelations were later compiled to lay the foundation of the sacred Islam text called, the Quran. For the
first 150 years of its existence, it rapidly spread to all the major Asian countries and later to some parts
of Spain, France and Sind. Islam first landed in India from the Malabar Coast of Kerala through the
Arab traders. Later through repeated invasions in the early 11 th century by Mahmud of Ghazna (in
Afghanistan), in 1193 by Muhammad of Ghur and his general Qutb-ud-din-aibak and Babar in 1526.
So, Islam ruled over the entire north India for a period of around 500 years of the late medieval Indian
history. With the Islamic rule in India, Sufism, sharing features of Islam and Hinduism arrived which
brought a spiritual soul to the Indian land. The bhakti movement resulting from the advocacy of both
Hinduism and Islam teachings, preached tolerance, brotherhood and love. It was started by Swami
Ramanuj and his disciples- Kabir, Raidas, Chaitanya, Tukaram etc.

The Indian Muslims are divided into two communities: the Sunni and the Shia. The Shia forms the
minor group in India. The Sunnis follow different types of Muslim law. A majority of the Indian

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 Sunnis follow the Hanifi School with some communities in the south- the mappillas and the
lakshadweep islanders follow the shafi school and some in Gujarat follow the mallki school. The Shias
follow their Imami law and are further categorized for following seven imams or twelve imams. They
also have fourteen religious orders, some of which are the chisti order, the suhrawardi order, the
shattari order, the quadiri order and the naqsbandi order. They were monotheists which affected the
polytheistic practices of Hindus.

The Islamic culture brought its great knowledge of art and architecture, music, food, dressing,
language, historiography and administration with it.

Christianity
Christianity entered India in 52 AD through the Malabar coast of Kerala, when St. Judas Thomas
arrived and converted the locals and formed permanent Christian communities. These converts are
known as the Syrian Christians who enjoy a higher status, wealth, opportunities and rights as compared
to the other Christians. Later during the colonial period, the British exchanged their language,
philosophy and the religious beliefs with the locals for around 200 years. During this period they
activated their christian missionaries to establish churches and start proselytization of the tribals and
the weaker sections which affected the socio-religious aspects of the Indian society. These converts
came to be known as the Latin Christians who enjoy a lower status and wealth in comparison to the
Syrian Christians. The Indian churches are divided into Roman Catholics and Protestants.

Sikhism
Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak Dev (1469- 1539), and his legacy was carried forward by his
nine successors. Its teachings are inspired by the bhakti movement of Hinduism and Sufi tradition of
Islam. He abolished any social distinction and believed in the equality of people. For promoting
egalitarianism, he set up a custom of free community kitchens which served people free food
irrespective of their caste and creed. The tenth Sikh guru, Guru Govind Singh, established the
fundamental Sikh institutions and formed a fraternity called Khalsa (the pure).

Sikhism generally remained confined to the state of Punjab. Though a militant sect under the
leadership of Ranjit Singh (1780- 1839) ascended to bloom the custom further, but, after his death, his
state fell apart, confining Sikhism again to a religious than a secular power.

The Sikhs worship in a Gurudwara and follow a holy book called “the Guru Granth Sahib”.

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 Jainism:
Jainism was founded by a great sage of the jain religion, mahavira (563 b.c. – 483 b.c.). Contemporary
to buddhism, it was one of the first indigenous religious movements started in India, now restricted
only to a few regions of gujarat and mysore. The two major divisions of jainism are: digambara
(unclothed) and shwetambara (white robed). The jainism teaches equality and is open to all classes
whose membership is dependent on one’s personal acts and aptitude and not any ascribed status.
However, jains do have endogamous jatis. A recent study (1953) estimates around 60 endogamous
groups with less than a hundred individuals per group.

Other Religions:
Some of the other religions practiced by a small group of people in India include buddhism,
zoroastrianism, and judaism etc.

3. THE UNITS OF SOLIDARITY

3.1. The Indian Family, Kinship And Society
The Indian family is the representation of the unit of social change and control. It is majorly patrilineal
in nature, where starting from the household decisions, disputes, property ownership, gender roles,
social engagement to the decision of marriage are taken by the male members of the kin groups. In the
context of a village, kinship influences the jati relations which in turn control the village relations of
interdependence and co-existence. An example of this is the “jajmani system” where in exchange for
the products and services of the service class (known as kamin or parjan), the cultivator or the superior
class (known as jajman) performs transactions based on cash or barter system. The relationships
between the two groups is based on reliability and trust which is extended to make the interdependence
durable, exclusive and multiple. The breach of trust from one group leads to their boycott or abolition
from their society. So, it is a system which starts from the unit of a family and continues over trust to
the wider level.

Kinship provides a basis for social identity and a membership to a system of rules according to which a
community functions. The fraternal solidarity within a village forms the basis of protection,
corporation and control. Similarly family as a unit owns the responsibility to form a social prestige,
which is based again upon the interdependence and interactions. This helps in keeping the social
system well connected, with a support system generated, and creating an organic solidarity.

3.2. The Status Of A Sovereign, Socialist, Secular And Democratic Country

The constitution of India came into force on 26january, 1950. Knowing the depth of the cultural evils
of caste discrimination, suppression of women rights, lack of equal opportunities and discrimination on

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 the grounds of religion, the constitutional committee worked to secure their rights. Some of the
important articles of our constitution includes:

i. Article 14: equality before law

ii. Article 15: prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth
iii. Article 16: equality of opportunity in matters of public employment
iv. Article 17: abolition of untouchability
v. Article 19: protection of certain rights regarding freedom of speech
vi. Article 21: protection of life and personal liberty
vii. Article 45: provision for free and compulsory education for children
viii. Article 46: promotion of educational and economic interests of scheduled castes, scheduled
tribes and other weaker sections
ix. Article 243d: reservation of seats (for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes)
x. Article 330: reservation of seats for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in the house of the
people
xi. Article 332: reservation of seats for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in the legislative
assemblies of the states

3.3. The Sharing Of Elements Of Tolerance, Acceptance And Adaptability

India is a unique example of a country where despite the existence of diversity in every strata of human
existence, we find a sense of togetherness. Though the situation is very critical to handle and
sometimes leads to a great violence and debate, but still, over the years of growth and scarcity, war and
peace, boundaries and bridges, we find a sentimental attachment between the people of india. This is a
result of the elements of tolerance, acceptance, adaptability, objectivity, co-existence and secularism,
which still binds us together.

3.4. The Social Reformers

The social reformers are the one who take the initiative in eliminating the social evils which exist in
society and are passed on as a custom from one generation to the other. Different reformers raised their
voice in different times in the past and worked towards the egalitarian development of society. These
efforts created an awakening country wide and led to the emergence of a spirit of nationalism and
unity. Some of the important social reformers include:

i. Raja Ram Mohan Roy: he established the “brahma samaj”, by combining the elements standing
for social harmony and peace from upanishad, Islam, Christianity and liberalism. He believed in
“one god for all humanity”, and was against polytheism and idol worship. He is known for his
work for the upliftment of women and eradicating untouchability.
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 ii. Swami Dayanand Saraswati: he founded the Arya Samaj in 1875 and emphasized the need to
return to the knowledge shared in “vedas”. He believed that the true vedas are free from any
discrimination and criticized the authority of brahmins, ritualism and idol worship.
iii. Swami Vivekananda: he was the disciple of Ramakrishna Paramhansa who wanted to bring forth
all the positive traditions of Hinduism and not just what is written in the vedas. He founded the
Ramakrishna mission and in his address at the world congress of religions at Chicago in 1983, he
reiterated the significance of the vedantic philosophy.
iv. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan: he worked for the upliftment of Muslims in india who were struggling
with the problems like illiteracy, polygamy, purdah system and very low position of women in
society. He believed that education is the only way to reinterpret Islam and help in social progress.
So, he founded the Aligarh Muslim University.

4. Summary
 India is diverse in every aspect of the elements defining a population. Most profoundly it can be
observed in the ethnic, linguistic and religious diversity of India.
 Several years of migration, intermixing, invasions and comparative isolation has resulted in a
varied profile of India.
 The origin of society can be observed in stages by peeping through the growth and distribution of
the population starting from the pre-historic to the post-historic to the vedic and later to the
modern period. The shift in technology and mode of living ensured better survival chances and
social evolution which made people realize the importance of inter-dependence and division of
labor. So, many different social elements came together which resulted in social dynamics
operating differently in different regions.
 The advent of aryans brought the concept of social hierarchy in the form of varna, jati and caste
system.
 The diversity of India can be understood by studying the following:
i. The ethnic groups of India
ii. The linguistic diversity of India
iii. The religious diversity of India
 B.S. Guha’s racial classification identifies six major ethnic elements in India: the negrito, proto-
australoid, mongoloid, mediterranean, western brachycephalic and nordics.
 Four linguistic families have been identified in India: the austro-Asiatic, sino-tibetan, dravidian
and indo-european. These are further divided into sub-family, branches and groups.
 Sir george grierson (1903-1923), worked on languages and identified 19 languages and 544
dialects in India.
 A number of religions are practiced by different groups of people in India, where 80.5% of the
population constitutes Hindus and 13.4% accounts for the Muslims.
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  The major religions of India includes: Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism and Jainism
 The units of solidarity of the country are:
i. The Indian, family, kinship and society
ii. The status of a sovereign, socialist, secular and democratic country
iii. The sharing of elements of tolerance, acceptance and adaptability
iv. The social reformers

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