SKELETAL SYSTEM
Bone substance – EM and cells
 It consists of the bone, cartilage, tendons and
ligaments.
 Skeleton; dried (Greek)
Functions (S2PMB)
1. Support
2. Protection
3. Movement
4. Storage
5. Blood cell production
Extracellular Matrix
 Composed of connective tissues
Collagen – tough ropelike protein
Proteoglycans – large molecules consisting of
polysaccharides attached to core proteins
Tendons & Ligaments – large amounts of collagen fiber
Cartilage – contains collagen & proteoglycans
Bone – contains collagen and minerals (Calcium &
Phosphate)
Hydroxyapatite – calcium phosphate crystals
General Features of Bone
Long bones; upper and lower
limbsShort bones;wrist and
ankle

 Irregular bones; vertebrae and facial bones
Long Bones
a) Diaphysis – central shaft
b) Epiphysis – ends
c) Epiphyseal plates – growth plate; where the
bone grows in length
Articular cartilage – covers the ends of the epiphyses
Epiphyseal line – bone growth stops and the
epiphyseal plate is replaced by bone
Medullary Cavity – large cavity in the diaphysis;
contains the marrow
Marrow – soft tissue within the cavity
Yellow Marrow – consists of adipose tissue (fat)
Red Marrow – consists of bone forming cells; site of
blood formation
Layers of a Bone
a. Periosteum – outermost layer; surround the
diaphysis; contain blood vessels, nerves,
osteoblasts
b. Endosteum – innermost layer; lines the
medullary cavity (thinner connective tissue)
c.
Histology of Bone
Osteoblasts – bone-forming cells; repair and
remodeling of bone
Osteocytes – bone cells located between the lamellae
(thins sheets of EM)
Lacunae – spaces within the lamellae
Canaliculi – tiny canals within the lamellae
Types of Bone Tissue
a. Compact bone
 Forms most of the diaphysis of long bones
 Central Canal / Haversian Canal – concentric
rings that contains blood vessels; ‘bull’s eye’
 Osteon / Haversian System – central canal +
lamellae + osteocytes
b. Spongy bone
Located mainly in the epiphyses of long
bonesForms the interior of all other bones
 Consists of trabeculae (interconnecting rods,
plates of bone) without central canals
Bone Ossification
Ossification – formation of bone by osteoblasts
Types of Ossification
a. Intramembranous ossification – osteoblasts
begin to produce bone in connective tissue
Ossification centers– where
intramembranous ossification begins
b. Endochondral ossification – bone formation
occurs inside the cartilage; bones at the base of
the skull and remaining skeletal system are
formed
Chondrocytes– cartilage cells;
increasein no., enlarge, and die
Primary ossification center – where bone first begins
to appear
Osteoclasts – cells that remove calcified cartilage matrix
Secondary ossification center – form in the epiphyses
Bone Growth
 Deposition of new bone lamellae onto existing
bone
 Bone elongation occurs at the epiphyseal plate;
leads to increase in height (endochondral
ossification)
 Chondrocytes proliferate, enlarge, die, and are
replaced by bone
Appositional growth – increase in bone width or
diameter
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Bone Remodeling
Removalof existing bone
byosteoclastsDepositionof new bone
byosteoblasts
 Responsible for change in bone shape, bone
adjustment, repair, and calcium ion regulation
Bone Repair
 Clot is formed in the damaged area
 Blood vessels and cells invade the clot and form a
callus (network of fibers and islets of cartilage)
 Osteoblasts enter the callus and from a spongy
bone
 Bone is slowly remodeled to compact bone
Bone and Calcium Homeostasis
 Osteoclasts remove calcium = blood calcium
levels increases
 Osteoblasts deposit calcium = blood calcium
levels decrease
Hormones that maintain Calcium Homeostasis
1. Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Parathyroid gland;
Increasebone breakdown
&increasebloodcalcium levels;
Stimulates the kidneys to from active vitamin D
2. Calcitonin
 Thyroid gland
 Decrease bone breakdown and decrease blood
calcium levels
General Considerations of Bone Anatomy
 206 bones = adult
 276 bones = newborn baby
Foramen – hole in a bone
Canal / Meatus – elongated hole in a tunnel like body
Fossa – depression in a bone
Tubercle / Tuberosity – lump on a bone
Process – projection from a bone
Condyle – end of a bine that forms a joint with another
bone
Facet – small flattened articular surface
Crest – prominent ridge
Trochanter – tuberosity found only on proximal femur
Fissure – cleft
Sinus – cavity
Suture – a joint uniting the bones of the skull
AXIAL SKELETON
 Composed of the skull, vertebral column, and
thoracic cage
 Form the longitudinal axis of the body
I. Skull
 22 bones
Braincase
 8 bones
 Covers and protects the fragile brain tissue
1. Frontal Bone – forehead, bony projections
under the eyebrow, part of the eye’s orbit
2 - 3. Parietal Bone (paired) – the superior and
lateral walls of the cranium; coronal suture
4 - 5. Temporal Bone (paired) – lies inferior to
the parietal bone; squamous suture
 External Auditory Meatus (EAM) – a
canal that leads to the eardrum and the
middle ear
 Styloid process – a sharp, needlelike
structure located inferior to the EAM
Zygomatic process– a bridge of
bonethat joins with the cheekbone anteriorly
Mastoid Process–a rough projection
posterior and inferior to the EAM
6. Occipital Bone – inferior and posterior bone
of the cranium; lambdoid suture
Foramen magnum– where the
spinalcord joins the brain
Occipital condyles–rests on the
firstvertebra of the vertebral column
Foramen ovale– allows the fiber
ofcranial nerve 5 to pass
7. Sphenoid Bone – butterfly-shaped bone
that spans the width of the skull
Sella Turtica– saddle-shaped
structureat the central region;
contains the pituitary gand
8. Ethmoid Bone – irregularly shaped bone
that lies anterior to the sphenoid bone
Facial bones
 14 bones; 13 solidly connected, 1 movable
(mandible)
 Holds the facial muscles in place
 Joined together by sutures (interlocking,
immovable)
1-2. Maxillae – main bones of the face; carries
the upper teeth
3-4. Palatine Bones – lies posterior to the
palatine processes of the maxilla
5-6. Zygomatic Bones – cheekbones
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 7-8. Lacrimal Bones – bones forming part of
the medial wall of each orbit
9-10. Nasal Bones – bones forming the bridge
of the bone
11-12. Inferior Nasal Conchae – thin curved
bones projecting from the lateral wall of the
nasal cavity
13. Vomer Bone – single bone in the median of
the nasal cavity
14. Mandible – lower jaw; only freely movable
joint of the face
Hyoid Bone – U-shaped bone; provides attachment to
tongue muscles; elevates the larynx during speech and
swallowing
II. Vertebral Column
 Central axis of the skeleton
 26 individual bones;
7cervical vertebrae
12thoracic vertebrae
5lumbar vertebrae
1sacral bone
1coccyx bone
Functions
1. Supports the weight of the head and the trunk.
2. Protects the spinal cord.
3. Allows the spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord.
4. Site for muscle attachment.
5. Permits movement of the head and trunk.
Kyphosis – posterior curvature; hunchback
Lordosis – anterior curvature; swayback condition
Scoliosis – lateral curvature
General Plan of the Vertebral Column
Body – weight-bearing portion
 Intervertebral disks body – separates the
vertebral bodies
 Vertebral arch – surrounds the vertebral
foramen
2 Pedicles – extends from the body to
the transverse process
2 Laminae – extends from the
transverse to the spinous process
 Provides attachment sites for the muscles
that move the vertebral column;
• Transverse process – extends
laterally bet. the lamina and
pedicle
• Spinous process – projects
dorsally where the two laminae
meet
Vertebral foramen –a large opening
 Vertebral canal – where the spinal cord is
located; protects the spinal cord from injury
 Intervertebral foramina – where spnal nerves
exit the spinal cord
 Articular process – where the vertebra
articulate with each other
Articular facet –smooth ‘little face’
Regional Differences in Vertebrae
1. Cervical Vertebrae – very small bodies,
dislocation and fractures are common int his
area
Atlas –1st CV; holds up the head; ‘yes’
shakingAxis –2ndCV; considerable amount of
rotation;
‘no’ shaking
Dens –where the rotation occurs
2. Thoracic vertebrae – long, thin spinous
processes; articulate the ribs
3. Lumbar vertebrae – large, thick bodies; heavy,
rectangular transverse + spinous processes;
carry large amount of weight; ruptured
intervertebral disks are common
4. Sacrum – five sacral vertebrae fused in one
 Median Sacral Crest – spinous process of the
1st four SV
 Sacral Hiatus – inferior end of the sacrum; the
5th process of the SV that does not form;
common side of caudal anesthetic injections
 Sacral Promontory – anterior edge of the 1sy
SV that bulges; landmark felt during vaginal
examination; reference point in vaginal delivery
of a baby
5. Coccyx – tailbone; fusion of 4 or more/less
fused vertebrae; easily broken
III. Rib Cage
Also called thethoracic
cageProtectsthe vital organs
 Prevents thorax collapse during respiration
1. Rib Cage
 12 pair of ribs
1 – 7 true ribs(attached directly to the
sternum)8 – 12 false ribs(do not attach directly to
the
sternum)
11 – 12 floating ribs (do not attach to
the sternum)
2. Sternum
 Also called the breastbone
Jugular notch –a depression bet. the ends of
theclavicles where they articulate with the sternum
Sternal angle –a slight elevation felt at
thejunction of the manubrium and the sternum;
important landmark bcos it identifies the 2nd rib
M o r a n o , M .
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  Xiphoid process – important landmark of the
sternum during CPR
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
 126 bones
 Consists of the bones of the upper and lower
limbs, as well as the girdles
I. Pectoral Girdle
 Also called the shoulder girdle
 Consists of 4 bones; 2 scapulae + 2 clavicles
1. Scapula – shoulder blade; where muscles
extending to the arm are attached
th
2. Glenoid cavity – 4 fossa; where the head of
the humerus connects to the scapula
 Spine – a ridge that runs across the posterior
surface fo the scapula
3. Acromion process – extends from the scapular
spine to form the point of the shoulder
4. Clavicle – collarbone; articulates with the
scapula art the acromion process
5. Coracoid process – provides for the
attachment of arm and chest muscles
II. Upper Limb
1. Arm – region bet, the shoulder and the elbow;
contains the humerus; has two tubercles:
greater tubercle and lesser tubercle
 Deltoid Tuberosity – where the deltoid muscle
attaches
 Epicondyles – provide attachment sites for
forearm muscles
2. Forearm
Radius –lateral to the thumb
Radial tuberosity – where the arm
muscles (biceps brachii) attaches
Ulna –medial to the little finger
Trochlear notch –forms most of the
elbow joint
Coronoid process – helps complete
the grip of the ulna
Olecranon process – extension of the
ulna
Styloid process – articulates with the
bones of the wrist
3. Wrist – short region bet. the forearm and the
hand; 8 carpal bones (SLTPHCTT)
Scaphiod
Lunate
Triquetrum
Pisiform
Hamate
Capitate
Trapezoi
Trapezium
4. Hand – 5 metacarpal bones are attached to the
carpal bones
Phalanges –3 small bones on each finger
III. Pelvic Girdle
 Where lower limbs attach to the body
Coxal bones – hip bones; join each other anteriorly and
the sacrum posteriorly to form a ring of bone called the
pelvic girdle
Ilium –most superior
Ischium –inferior and posterior; sit down
bonePubis –inferior and anterior
Iliac crest – seen along the superior margin of each ilim
Anterior Superior Iliac Spine –important hip
landmark; anterior end of the iliac crest
Pubic symphysis – where coxal bones join anteriorly
Sacroiliac joints– joins the sacrum posteriorly
Acetabulum – socket of the hip joint
Obturator foramen – large hole in each coxal bone
Pelvic inlet – formed by the pelvic brim and the sacral
promontory
Pelvic outlet – bounded by the ischial spines, pubic
symphysis, and coccyx
Male pelvis: larger and massive; Female pelvis; broader
IV. Lower Limbs
1. Thigh – region bet. the hip and the knee;
contains the femur
 Head of the femur – articulates with the
acetabulum of the coxal bone
Condyles –articulates with the tibia
Epidondyles –points of ligaments
attachmentsTrochanters –lateral to the head after
the neckPatella –knee cap; enables the tendon to
bend
over the knee
2. Leg – region bet. the knee and the ankle
 Tibia – shinbone; larger; major weight-bearing
bone of the leg; medial malleolus
 Fibula – thin and sticklike that forms the lateral
side of the leg; lateral malleolus
3. Ankle – 7 tarsla bones
Talus –ankle bone
Calcaneus –heel
boneCuboid
Navicular
Cuneiforms;medial, intermediate, lateral
4. Foot
 Metatarsal bones and phalanges – arranged
and numbered in a similar manner to the hand
Has3primary arches
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JOINTS
 Also called an articulation
 Where two bones come together
a. Synarthrosis joints – non-movable
b. Amphiarthrosis joints – slight movable
c. Diarthrosis – freely movable
I. Fibrous Joints
2 bones that are united by fibrous
tissueExhibit little or no movement
1. Sutures – bet. the bones of the skull;
squamous, lambdoid, coronal
 Fontanels – sutures that are quite wide in a
newborn
2. Syndesmoses – bones are separated by some
distance and held together by ligaments; FB
connecting the radius and ulna
3. Gomphoses – consists of pegs fitted into
sockets and held in place by ligaments; joint bet.
a tooth and its socket
II. Cartilaginous Joints
Unites two bones by means of
cartilageSlight movement can occur
Epiphyseal platesof growing long
bonesCartilage bet. theribsand
thesternum
 Fibrocartilage forms joints such as the
intervertebral disks
III. Synovial Joints
 Freely movable joints
 Contains fluid in a cavity surrounding the ends of
articulating bones
Articulating cartilage – thin layer that covers the
articular surfaces of bones w/in the synovial joints
Joint cavity – filled with fluid
Joint capsule – encloses the cavity that helps hold the
bones together and allows for movement
Synovial membrane – lines the joint cavity everywhere
Synovial fluid – produced by the SM; covers the
surfaces of the joint
Bursa – a pocket or sac; located bet. Structures that rub
together
Bursitis – inflammation of the bursa; often results to
abrasion
Tendon Sheath – extension of SM along some tendons
Types
1. Plane/Gliding Joints – two opposed flat
surfaces that glide over each other
2. Saddle Joints – two saddle shaped articulating
surfaces oriented at right angles; joint bet. the
metacarpal bone and the carpal bone of the
thumb
3. Hinge Joints – permit movement in one plane
only; elbow and knee joints
Menisci –shock-absorbing fibrocartilage pads
4. Pivot Joints – restrict movement to rotation
around a single axis; rotation that occurs bet. the
axis and atlas; articulation bet. the ulna and
radius
5. Ball and socket Joints – consist of a ball
(head) and a socket; shoulder and hip joints
6. Ellipsoid/Condyloid Joints – elongated ball
and socket joints; joint bet. the occipital condyles
(skull) and the atlas (vertebral column); joints
bet. the metacarpals and phalanges
Types of Movement
1. Flexion – movement that takes place in a
frontal/coronal plane
Plantar flexion –when standing on the toes
 Dorsiflexion – movement of the foot toward the
shin (walking on heels)
2. Extension – movement that takes place in a
posterior direction
3. Lateral Flexion – movement of the trunk in the
coronal plane
4. Abduction – movement away from the median
plane
5. Adduction – movement toward the median
plane
6. Pronation – rotation of the forearm so that the
palm is down
7. Supination – rotation of the forearm so that the
palm faces up
8. Eversion – opposite movement of the foot so
that the sole faces in a lateral direction
9. Inversion – movement of the foot so that the
sole faces medially
10. Rotation – movement of a part of the body
around its long axis
11. Circumduction – combination in sequence of
the flexion, extension, abduction, adduction
12. Protraction – to move forward
13. Retraction – to move backward
14. Hyperextension – abnormal, forced extension
of a joint beyond its normal range of motion
M o r a n o ,

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 Actin and Myosin Myofilaments
MUSCULAR SYSTEM Troponin molecules – binding sites for Ca2+; attached
Functions (M2RPC3) at specific intervals along the actin myofilaments
1. Movement of the body.
2. Maintenance of posture. Tropomyosin filaments – cover the attachment sites on
3. Respiration the actin myofilaments; located along the grove bet. the
4. Production of body heat twisted strands of actin myofilaments
5. Communication
6. Constriction of organs and vessels Myosin heads – resemble golf club
7. Contraction of the heart heads; Bind to attachment sites
Bend and straighten
Characteristics of the Skeletal Muscle
Break down ATP
Skeletal Muscle
Constitutes approx.40%of body Sarcomere
weightMuscles are attached to the skeletal  Basic structural and functional unit of skeletal
system muscle
 Also called Striated Muscle; transverse bands
or striations Z disk – network of protein fibers forming an attachment

Major Functional Characteristics of Skeletal Muscle site for actin myofilaments

a) Contractility – ability to shorten with force
b) Excitability – capacity to respond to a stimulus
c) Extensibility – ability to be stretched to their
normal resting length
d) Elasticity – ability to recoil to their original
resting length
Skeletal Muscle Structure
Connective Tissue Coverings of Muscle
Epimysium/Muscular fascia – connective tissue sheath
that surrounds a skeletal muscle
Muscle fasciculi – numerous visible bundles that make
up the muscle
Perimysium – loose connective tissue that surrounds
the muscle fasciculi
Muscle fibers – several muscle cells that composes a
fasciculus
Endomysium – loose connective tissue that surrounds
a muscle fiber
Muscle Fiber Structure
Sarcolemma – cell membrane of the muscle fiber
Transverse tubules (T tubules) – tube-like invaginations
I band – consists of actin myofilaments; spans each Z
disk
A band – darker, central region that extends the length
of the myosin of myofilaments
H zone – second light zone that consists of myosin
myofilaments
a. line – dark-staining bands
The arrangement of the actin and myosin filaments in
sacromeres gives the myofibrils a banded appearance.
The alternating I bands and A bands of the
sacromeres are responsible for the striations in the
skeletal muscle fibers.
Excitability of Muscle Fibers
Resting membrane potential – cell membranes have a
negative charge on the inside relative to a positive
charge outside; occurs bcos there is an uneven
distribution of ions
a. Concentration of K+ inside the cell CM > outside
the CM
b. Concentration of Na+ outside the CM > inside
the CM

w/c occur at regular intervals along the muscle fiber
Sarcoplasmic reticulum – highly organized smooth
E.R.; has a relatively high concentration of Ca 2+ (muscle
contraction)
Sarcoplasm – cytoplasm of a muscle fiber
Myofibrils – threadlike structures composed of:
Actin Myofilaments(thin filaments; purple)
Myosin Myofilaments(thick filaments; green)
Sarcomere – highly ordered, repeating units of actin +
myosin myofilaments; joined end to end to form the
myofibril
Different types of Ion Channels
Nongated/Leak channels –always open
 Chemically gated channels – closed until a
chemical binds them and stimulates them to
open
Depolarization – the inside of the CM membrane comes
more positive than the outside of the cell; Na+ ions move
into cells
Repolarization – the change back to the resting
membrane potential; K+ ions moves out of cells
Action Potentials – the rapid depolarization and
repolarization of the CM; results in muscle contraction

M o r a n o , M .
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Nerve Supply
Motor neurons – specialized nerve cells that stimulate
muscles to contract
Neuromuscular junction – a branch that forms a
junction with a muscle fiber
Synapse – cell-to-cell junction bet. a nerve cell and
another nerve cell/effector cell
Motor unit – a single motor neuron and all the skeletal
muscle fibers it innervates
Presynaptic terminal – enlarged axon terminal
Synaptic cleft – the space bet. the presynaptic terminal
and the muscle fiber membrane
Postsynaptic membrane – the muscle fiber membrane
Synaptic vesicles – presynaptic terminal that contains
small vesicles
Acetylcholine (ACh) – neurotransmitter contained in
the vesicles; a molecule released by a presynaptic nerve
cell that stimulates/inhibits a postsynaptic cell
Acetylcholinesterase – an enzyme that rapidly breaks
down the synaptic cleft bet. the neuron and the muscle
fiber
Muscle Contraction
Sliding filament model – sliding of actin myofilaments
past myosin myofilaments during contraction
Cross-bridges – myosin heads attach to the myosin
attachment sites on the actin myofilaments
Muscle Twitch, Summation, Tetanus, Recruitment
Muscle Twitch – contraction of a muscle fiber in
reponse to a stimulus
a. Lag/Latent Phase – time bet. the application of
a stimulus and the beginning of contraction
b. Contraction Phase – time during which the
muscle contract
c. Relaxation Phase – time during which the
muscle relaxes
Summation – the force of contraction of an individual
muscle fiber is increased by rapidly stimulating them
Tetanus – convulsive tension; a sustained contraction
that occurs when the frequency of stimulus is so rapid
that no relaxation occurs
Caused by Ca+ build up in the myofibrils
Recruitment – the no. of muscle fibers contraction is
increased by the increasing no. of motor units stimulated
+ muscle contracts with more force
Stimulus frequency – no. of times a motor neuron is
stimulated per second
Energy Requirement for Muscle Contraction
Aerobic Respiration – requires O2; breaks down
glucose to produce ATP, CO2, H2O
Anaerobic respiration – doesn’t require O2; breaks
down glucose to yield ATP and lactic acid
Creatine phosphate – high-energy molecule that can
be stored in muscle fibers
Fatigue
 A state of reduced work capacity
Muscular Fatigue – when muscle fibers use ATP faster
than they are produced; when the effectiveness of Ca+
to stimulate actin + myosin is reduced
Physiological contracture – muscles may become
incapable of either contracting or relaxing
Psychological fatigue – involves the CNS; an individual
perceives that continued muscle contraction is
impossible
Type of Muscle Contractions
Isometric contractions – equal distance; length of the
muscle does not change; the amount of tension
increases during the contraction process
Isotonic contraction – equal tension; the amount of
tension produced by the muscle is constant during
contraction; length of the muscle decreases
 Cocentric contractions – isotonic; muscle
tension increases as the muscle shortens
 Eccentric contractions – isotonic; tension is
maintained in a muscle; the opposing resistance
causes the muscle to lengthen
Muscle Tone
 Constant tension produced by body muscles
over long periods of time
 Responsible for keeping the back and legs
straight, the head in an upright position, and the
abdomen from bulging
Slow-Twitch and Fast-Twitch Fibers
Classification of Muscle Fiber
a. Slow Twitch – contains type I myosin; contracts
slowly and resistant to fatigue respiration
b. Fast Twitch
← Type IIa – intermediate speed; more
fatigue resistant than type IIb
← Type IIb – contract 10x faster than type
I
Myglobin – stores oxygen temporarily
Hypertrophy – enlarging of muscle fibers
Satellite cells – undifferentiated cells just below the
endomysium
Smooth and Cardiac Muscle
Autorhythmicity – resulting periodic spontaneous
contraction of smooth muscle
M o r a n o , M .
A .
Intercalated disks – specialized structures that facilitate
action potential conduction bet. cells
Skeletal Muscle Anatomy
General Principles
Tendon – muscle connected to a bone
Aponeuroses – broad, sheet like tendons
Retinaculum – a band of CT that holds down the
tendons at each wrist and ankle
Origin – head; most stationary end of the muscle
Insertion – end of the muscle attached to the bone
undergoing the greatest movement
Belly – part of the muscle bet. the origin & the insertion
Agonist – muscle that accomplishes a certain movement
Antagonist – muscle acting in opposition to an agonist
Synergists – a group of muscles working together to
produce a movement
Prime Mover – muscle that plays the major role in
accomplishing desired movement
Fixators – muscles that hold one bone in place relative
to the body
Nomenclature
← Accdg. To Location – temporalis, frontalis,
pectoralis, brachialis
← Accdg. To Origin and Insertion – sterno
(sternum), cleido (clavicle), mastoid (mastoid process),
brachio (arm), radialis (radius)
← Accdg. To Number of Origin – biceps (2),
triceps, quadriceps
← Accdg. To Function – flexor (flexion)
← Accdg. To Size – maximus (largest), minimus
(smallest), vastus (large)
← Accdg. To Shape – deltoid (triangle), orbicularis
(circular)
← Orientation of Fasciculi – rectus (straight)
I. Muscles of the Head and Neck
Facial Expression
Occipitofrontalis – raises the eyebrows
Orbicularis oculi – encircle the eyes, tightly close the
eyelids, and causes crow’s feet wrinkles
Orbicularis oris – encircles the mouth
Buccinator – kissing muscles; pucker the mouth;
flattens the cheeks I whistling/blowing
Zygomaticus – elevate the upper lip and corner of the
mouth
Levator labile superioris – sneering; elevates one side
of the upper lip
Depressor anguli oris – frowning & pouting; depresses
the corner of the mouth
Mastification (for chewing)
Temporalis – fan- shaped muscle
Masseter – seen & felt on the side of the head
Pterygoid (paired) – protraction, excursion, elevation of
mandible
Tongue and Swallowing Muscles
Intrinsic muscles – located within the tongue and
change its shape
Extrinsic muscles – attached to and move the tongue
Hyoid muscles – hold the hyoid bone; elevate the larynx
Pharyngeal elevators – elevate the pharynx
Pharyngeal constrictors – constrict the pharynx from
superior to inferior (forcing food into the esophagus);
also open the auditory tube
Neck Muscles
Sternocleidomastoid – prime mover of the lateral
muscle group; rotates the head; flexes the neck or
extends the head; prayer muscle
Torticollis – wryneck; injury to the sternocleidomastoid
Deep neck muscles – flexes/extends head and neck
Trapezius – extends and laterally flexes neck
I. Trunk Muscles
Muscles Moving the Vertebral Column
Erector spinae – responsible for keeping the back
straight and the body erect
Deep back muscles – responsible for several
movements of the vertebral column
External intercostal – elevate the ribs during inspiration
Internal intercostal – contract during forced expiration,
depressing the ribs
Diaphragm – major movement produced in the thorax
during quiet breathing
Scalenes – inspiration and rib elevation
Abdominal Wall Muscles
Linea alba – tendinous area of the abdominal wall that
consists of white connective tissue
Rectus abdominis – located on each side of the linea
alba
Tendinous intersections – causes the abdominal wall
of a lean, well -muscled person to appear segmented
M o r a n o , M .
A .
External/Internal abdominal oblique & Transversus
abdominis – flex and rotate the vertebral column or
compress the abdominal contents
Pelvic Floor and Perineal Muscles
Wrist and Finger Movements
Retinaculum – fibrous connective tissue that covers the
flexor & extensor tendons and holds them in place
around the wrist

Pelvic Floor – pelvic diaphragm

Flexor carpi – flex the wrist

Levator ani – muscle that forms the pelvic floor Extensor carpi – extend the wrist

Perineum – associated with the male/female Flexor digitorum – flexor of the digits/fingers
reproductive structures
Extensor digitorum – extension of the fingers
Perineum bulbospongiosus – constricts the urethra;
Intrinsic hand muscles – 19 muscles located within the
erects the penis, clitoris
hand
Perineum ischiocavernosus – compresses the base of
penis/clitoris Interossei – responsible for abduction and adduction of
the fingers
Perineum external anal sphincter – keeps the orifice
of the anal canal closed Tennis elbow – inflammation and pain due to forceful,
repeated contraction of the wrist extensor muscles
1 Upper Limb Muscles
Scapular Movements Palmus longus – tightens palm skin
Attach the scapula to the thorax and move
thescapula IV. Lower Limb Muscles
Acts as fixators to hold the scapula firmly Thigh Movements
inposition when the muscle of the arm Iliopsoas – flexes the hip
contract
Tensor fasciae latae – helps steady the femur on the
Move the scapula into different
positionsTrapezius tibi when a person is standing
Levator
Gluteus maximus – extends the hip; adducts and
scapulaeRhom
boids laterally rottes the thigh; contributes most of the mass
Serratus Gluteus medius – extends the hop when the thigh is
anteriorPector flexed at a 45O angle; common site for injections in the
alis minor buttocks (sciatic nerve lies deep to the g. maximus)
Arm Movements Leg Movements
Pectoralis major – adducts the arm and flexes the Quadriceps femoris – primary extensors of the knee
shoulder; extend the shoulder from a flexed position
Sartorius – tailor’s muscle; longest muscle in the body;
Latissimus dorsi – swimmer’s muscle; medially rotates flexes the hip and knee; rotates the thigh laterally for
and adducts the arm and powerfully extends the sitting cross legged
shoulder
Hamstring muscles – flexing the knee
Rotator cuff muscles – attached the humerus to the
scapula and forms a cuff/cap over the proximal humerus Adductor muscles – adducting the thigh

Ankle and Toe Movements

Deltoid – attaches the humerus to the scapula and
Gastrocnemius & Soleus – form the bulge of the calf
clavicle; major abductor of the upper limb
Calcaneal tendon – Achilles tendon; flexors and are
Forearm Movements
involved in plantar flexion of the foot
Triceps brachii – primary extensor of the elbow
Fibularis muscles – primary everters of the foot; aid in
Biceps brachii & brachialis – primary flexors of the
plantar flexion
elbow
Intrinsic foot muscles – flex, extend, abduct, and
Brachioradialis – posterior forearm muscle; helps flex
adduct the toes
the elbow
Extensor digitorum longus – extends 4 lateral toes,
Supination and Pronation
everts foot
Supinator – supination of the forearm or turning the
flexed forearm so that the palm is up
Pronator – pronation, turning other forearm so that the
palm is down

NervousSystem
Functions (CRIME)
8. Controlling muscles and glands.
9. Receiving sensory input.
10. Integrating information.
11. Maintaining homeostasis.
12. Establishing and maintaining mental activity.
Divisions of the Nervous System
a) Central Nervous System
Brainandspinal cord
a. Peripheral Nervous System
Nervesandganglia
← Sensory Division – afferent (toward)
division; conducts action potentials from
sensory receptors to the CNS
← Sensory neurons – neurons
that transmit action potentials
from the periphery to the CNS
← Somatic Sensory Fibers –
carry info from stimuli coming
from the skin, skeletal,
muscles, joints
← Visceral Sensory Fibers –
transmits impulses coming from
the visceral organs
← Motor Division – efferent (away)
division; conducts action potentials from
the CNS to effector organs
← Motor neurons – neurons
that transmit action potentials
from the CNS toward the
periphery
← Somatic Motor Nervous
System / Voluntary – divides into 2 processes: extends to the
transmits action potentials
form the CNS to the skeletal
muscles
← Autonomic Motor Nervous
System / Involuntary –
transmits action potentials
from the CNS to cardiac,
smooth muscles and glands
← Sympathetic – figth-or-
flight system
← Parasympathetic – fromtoxic substances in the blood; allows exchange of
resting and digesting
system
← Enteric Nervous System –
unique subdivision; both
sensory and motor neurons
contained within the digestive
tract
M o r a n o ,
Cells of the Nervous System
Neurons
 Also called nerve cells
 Receive stimuli, conduct action potentials,
transmit signals
Cell body – contains a single nucleus; source of
information for gene expression n
Dendrites – extensions of the cell body; receive
information from other neurons; transmit the info toward
the neuron cell body
Axon – single long cell process; conduct action
potentials from one part of the brain or spinal cord to
another part
 Axon of sensory neurons – conduct action
potentials towards the CNS
 Axon of motor neurons – conduct action
potentials away from the CNS
Axon hillock – where the axon leaves the neuron cell
body
Nissl bodies – rough ER found in the cell body of a
neuron
Schwann cells – form a myelin sheath (increases speed
of impulse transmission)
Collateral axons – branches of axons
Types of Neurons
d. Multipolar neurons – many dendrites + a single
axon
e. Bipolar neurons – two processes: 1 dendrite +
1 axon
f. Pseudo-unipolar neurons – single process that
periphery + extends to the CNS
Neuroglia
Non-neuronal cells of the CNS +
PNSMore numerous than
neuronsRetain the ability to divide
a. Astrocytes – major supporting cells in the CNS;
stimulate/inhibit the signaling activity of nearby
neurons; help limit damage to neural tissue
Blood brain barrier –protects neurons
waster products + nutrients
b. Ependymal cells – produce cerebrospinal fluid;
help move the cerebrospinal fluid through the CNS
c. Microglia – act as immune cells of the CNS’
protect the brain by removing bacteria and cell
debris
M . A .
4 – 5. Oligodendrocytes (CNS) and Schwann cells Electrical Signals and Neural Pathways
(PNS) – provide an insulating material that surrounds Resting Membrane Potential
axons Polarized cell membrane – uneven distribution of
charge
Neural Signaling
 Communication among neurons Resting membrane potential – uneven charge
distribution in an unstimulated/resting cell; polarized
1. Reception – stimuli received by visual receptors Higher concentration of K+ inside
in the eye CMHigher concentration of Na+ outside
CM
2. Transmission – sensory neurons transmit info to
Greater permeability of CM to K+ than to Na+
CNS
Leak channels – always open
3. Integration – info given is interpreted and an
appropriate response is determined Gated channels – closed until opened by specific signals

4. Transmission – the CNS transmits info to motor Chemically gated channels – opened by
neurons neurotransmitters
5. Actual response – muscle/glands receive info Voltage gated channels – opened by a change in
and instruction from motor neurons membrane potential
Myelin Sheaths Sodium potassium pump – required to maintain the
 Highly specialized insulating layer of cells greater concentration of Na+ outside the CM and K+
Unmyelinated axons – action potentials are conducted inside

slowly bcos in travels along the entire axon Action Potentials

Excitable cells – RMP changes in response to stimuli
Myelinating axons – action potentials are conducted
that activate gated ion channels
rapidly by salutatory conduction
Local current – Na+ diffuses quickly into cell
Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in the myelin sheath; where
ion movement can occur Depolarization – a change that causes the inside of the

Organization of Nervous Tissue CM to become positive

Gray Matter – groups of neuron cell bodies + their Local potential – result of depolarization
dendrites; very little myelin
In the CNS; Threshold value – attainable local potential (critical pt.)
Cortex –GM on the surface of the brainNuclei –
GM located deeper within the Action potential – constitution of depolarization and
brain repolarization
In the PNS;
 Ganglion – a cluster of neuron cell Hyperpolarization – the charge on the CM briefly
bodies becomes more negative than the RMP
White Matter – bundles of parallel axons + myelin All-or-none fashion – threshold is reached = action
sheaths potential occurs; if the threshold is not reached = action
In the CNS potential doesn’t occur
 Nerve tracts – conduction pathways;
Continuous conduction – the action potential is
propagate action potentials from one area of the CNS to
another conducted along the entire axon CM
In the PNS; Saltatory conduction – action potentials jump from one
 Nerves – bundles of axons + connective
tissue sheaths node of Ranbier to the next
The Synapse
Synapse – a junction where the axon of one neuron
interacts with another
Presynaptic terminal – end of the axon

Postsynaptic membrane – membrane of the dendrite

or effector cell
Synaptic cleft – space separating the presynaptic &
postsynaptic membrane

M o r a n o , M . A .
Neurotransmitters – chemical messengers

Synaptic vesicles – where neurotransmitters are stored

Hyperpolarized – the inside of the postsynaptic cell

tends to become more negative

Substance Effect Clinical Example

Acetylcholine Excitatory or Alzheimer disease
inhibitory
Norepinephrine Excitatory Cocaine and
amphetamines
Serotonin Generally Mood, anxiety, and
inhibitory sleep induction
Dopamine Excitatory or Parkinson disease
inhibitory
Gamma- Inhibitory Treatment of
aminobutyric epilepsy
acid
Glycine Inhibitory Poison strychnine
Endorphins Inhibitory Opiates morphine
and heroin
Reflexes
Reflex – an involuntary reaction in response to a
stimulus applied to the periphery and transmitted to the
CNS
Reflex arc – neuronal pathway by which a reflex occurs
Sensory receptor
Sensory neuron
Interneurons
Motor neuron
Effector organ(muscle or glands)
Neuronal Pathways
Converging pathway – two or more neurons synapse
with the same neuron
Diverging pathway – the axon from one neuron divides
and synapses with more than one other neuron
Summation – allows integration of multiple sub
threshold local potentials; brings the membrane
potential to threshold and trigger an action potential
Spatial summation – local potentials originate from diff.
locations on the postsynaptic neuron
Temporal summation – local potentials overlap in time

M o r a n o ,M . A .
 Spinothalamic tract – transmits pain, light touch, and
Spinal cord deep pressure
 Extends from the foramen magnum to the 2nd Dorsal column – transmission of proprioception, touch,
lumbar vertebra
 Provides a two-way conduction pathway to and deep pressure, vibration
from the brain Spinocerebellar tracts – proprioception to cerebellum
Cauda equina – inferior end of the SC; spinal nerves
Descending Tracts
exiting there resemble a horse’s tail
 Pathways that carry impulses from the brain to
2 Main Functions the periphery
A. Transmits info to and from the brain. Lateral corticospinal – muscle tone and skilled
B. Controls many reflex activities of the body.
movements (hand)
White Matter of the SC
Anterior corticospinal – muscle tone and movement of
1. Dorsal (posterior)
2. Ventral (anterior) trunk muscles
3. Lateral Columns Rubrospinal – movement coordination
← Ascending tracts – conduct action
potentials toward the brain
Reticulospinal – posture adjustment
← Descending tracts – conduct action
potentials away from the brain Vestibulospinal – posture & balance
Gray Matter of the SC (shaped like the letter H)
Tectospinal – movement in response to visual reflexes
1. Posterior horns
2. Anterior horns
Cranial Nerves
3. Small lateral horns
 Transmit info to the brain form the sensory
Central canal – fluid filled space in the center of the cord receptors
 12 pairs
Ventral root – formed by ventral rootlets;
Name Specific Function
Dorsal root – formed by dorsal rootlets I. Olfactory S S: smell
II. Optic S S: vision
Dorsal root ganglion – ganglion in a dorsal root M: 4-6 extrinsic eye
III. Oculomotor M muscles; P: constricts
Relfex Action pupils
 Predictable, automatic response to a specific IV. Trochlear M M: 1 extrinsic eye muscle
stimulus S: face + teeth; M: muscles
V. Trigeminal B of mastification
1. Reception of the stimulus.
VI. Abducens M M: 1 extrinsic eye muscle
2. Transmission of info to the CNS. S: taste; M: facial muscles;
3. Integration (interpretation and determination of VII. Facial B P: salivary + tear glands
an appropriate response). Acoustic /
4. Transmission of info from the CNS to a muscle. VIII. Vestibulococh- S S: hearing + balance
5. Actual response. lear
S: taste + touch to back of
Spinal Cord Reflexes
IX. Glossopharyng B tongue; M: pharyngeal
Knee-Jerk Reflex
-eal muscles; P: salivary glands
Stretch flex – simplest reflex; muscles contract in S: pharynx, larynx, viscera;
response to a stretching force applied to them M: palate, pharynx, larynx;
Knee-jerk reflex – patellar reflex; used to determine if X. Vagus B P: viscera of thorax +
the higher CNS centers that normally influence this abdomen
M: 2 neck + upper back
reflex are functional
XI. Accessory M muscles
Withdrawal Reflex XII. Hypoglossal M M: tongue muscles
Withdrawal Reflex – flexor reflex; to remove a limb from
Spinal Nerves
a painful stimulus
 Arise along the spinal cord; contains mixed
Ascending Tracts nerves
 Pathways that carry impulses form the periphery  31 pairs
to various parts of the brain 8Cervical
12Thoracic
5Lumbar

M o r a n o , M . A .
5Sacral Autonomic Nervous System
1Coccygeal  Preganglionic neuron
 Postganglionic neuron
Mixed nerves – contains both sensory and somatic  Maintain internal homeostasis
motor neurons
Autonomic ganglia – where preganglionic neurons
Plexuses – where nerves come together and then synapse with postganglionic neurons
separate
Cervical plexus • Sympathetic ANS
Brachial plexus  ‘Fight-or-flight’
Lumbosacral plexus  Prepares the body for action
 Most active during stressful situations
Cervical Plexus  Norepinephrine (main neurotransmitter)
 Originates from spinal nerves C1 to C4
II. Parasympathetic ANS
Phrenic nerve – most important branc of the CP;  Activities result in conserving and restoring
innervates the diaphragm (responsible for our ability to energy
breathe) Helps return the body to resting
conditionsActive during periods of calm and
Brachial Plexus
restPS fibers are in the vagus nerve
 Originates from the spinal nerves C5 to T1
Autonomic Neurotransmitters
A. Axillary nerve – innervates 2 shoulder muscles Acetylcholine – neurotransmitters of the
+ the skin over part of it parasympathetic division
B. Median nerve – innervates the anterior forearm Norepinephrine – postganglionic neurons of the
and intrinsic muscles sympathetic division
C. Radial nerve – innervates all the muscles in the Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
posterior arm and forearm + skin over the Sympathetic Division
posterior surface of the arm, forearm, hand  Prepares a person for action by increasing HR,
D. Musculocutaneous nerve – innervates the BP, respiration, release of glucose
anterior muscles of the arm + skin over the Parasympathetic Division
radial surface of the forearm  Involuntary activities at rest: digestion of food,
E. Ulnar nerve – innervates most of the anterior defecation, urination
forearm muscles and some of the intrinsic hand Enteric Nervous System
muscles + skin over the radial side of the hand  Consists of plexus within the wall of the digestive
Lumbosacral Plexus tract
 Originates from spinal nerves L1 to S4 1. Sensory neurons – connect the digestive tract
to the CNS
1. Obturator nerve – innervates the muscles of
2. Sympathetic & parasympathetic neurons –
the medial thigh + skin over it connect the CNS to the digestive tract
2. Femoral nerve – innervates the anterior thigh 3. Enteric neurons – located entirely within enteric
plexus
muscles + skin over it & medial side of the leg Capable of monitoring and controllingthe
3. Tibial nerve – innervates the posterior thigh digestive tract independently of the
CNS
muscles, the anterior & posterior leg muscles,
most of the intrinsic foot muscles + skin over the
sole of the foot
4. Common fibular nerve – innervates the
muscles of the lateral thigh & leg, some intrinsic
foot muscles + skin over the anterior & lateral
leg, dorsal surface of the foot
Sciatic nerve – CT sheath that bounds the tibial and
common fibular nerve

M o r a n o , M . A .
 A Epithalamus
Brain  Smallest area superior + posterior to the
 Soft, wrinkled mass of tissue that is highly thalamus
complex and adaptive; 3 pounds  Consists of few small nuclei (emotional and
 25 billion neurons visceral response to odors) + pineal gland
 Requires a continuous supply of oxygen and Pineal gland – an endocrine gland that may influence
glucose
the onset of puberty; role in controlling some long term
1. Brainstem cycles
 Connects the spinal cord to the remainder of the B. Hypothalamus
brain
 Controls the heart rate, blood pressure, and  Most inferior part
breathing  Consists of several small nuclei; maintaining
 Damage can cause death homeostasis
 Control of body temp., hunger, and thirst
A Medulla Oblongata  Sensations such as sexual pleasure, rage, fear,
 Most inferior portion of the brainstem and relaxation
 Important reflex actions like vomiting, sneezing, Important Homeostatic Mechanisms
coughing, swallowing
 Gray matter consists of various nuclei that serve 3. Control center of the ANS.
as vital centers 4. The link bet. the nervous and endocrine
systems.
Cardiac centers –control HR
5. Helps maintain fluid balance.
 Vasomotor centers – regulates BP bu
 Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) –
controlling blood vessel diameter
regulates water excretion by the kidneys
 Respiratory centers – initiates and 4. Regulates body temperature.
regulates breathing 5. Regulates food intake (appetite and satiety
 Pyramids – two prominent enalargements centers).
JJJ. Pons (bridge) 6. Regulates sleep-wake cycles.
7. Influences sexual behavior and emotional
 Relay information bet. the cerebrum and the aspects of sensory input.
cerebellum
 Resembles an arched footbridge Infundibulum – controlling the secretion of hormones
 Regulates respiration, swallowing, sleep from the pituitary gland
1. Midbrain Mammillary bodies – involved in emotional responses
Smallest region of the to odors and in memory
brainstem4 mounds called
thecolliculi 1. Cerebellum
2 inferior; major relay centers for the Second largest part of the brain; 2
auditory nerve pathways in the CNS hemispheresResponsible for coordination of
 2 superior; visual reflexes and receive movements
touch and auditory input  Comparator – a sensing device that compares
data from two sources
3. Reticular Formation  Proprioceptive neurons – innervate joints,
 A group of nuclei scattered throughout the tendons, muscles; provide info about the position of
brainstem body parts
 Regulating cyclical motor functions; respiration,
walking, chewing III. Helps in smooth and coordinated body
 Damage can result in coma movements (comparator function).
 Reticular activating system – plays an JJJ.Maintains muscle tone posture.
important role in arousing and maintaining KKK. Maintain balance and equilibrium
consciousness LLL. Important in learning motor skills.
J. Diencephalon IV. Cerebrum
 Part bet. the brainstem and the cerebrum  Largest and most prominent part of the brain

3. Thalamus 2. Sensory Function – receives info from sensory

 Largest part of the diencephalon receptors and interprets it
 Major relay center for all sensory info (except 3. Motor Function – responsible for all voluntary
smell) to the cerebrum; plays a gating rol movement and some involuntary ones
 Influences mood and registers an uncomfortable 4. Association Function – responsible for all of
perception of pain the intellectual activities of brain
 Interthalamic adhesion – connects the two
large, lateral parts of the thalamus

M o r a n o , M . A .
3. Lobes Right and Left Hemispheres
← Frontal Lobe Right hemisphere – three dimensional or spatial
 Control of voluntary motor functions, motivation, perception, musical ability
aggression, mood, olfactory reception
Left Hemisphere – analytical hemisphere; mathematics
 Primary motor area: consciously move our and speech
skeletal muscles
 Broca’s area – speech center
Memory
 Prefrontal area – reposible for executive Working memory – stores info required for the
functions immediate performance of a task; 7 digit phone no.

Parietal Lobe
5. Short-term memory – last longer; can be retained for a
 General Sensory Area – receives info from the few mins. to a few days
sensory receptors in the skin and joints Long-term memory – stored for only a few minutes or
 Wernicke’s area – sensory speech area
become permanent by consolidation
d. Occipital Lobe
Consolidation – a gradual process involving the
 Receiving and perceiving visual input
 Primary visual area – receives visual info formation of new and stronger synaptic connections
 Visual association area – portion where visual Declarative memory – explicit memory; retains facts
info is integrated and related emotional undertones
J. Temporal Lobe Procedural memory – reflexive memory; development
 Primary auditory area – center for reception of of motor skills
auditory messages
 Auditory association area – where auditory Memory engrams – memory traces; long-term retention
messages are integrated of a thought/idea
 Psychic cortex – abstract thoughts and
judgments Limbic System
 A group of interconnected nuclei involved in
Gyri – folds and convolutions; increase the surface area
memory and regulation of emotion
of the cortex and intervening grooves (sulci)
Hippocampus – formation and retrieval of memories
Sulci – shallow grooves
Amygdala – filter sensory info and evaluates it in terms
Fissures – deep groves
of emotional needs
Longitudinal fissure – divides the cerebrum into left Meninges, Ventricles, and Cerebrospinal Fluid
and right hemispheres Meninges
Cerebral cortex – outermost layer of the cerebrum;  Surround and protect the brain and spinal cord

consists of gray matter 2. Dura mater – most superficial and thickest

Corpus callosum – connects the right and left
hemispheres
Central sulcus – separates the frontal and parietal lobes
Lateral fissure – separates the temporal love from the
rest
Insula – fifth lobe; deep within the fissure
Basal Nuclei
 Group of functionally related nuclei
Corpus striatum – located deep within the cerebrum
Substantia nigra – darkly pigmented cells in the
midbrain
meninges
Epidural space –bet. the dura mater &the
vertebrae
Epidural anesthesia –clinicallyimportant as
the injection site of spinal nerves; given to women during
childbirth
3. Arachnoid mater – thin, wispy, 2nd meningeal
membrane
Subdural space –space bet. the duramater
and the arachnoid mater; contains small amt. of serous
fluid
Spinal block –to inject anesthetic intothe
area
Spinal tap –to take a sample of CSF
4. Pia mater – 3rd meningeal membrane; very
tightly bound to the surface of the brain and
spinal cord; filled with CSF and contains blood
vessels

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 Subarachnoid space – bet. the Aphasia – absent/defective speech/language
arachnoid and pia matter comprehension
Ventricles Brain Waves and Consciousness
 Fluid filled cavities Electroencephalogram (EEG) -
Lateral ventricle – relatively large cavity in each Brain waves – wave like patterns
cerebral hemisphere
Alpha waves – awake but in a quiet, resting state with
Third ventricle – a smaller, midline cavity eyes close
Fourth ventricle – located at the base of the cerebellum Beta waves – occur during intense mental activity

Cerebral aqueduct – a narrow canal that connects the Delta waves – occur during deep sleep in infants and in
rd th
3 and 4 ventricle patients
Cerebrospinal fluid Theta waves – observed in children; also in adults who
 Provides a protective cushion around the CNS are frustrated or have brain disorders
Choroid plexus – produces CSF; specialized structures Effects of Aging on the Nervous System
Motor functions decline
made of ependymal cells
 Mental functions (memory) decline
Arachnoid villi – structures that project from the
arachnoid layer; where blood is reabsorbed
Hydrocephalus – accumulation of CSF in the ventricles

Motor Functions
Involuntary movements – occur without a conscious
thought
Voluntary movements – consciously activated to
achieve a specific goal; walking, typing
Upper motor neurons – have cell bodies in the cerebral
cortex
Lower motor neurons – have cell bodies in the anterior
horn
Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
Primary motor cortex – control voluntary movements of
skeletal muscles
Premotor area – where motor functions are organized
before they are actually initiated in the primary motor
cortex
Pre-frontal area – where planning and initiating
movements occur
Other Brain Functions
Communication bet. the Right & Left Hemispheres
Commissures – connection bet. the two hemispheres
Corpus callosum – largest commissure

Speech
Sensory speech area – Wernicke area; a portion of the
parietal lobe
Motor speech area – Broca area; inferior portion of the
frontal lobe

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 c. Deep/Visceral Pain – diffuse; action potentials

SENSES are propagated more slowly

 Ability to perceive stimuli
Sensation/Perception – conscious awareness of stimuli
received
GENERAL SENSES
 Have receptors distributed over the body
 Senses for touch, pressure, pain, temp.,
vibration, itch, proprioception
13. Somatic Senses – provide sensory info about
the body and the environment
14. Visceral Senses – provide info about various
internal organs (pain & pressure)
Transduction – a receptor absorbs energy from stimulus
Sensory Receptors – sensory nerve endings capable of
responding to stimuli by developing action potentials
b) Mechanoreceptors – mechanical stimuli
c) Chemoreceptors – chemicals (odor molecules)
d) Photoreceptors – light
Local anesthesia – injected near a sensory
receptor/nerve resulting in reduced pain
General anesthesia – loss of consciousness is
produced; affects reticular formation
Gate control theory – inhibits action potentials carried
to the brain by the spinothalamic tract
Referred Pain
 Originate in a region of the body that is not the
source of the pain stimulus
 Clinically useful in diagnosing the actual cause
of the painful stimulus
 Occurs bcos the sensory neurons (from the
superficial area) to which the pain is referred,
and the neurons (from the deeper, visceral area)
where the pain stimulation originates, converge
onto the same ascending neurons in the
spinal cord; thus the brain can’t distinguish
SPECIAL SENSES
Localized to specific parts of the
bodySmell, taste, sight, hearing,
balance

e) Thermoreceptors – temperature changes

OLFACTION
f) Nociceptors – sensation of pain  Sense of smell
 Occurs in response to airborne molecules
g) Free nerve endings – simplest and most
Odorants – airborne molecules
common receptors
Cold receptors –decreasing temp.; Olfactory neurons – bipolar neurons
stopresponding at below 12OC
Warm receptors –increasing temp.; Olfactory epithelium – lines the superior part of the
stopresponding above 47 OC
nasal cavity
h) Touch receptors – structurally more complex;
Neuronal Pathways for Olfaction
enclosed by capsules
 Axons of the olfactory neurons form the
i) Merkel disks – light touch and superficial olfactory nerves, which enter the olfactory
pressure bulb. Olfactory tracts carry action potentials
from the olfactory bulbs to the olfactory cortex
j) Hair follicle receptors – light touch of the brain.

k) Meissner corpuscles – fine, discriminative Olfactory bulb – where olfactory neurons synapse with
touch; localizing tactile sensations interneurons

l) Ruffini corpuscles – continuous pressure in Olfactory tracts – relays action potentials to the brain

skin Olfactory cortex – where each olfactory tract terminates

m) Pacinian corpuscles – deepest receptors; deep
Adaptation – feedback + temporary decreased
pressure, vibration, position
sensitivity
Pain
 Unpleasant perceptual and emotional
experiences
TASTE
Taste buds – detect taste stimuli
b. Superficial Pain – localized; rapidly conducted
Papillae – enlargements on the surfaced of the tongue
action potentials
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Taste cells – 40 specialized epithelial cells Medial rectus –turns eye inward
Oblique muscles – two muscles to the long
Taste hairs – hair-like processes axis; superior and inferior
Superior oblique –rotates
Taste pore – tiny opening in the surrounding stratified
counterclockInferior oblique –rotates
epithelium
clockwise
Taste sensations
Anatomy of the Eye
g. Sour
h. Salty Eyeball – hollow, fluid-filled sphere
i. Bitter Tunics – 3 layered wall of the eye
j. Sweet
k. Umami (savory) Fibrous tunic –sclera + cornea
 Sclera – firm, white, outer connective
Neuronal Pathways for Taste tissue; maintains the shape of the eye
d. Facial Nerve (7) – transmits taste sensations  Cornea – transparent, permits light to
from the anterior of the tongue enter; refracts the entering light; ‘window
of the eye’
e. Glossopharyngeal nerve (9) – carries taste
Vascular tunic – contains most of the blood
sensations from the posterior of the tongue
vessels of the eye
f. Vagus nerve (10) – carries some taste  Choroid – thin structure that consists of
sensations form the root of the tongue melanin containing pigment cells
(causing black appearance); absorbs
g. Gustatory portion of the brainstem nuclei light so that it is not reflected inside
 Ciliary body – responsible for
h. Thalamus accommodation; near objects = CM
contracts + lens become rounder; far
i. Taste area (Insula) objects = CM relaxes + lens become
ovoid

VISION 6.
7.
Ciliary muscles – smooth muscles
Suspensory ligaments – attached
Orbits – bony cavities where the eyes are housed the perimeter of the lens
8. Lens – flexible, biconvex,
Accessory Structures of the Eye transparent disc
 Protect, lubricate, and move the eye o Cataract – opacity of lens
 Iris – colored part of the eye; regulates
Eyebrows – protect the eyes by preventing perspiration diameter of the pupil
from running down C. Pupil – controls the amt. of light
entering the eyes
Eyelids – protect the eyes form foreign objects o Parasympathetic– light intensity
Blinking – occurs about 20 times/min.; keeps increases; pupillary constriction
the eyes lubricated
o Sympathetic – light intensity
Conjunctiva – thin, transparent mucous membrane decreases; pupillary dilation
covering the inner surface of the eyelids; lubricate the
surface of the eye Nervous tunic –innermost tunic
Conjunctivitis – inflammation of the conjunctiva  Retina – covers the posterior 5/6 of the
eye
Lacrimal Apparatus 4. Pigmented retina – keeps light
from reflecting back into the eye
Lacrimal gland –produces tears 5. Sensory retina – contains rods &
 Lacrimal canaliculi – small ducts where cones (photoreceptors) which respond to light
excess tears are collected ← Rods – can function in very dim
 Lacrimal duct – enlargement of light; doesn’t provide color vision
nasolacrimal duct o Rhodopsin – photosensitive
Nasolacrimal duct –opens into the nasal cavity pigment; breaks down into:
Opsin –colorless
Extrinsic Eye Muscles – 6 skeletal muscles that protein
accomplish movement of each eyeball Retinal –
Rectus muscles yellowpigment
Superior rectus –rolls eye
upwardsInferior rectus –rolls eye
downwardLateral rectus –turns eye
outward M o r a n o , M .
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← Night blindness – difficulty
seeing in dims light; caused by vit. A deficiency
6. Cones – require more light;
provide color vision
← Red, Blue, Green – major
types of color sensitive opsin
F. Color blindness – caused
by lack of three cone types
5. Partial color blindness –
lack of one cone type
o Retinal detachment –
separation of sensory retina
from the pigmented retina
Regions of the Retina
• Macula lutea – small, yellow spot near the
center of the posterior retina
Fovea centralis –region of
sharpestvision; where light is most
•
focused
Optic disc – white spot through which a no. of
blood vessels enter the eye;
Blind spot of the eye –contains
nophotoreceptor cells and doesn’t
respond to light
Chambers of the Eye
Anterior chamber
Posterior chamber
Bet. the cornea and lens
 Aqueous humor – watery fluid; helps
maintain pressure within the eye,
refracts light, provides nutrients
Glaucoma –increase in the intraocular
pressure due to blockage of AH flow
Vitreous chamber
Posterior to the lens
 Vitreous humor – transparent, jelly-like
substance; helps maintain pressure
within the eye, holds the lens and retina
in place; does not circulate
Functions of the Eye
4. Light Refraction
Focal point –crossing point
Focusing –causes light to converge
2. Focusing Images on the Retina
 Accommodation – causes greater
refraction of light; enables the eye to
focus on images
Neuronal Pathways for Vision
 Light passes through cornea, through the
aqueous humor, through the lens, through the
vitreous humor, image forms on
photoreceptors in retina, breakdown of
rhodopsin, signals bipolar cells.
 Axons pass though the optic nerves to the
optic chiasm, where some cross. Axons from
the nasal retina cross, and those from the
temporal retina do not.
 Optic tracts from the chiasm lead to the
thalamus.
 Optic radiations extend from the thalamus to
the visual cortex in the occipital lobe.
Optic nerve – leaves the eye and exits the orbit
Optic chiams – where two optic nerves connect
Optic tracts – the route of the ganglionic axons
Optic radiations – formed by neurons from the
thalamus
Visual cortex – where vision is perceived
Visual field – image seen by each eye
HEARING & BALANCE
Anatomy and Function of the Ear
A External Ear – outer part we see
6. Auricle – fleshy part; collects sound
waves & directs them toward the EAC
7. External auditory canal – passageway
that leads to the eardrum
8. Ceruminous glands – lines the
auditory canal
← Cerumen/earwax – modified
sebum; protects the lining of the canal
9. Tympanic membrane/Eardrum – thin
membrane that separates the external from the middle
ear; sound waves causes it to vibrate
B Middle Ear – air filled chamber
5. Oval and Round window – connects
the middle to the inner
6. Auditory Ossicles – amplify vibrations
← Malleus (hammer) – medial surface
of the tympanic m.
← Incus (anvil) – connects malleus to
stapes
← Stapes – its base is seated in the
oval window
7. Auditory/Eustachian tube – enables
pressure to be equalized
C Inner Ear – fluid filled chamber; for sound
waves, balance, equilibrium
5. Bony labyrinth – interconnecting
tunnels and chambers
← Cochlea – hearing
← Vestibule – balance
← Semicircular canal – balance
6. Membranous labyrinth – smaller set of
membranous tunnels and chambers
← Endolymph – clear fluid
7. Perilymph – fluid bet. membranous and
bony labyrinths
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Cochlea Inferior colliculus – where neurons in the cochlear
Contains receptors for nucleus project to the other areas of the brainstem
hearingSnail shell shape Balance
Spiral lamina – threads of the screw (base) Static equilibrium – vestibule; evaluating the position of
head relative to gravity
Scala vestibuli – extends from the oval window to the
Dynamic equilibrium – semi-circular canals; evaluating
apex of the cochlea
changes in the direction and rate of head movements
Scala tympani – extends in parallel with the scala v.
Vestibule
from the apex
Utricle
Vestibular membrane – wall of the ML that lines the Saccule
scala vestibuli
Maculae – specialized patches of epithelium
Basilar membrane – wall of the ML that lines the scala
tympani Otolithic membrane – gelatinous mass

Cochlear duct – space bet. the VM and the BM; filled Otoliths – gravity detectors composed of protein and
with endolymph calcium carbonate
Spiral organ/Organ of Corti – specialized structure; Semicircular canals – involved in dynamic equilibrium;
contains hair cells enables a person to detect movements in any direction
Ampulla –expanded base of each SC
Hair cells – specialized sensory cells; contain microvilli
Crista ampullaris – specialized epithelium
formed within each ampulla
Tectorial membrane – acellular gelatinous shelf
Cupula – curved, gelatinous mass contained in
Cochlear/Spiral ganglion – contains cell bodies of hair each crista
cells Motion sickness – caused by continuous stimulation of
Cochlear nerve – formed by axons of sensory neurons the SC; characterized by nausea & weakness
Neuronal Pathways for Balance
Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN 8) – formed by cochlear
 Axons in the vestibular portion of the
nerve + vestibular nerve vestibulocochlear nerve project to the
Glutamate – neurotransmitter for hearing vestibular nucleus and on to the cerebral
cortex.
Hearing Vestibulocochlear nerve (8) – project to the vestibular
Higher pitches – causes max. distortion of the BM nucleus in the brainstem
Sound volume – function of sound wave amplitude Balance – a complex sensation involving sensory input
Conduction deafness – results from mechanical Effects of Aging on the Senses
deficiencies Presbyopia – lenses’ ability to change shape initially
Sensorineural hearing loss – caused by deficiencies in declines and is eventually lost
the spiral organ/nerves Presbyacusis – age-related sensorineural hearing loss
Neuronal Pathways for Hearing
 Soundwaves enter external auditory meatus,
causing the tympanic membrane to vibrate.
 Malleus, incus, stapes amplify the vibrations,
causing the oval window to vibrate.
 Vibrations are conducted through perilymph,
and transmitted to the endolymph, causing the
basilar membrane to vibrate.
 Hair cells in the organ of Corti are stimulated.
 From the vestibulocochlear nerve, action
potentials travel to the cochlear nucleus and on
the cerebral cortex.
Cochlear nucleus – where the cochlear nerve sends
axons

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