History Last Year

Notebook: Short Notes of Insights Pre Test

Created: 07-01-2020 12:28 PM Updated: 17-01-2020 01:21 PM
Author: Mohit Madan

Table of Contents
ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY
............................................................................................................................ 4
PRE-HISTORY
............................................................................................................................................. 4
PROTO HISTORY
........................................................................................................................................ 5
VEDIC PERIODS
........................................................................................................................................ 12
SHAMAN TRADITIONS
............................................................................................................................. 13
JAINISM
............................................................................................................................................... 13
BUDDHISM
.......................................................................................................................................... 13
OTHER SHAMAN TRADITIONS
............................................................................................................. 19
TERRITORIAL STATES
............................................................................................................................... 21
MAHAJANAPADAS
............................................................................................................................... 21
AGE OF MAURYAS
................................................................................................................................... 23
POST MAURYANS
.................................................................................................................................... 25
SOUTHERN KINGDOMS
........................................................................................................................... 26
SATAVAHANAS
.................................................................................................................................... 26
SANGAM LITERATURE
......................................................................................................................... 27
GUPTA PERIOD
........................................................................................................................................ 29
POST GUPTAS
.......................................................................................................................................... 30
HARSHA AND HIS TIMES
..................................................................................................................... 30
NEW DECCAN STATES
............................................................................................................................. 32
PALLAVAS
............................................................................................................................................ 32
CHALUKYAS
......................................................................................................................................... 32
INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
............................................................................................................................... 33
TRAVELLERS AND OTHER SOCIAL LIFE
.................................................................................................... 36
MEDIEVAL INDIAN HISTORY
........................................................................................................................ 43
BHAKTI MOVEMENT
............................................................................................................................... 43
SOCIAL LIFE AND
DEVELOPMENT............................................................................................................ 44
VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE
.......................................................................................................................... 45
STRUGLE FOR EMPIRE IN NORTH INDIA
................................................................................................. 47
CONSOLIDATION OF MUGHALS
.............................................................................................................. 48
AKBAR
................................................................................................................................................. 51
LIFE AND DEVELOPMENT
........................................................................................................................ 52
MODERN INDIAN
HISTORY.......................................................................................................................... 55
BRITISH EXPANSION AND CONSOLIDATION
........................................................................................... 55
OTHERS
............................................................................................................................................... 55
THE REVOLT OF 1857
.............................................................................................................................. 58
RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL REFORM MOVEMENTS
.................................................................................... 63
THE STRUGGLE BEGINS
........................................................................................................................... 72
PRE-CONGRESS
................................................................................................................................... 72
INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
...................................................................... 73
NATIONAL MOVEMENT 1905-1918
........................................................................................................ 75
MITITANT NATIONALISM
.................................................................................................................... 75
SWADESHI AND BOYCOTT
................................................................................................................... 77
EXTREMIST LEADERSHIP
..................................................................................................................... 80
WORLD WAR 1 and Indian response
.................................................................................................. 86
BRITISH RESPONSE
.............................................................................................................................. 87
NATIONAL MOVEMENT 1919-1939
........................................................................................................ 88
EMERGENCE OF GANDHI
.................................................................................................................... 88
NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT
...................................................................................................... 96
ANTI SIMON MOVEMENT
................................................................................................................... 98
NEHRU REPORT
................................................................................................................................... 98
CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT
.................................................................................................... 100
ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE
............................................................................................................ 104
OTHER EVENTS AND MISC
................................................................................................................ 105
NATIONAL MOVEMENT 1939-INDEPENDENCE
..................................................................................... 112
WORLD WAR 2
.................................................................................................................................. 112
AUGUST OFFER
................................................................................................................................. 114
QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT
................................................................................................................... 116
OTHER EVENTS
.................................................................................................................................. 117
CABINET MISSION
............................................................................................................................. 120
TOWARDS INDEPENDENCE AND PARTITION
.................................................................................... 120
ADMINISTRATIVE CHANGES
.................................................................................................................. 124
CONSTITIONAL
CHANGES.................................................................................................................. 126
GOVERNOR GENERALS AND VICEROYS
............................................................................................. 130
ECONOMIC IMPACT
.............................................................................................................................. 134
DEVELOPMENT OF PRESS
..................................................................................................................... 146
DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION
............................................................................................................ 147
ADMINISTRATIVE POLICY
...................................................................................................................... 154
THE INDIAN STATES
............................................................................................................................... 165
CIVIL REBELLION
.................................................................................................................................... 167
CASTE MOVEMENTS
......................................................................................................................... 167
TRIBAL REVOLT
.................................................................................................................................. 168
PEASANT MOVEMENTS
..................................................................................................................... 171
WORKING CLASS MOVEMENT
.......................................................................................................... 178
Other Movements
............................................................................................................................. 180
PERSONALITIES......................................................................................................................................
181
MISC
..........................................................................................................................................................
195
Post-Independence
................................................................................................................................... 204
World History
............................................................................................................................................ 216
ART AND CULTURE
.................................................................................................................................... 221
LITERATURE
........................................................................................................................................... 221
SCULPTURES
.......................................................................................................................................... 225
ARCHITECTURE
...................................................................................................................................... 227
Music
.....................................................................................................................................................
233
Pain ngs
................................................................................................................................................
233
Dance
....................................................................................................................................................
236
Mar al art forms
................................................................................................................................... 238
Fes vals and Fairs
................................................................................................................................. 238
Ins tu on
.............................................................................................................................................. 242
MISC
......................................................................................................................................................
243

ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY

PRE HISTORY

1.) Beginnings of agriculture :-

Agriculture in the Indian subcontinent began in the Neolithic period

(10000 BCE – somewhere around 4500 BCE or 2000 BCE) when not only
plant based agriculture but also domestication of animals started.
Agro pastoralism in India included threshing, planting crops in rows—either of
two or of six—and storing grain in granaries.
Barley and wheat cultivation—along with the rearing of cattle, sheep and
goat—was visible in Mehrgarh by 8000-6000 BCE.
According to Gangal et al. (2014), there is strong archeological and geographical
evidence that neolithic farming spread from the Near East into north-
west India.
The Neolithic age ended when metal tools became widespread (in the
Copper Age or Bronze Age; or, in some geographical regions, in the Iron Age).
2.) Pre-historic rock art paintings :-

Remnants of rock paintings have been found on the walls of the caves situated
in several districts of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka and Bihar.
Some paintings have been reported from the Kumaon hills in Uttarakhand
also.
The rock shelters on banks of the River Suyal at Lakhudiyar, about twenty
kilometres on the Almora– Barechina road, bear these prehistoric paintings.
Lakhudiyar literally means one lakh caves.
The richest paintings are reported from the Vindhya ranges of Madhya
Pradesh and their Kaimurean extensions into Uttar Pradesh.
These hill ranges are full of Palaeolithic and Mesolithic remains, and they
are also full of forests, wild plants, fruits, streams and creeks, thus a perfect
place for Stone Age people to live.
Among these the largest and most spectacular rock-shelter is located in the
Vindhya hills at Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh.
Bhimbetka is located south of Bhopal, in an area of ten square kilometres,
having about eight hundred rock shelters, five hundred of which bear
paintings.

PROTO HISTORY

3.) Harappan culture :-

Harappan cultures (early, mature and late) shared certain common elements
including subsistence strategies.
The Harappans ate a wide range of plant and animal products,
including fish.
Archaeologists have been able to reconstruct dietary practices from finds of
charred grains and seeds. These are studied by archaeo-botanists, who are
specialists in ancient plant remains.
Grains found at Harappan sites include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea and
sesame.
Millets are found from sites in Gujarat.
Finds of rice are relatively rare.
Animal bones found at Harappan sites include those of cattle, sheep, goat,
buffalo and pig.
Studies done by archaeo-zoologists or zooarchaeologists indicate that these
animals were domesticated.
Bones of wild species such as boar, deer and gharial are also found. We do
not know whether the Harappans hunted these animals themselves or obtained
meat from other hunting communities. Bones of fish and fowl are also found.

4.) Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture :-

Located in northeast Rajasthan, the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura complex was an early
centre of agriculture and copper metallurgy in the subcontinent. More than
eighty sites of this culture have been identified in the Sikar, Jaipur and
Jhunjhunu districts, with the largest concentration being in Sikar.

It is possible that the inhabitants of Khetri (GJs) region supplied copper to

the Harappans.
Among the earliest chalcolithic cultures in India, the Ahar or Banas culture
was discovered in the Mewar region of southeast Rajasthan.
 Nearly one hundred sites of the culture have been located along its principal
axis, i.e., the valleys of river Banas and its tributaries and subtributaries in
Banswara, Udaipur etc.
The technology at Ahar was based mainly on copper and very few
microblades and microliths have been discovered.

5.) Harappan civilization:-

The figure shown below is considered one of most distinctive artefact of the
Harappan or Indus valley civilisation.
Made of a stone called "steatite", seals like this one often contain animal
motifs and signs from a script that remains undeciphered.
Yet we know a great deal about the lives of the people who lived in the region
from what they left behind – their houses, pots, ornaments, tools and
seals – in other words, from archaeological evidence.

Drainage systems were not unique to the larger cities, but were found
in smaller settlements as well.
At Lothal for example, while houses were built of mud bricks, drains
were made of burnt bricks.
About the drains, Ernest Mackay noted: “It is certainly the most complete
ancient system as yet discovered.” Every house was connected to the street
drains.
The main channels were made of bricks set in mortar and were covered with
loose bricks that could be removed for cleaning. In some cases, limestone was
used for the covers.
6.) The ‘Mature’ Harappan culture :-
The Indus valley civilisation is also called the Harappan culture.
Named after Harappa, the first site where this unique culture was
discovered, the civilisation is dated between c. 2600 and 1900 BCE.
There were earlier and later cultures, often called Early Harappan and Late
Harappan, in the same area.
The Harappan civilisation is sometimes called the Mature Harappan culture to
distinguish it from these cultures.
Archaeologists use the term “culture” for a group of objects, distinctive in style, that
are usually found together within a specific geographical area and period of time.
In the case of the Harappan culture, these distinctive objects include seals, beads,
weights, stone blades and even baked bricks.

7.) Easternmost Harappan site :-

The Eastern most Harappan site amongst the following is Rakhigarhi .

The Western most Harappan site amongst the following is Sutkagendor.
The Northern most Harappan site amongst the following is ( ).
 The Southern most Harappan site amongst the following is Nageshwar.

8.) Harappans procured materials :-

The Harappans procured materials for craft production in various ways.

For instance, they established settlements such as Nageshwar and Balakot in
areas where "shell" was available.
Other such sites were Shortughai, in far-off Afghanistan, near the best source
of "lapis lazuli", a blue stone that was apparently very highly valued, and
Lothal which was near sources of "carnelian" (from Bharuch in Gujarat),
"steatite" (from south Rajasthan and north Gujarat) and "metal" (from
Rajasthan).
Another strategy for procuring raw materials may have been to send
expeditions to areas such as the Khetri region of Rajasthan (for copper) and
south India (for gold). These expeditions established communication with local
communities. Occasional finds of Harappan artefacts such as steatite micro
beads in these areas are indications of such contact.
There is evidence in the Khetri area for what archaeologists call the
Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture, with its distinctive non-Harappan
pottery and an unusual wealth of copper objects. It is possible that the
inhabitants of this region supplied copper to the Harappans.

Lothal: Carnelian
Nageshwar & Balakot : Shell
Shortughai: Lapis Lazuli
Khetri: Copper

9.) Weights, stone blades and baked bricks :-

At its peak, the Indus Civilisation may have had a population of over five
million.
 Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley developed new techniques in
handicraft (carnelian products, seal carving) and metallurgy (copper,
bronze, lead, and tin).
The Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses,
elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, and clusters of
large non-residential buildings.
The objects from Indus Valley Civilization were found from areas as far apart as
Afghanistan, Jammu, Baluchistan (Pakistan) and Gujarat.
Various sculptures, seals, bronze vessels pottery, gold jewellery, and
anatomically detailed figurines in terracotta, bronze, and steatite have also
been found at excavation sites.
The Harappans made various toys and games, among them cubical dice (with
one to six holes on the faces), which were found in sites like Mohenjo-
Daro.

Finally, several coastal settlements like Sotkagen-dor (astride Dasht River,

north of Jiwani), Sokhta Koh (astride Shadi River, north of Pasni), and Balakot
(near Sonmiani) in Pakistan along with Lothal in western India, testify to their role
as Harappan trading outposts.

10.) Indus Valley civilization :-

Ahar culture :-

It is a Chalcolithic archaeological culture of southeastern Rajasthan state in

India, lasting from c. 3000 to 1500 BCE, contemporary and adjacent to the
Indus Valley Civilization.
Situated along the Banas and Berach Rivers, as well as the Ahar River, the
Ahar-Banas people were exploiting the copper ores of the Aravalli
Range to make axes and other artefacts.
Malwa culture :-

The Ahar culture phase was followed by the Malwa culture.

Navdatoli (west Nimar district), on the southern banks of the
Narmada, is the largest settlement of this culture.
Calibrated dates for the beginning of the settlement are in the range of 2000—
1750 BCE.
Malwa ware is exceptionally rich in forms and designs.
A lot of stone artefacts, as compared to copper, were found at this culture’s site
indicating that there might have been a shortage of copper.

VEDIC PERIODS

11.) Aranyakas :-

Aranyakas are generally the concluding portions of the several

Brahmanas, but on account of their distinct character, contents and language
deserve to be reckoned as a distinct category of literature.
They are partly included in the Brahmanas themselves, but partly they are
recognized as independent works.
Aranyaka literature is rather small as compared to the Brahmanas. Whereas the
Brahmanas deal with the huge bulk of sacrificial paraphernalia which
represents Karma-Kanda, the Aranyakas and Upanishads, on the other hand,
chiefly deal with the philosophical and theosophical speculations
which represent Jnana-Kanda.
The term Aranyaka is derived from the word 'Aranya' meaning 'forest'.
The Aranyaka texts are so-called because 'they were works to be read in
the forest' in contradistinction to the regular Brahmanas, which were to
 be read in the village.
· This is because "Yajna" and other rituals are prescribed only for those who
live in homes and lead the life of house-holders. But it has to be understood that
Vedic rituals
are intended to confer not only material benefits but also mental purity by
constant discipline. Having obtained purity, one must seek the solitude of
forests for further concentration and meditation.
· Aranyakas containing explanations of the rituals and allegorical speculations
meant for Vanprasthas, who renounce family life residing in the forests for
tapas and other religious activities.
Aranayakas have been written for Rigvedal; Samaveda; Shukla
Yajurveda; and Krishna Yajurveda only.
There is no Aranyaka which belongs to the Atharvaveda.

SHAMAN TRADITIONS
JAINISM

12.) Ideas in Jainism :-

The most important idea in Jainism is that the entire world is animated:
even stones, rocks and water have life.
Non-injury to living beings, especially to humans, animals, plants and insects,
is central to Jaina philosophy.
According to Jaina teachings, the cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped
through karma.
Asceticism and penance are required to free oneself from the cycle of
karma. This can be achieved only by renouncing the world.

BUDDHISM
13.)
"Lotus", "Heart" and "Diamond" are kind of nick names ascribed much later to
the core Mahayana texts in Buddhism.
Saddharma Pundarika Sutra (Lotus Sutra) –

This sutrā was written by a number of Indian philosophers over hundreds of

years, and led to the gradual formation of Mahāyāna Buddhism over
that period.
It is one of the most popular and influential Mahayana sutras.
According to Paul Williams, "For many East Asian Buddhists since early
times the Lotus Sutra contains the final teaching of the Buddha,
complete and sufficient for salvation.

The Heart Sūtra -

It is a popular sutra in Mahāyāna Buddhism.

Its Sanskrit title, Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya, can be translated as "The Heart of
the Perfection of Wisdom".
The Heart Sūtra is often cited as the best-known and most popular
Buddhist scripture.
It is especially popular in East Asia and is highly respected by Tibetan
Buddhism.

Diamond Sutra -
 Translated into a variety of languages over a broad geographic range, the
Diamond Sutra is one of the most influential Mahayana sutras in
East Asia, and is particularly prominent within the Chan (or Zen) tradition
The title relies on the power of the vajra (diamond or thunderbolt, but also
an abstract term for a powerful weapon) to cut things as a metaphor for the type
of wisdom that cuts and shatters illusions to get to ultimate reality.

NOTE : There is no sutra in Buddhism called as Wheel sutra.

14.) Arhatship :-

The five ascetics who received the Buddha’s first teaching after his
enlightenment, and who requested permission to "go forth" as ordained
followers, became the first members of the Sangha.
Thus, the nucleus of the Buddhist monastic community was initially comprised
of men who had already withdrawn from society and had been living for years
as wandering mendicants.
After "Kondanna" was ordained, thus becoming the first member of the
monastic Sangha, the Buddha gave more extensive explanations of his
teachings to the Other four ascetics, so that, one by one, they attained the
Dhamma-eye and were then ordained.
Kondanna was also the first one to attain arhatship.
Later the Buddha gave his second sermon, at which his disciples all attained the
full experience of Nirvana — as he himself had done at his awakening — so as to
become Arhat.
Other disciples, monastic and lay, followed, so that soon there were sixty-one
Arahats, including the Buddha. Having such a body of awakened monk-
disciples, the Buddha sent them out on a mission to spread the Dhamma.

15.) Doctrine of Anatta :-

Anatta, (Pali: “non-self” or “substanceless”) Sanskrit anatman, in

Buddhism, the doctrine that there is in humans no permanent,
underlying substance that can be called the soul.
Instead, the individual is compounded of five factors (Pali khandha;
Sanskrit skandha) that are constantly changing.
Buddhism does not totally deny the existence of a personality in an empirical
sense.
It only attempts to show that it does not exist in an ultimate sense. The
Buddhist philosophical term for an individual is santana, i.e., a flux or a
continuity.
It includes the mental and physical elements as well.
The kammic force of each individual binds the elements together. This
uninterrupted flux or continuity of psycho-physical phenomenon, which is
conditioned by kamma, and not limited only to the present life, but having its
source in the beginningless past and its continuation in the future — is the
Buddhist substitute for the permanent ego or the immortal soul of other
religions.
The concept of anatta, or anatman, is a departure from the Hindu belief in
atman (“the self”). The absence of a self, anicca (the impermanence of
all being), and dukkha (“suffering”) are the three characteristics of all
existence (ti-lakkhana).
Recognition of these three doctrines—(anatta, anicca, and dukkha)—
constitutes “right understanding.”

16.) Padmasambhava :-
Padmasambhava introduced the people of Tibet to the practice of Tantric
Buddhism.

He is regarded as the founder of the Nyingma tradition.

The Nyingma tradition is the oldest of the four major schools of Tibetan
Buddhism.
The Nyingma tradition actually comprises several distinct lineages that all trace
their origins to Padmasambhava.
The group particularly believes in hidden terma treasures. Traditionally,
Nyingmapa practice was advanced orally among a loose network of
lay practitioners.
Monasteries with celibate monks and nuns, along with the practice of
reincarnated spiritual leaders are later adaptations, though
Padmasambhava is regarded as the founder of "Samye Gompa", the
first monastery in the country.
In modern times the Nyingma lineage has been centered in Kham in eastern
Tibet.

17.) Mahapajapati Gotami :-

Mahapajapati Gotami was the step-mother and maternal aunt (mother's

sister) of the Buddha.
In Buddhist tradition, she was the first woman to seek ordination for
women, which she did from Gautama Buddha directly, and she became
the first bhikkhuni (Buddhist nun).
When King Suddhodhana, died, Mahapajapati Gotami decided to attain
ordination. Mahapajapati Gotami went to the Buddha and asked to be ordained
into the Sangha. The Buddha refused initially but later agreed on the condition
that women nuns must follow the "Eight Gurudhammas" or conditions laid
down by him to be a part of the sangha.
Gotami agreed to accept the Eight Garudhammas and was accorded the status
of the first bhikkhuni. Subsequent women had to undergo full ordination to
become nuns.

18.) Anguttara Nikaya :-

The Buddhist literature Anguttara Nikaya gives a list of sixteen great kingdoms called
‘Sixteen Mahajanapadas’.
Around sixth century BC, the territories of sixteen Mahajanapadas got clearly marked.

These included "Kasi", "Kosala", "Anga", "Magadha", "Vajji" or "Vriji",

"Malla", "Chedi or Cheti", "Vamsa or Vatsa", "Kuru", "Panchala",
"Machcha or Matsya", "Surasena", "Assaka or Ashmaka" , "Avanti",
"Gandhara" & "Kamboja".
The names of at least 9 among them are given in the Vedic Literature.
Panini in the 4th century BC mentions as many as 22 different Janpadas, but
also mentions 3 most important viz. Magadha, Kosala and Vatsa.
The rise of Janpadas is mainly attributed to the establishment of settled
agriculture communities.
The development of an agriculture based economy led to increase in crops
and cattle wealth coupled with use of iron in technology.
In course of time, the small and weak kingdoms either submitted to the
stronger rulers or gradually got eliminated. Finally in the mid 6th century B.C.,
only four kingdoms – Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and Magadha survived.

19.)
Buddhism is the dominant religion in terms of majority of population practicing it in
South Asian countries Bhutan and Sri Lanka.
Nepal is a Hindu majority country. According to the 2011 census, 81.3% of the
Nepalese population was Hindu, 9.0% was Buddhist, 4.4% was Muslim, 3.0%
was Kiratist (indigenous ethnic religion), 1.4% was Christian, 0.2% was Sikhs, 0.1%
was Jains and 0.6% follow other religions or no religion.
Religion in Bhutan:
· Buddhism (74.7%)
· Hinduism (22.6%)
· Bon and other indigenous faith (1.9%)
· Christianity (0.5%)
· Islam (0.2%)
· Other or none (2%)
It is estimated that between two-thirds and three-quarters of the Bhutanese
population follow "Vajrayana Buddhism", which is also the state religion.
In Sri Lanka, According to the 2012 census Buddhists make up 70.1% of the
population, Hindus 12.6%, Muslims 9.7% and Christians 7.6%. Most Sinhalese are
Buddhist; most Tamils are Hindu; and the Moors and Malays are mostly Muslim.

20.) Three routes to enlightenment :-

Mahayana, Hinayana and Vajrayana

"Vajrayana" subscribes to Buddhist tantric literature.
Vajrayana can also be seen as the third of the three turnings of the wheel of
dharma.
· In the first turning Shakyamuni Buddha taught the Four Noble Truths
at Varanasi.
· The Mahayana tradition claims that there was a second turning in which the
Perfection of Wisdom sutras were taught at Vulture Peak, which led to the
Mahayana schools.
· According to the Vajrayana tradition, there was a third turning which took
place at Dhanyakataka sixteen years after the Buddha's enlightenment.
· However, some scholars assert that the first tantric (Vajrayana Buddhist)
texts appeared only in the 3rd century CE, and they continued to appear until
the 12th century.
In the Vajrayana the practitioner takes his or her innate Buddha-nature as the
means of practice towards enlightenment. The premise is that since we innately
have an enlightened mind, practicing seeing the world in terms of ultimate
truth can help us to attain our full Buddha-nature

OTHER SHAMAN TRADITIONS

21.)
Purana Kassapa :-

taught that there is no virtue or sin, no merit or demerit, whatever

one does.
There is thus no such thing as moral Makkhali Gosala taught a sort of fatalism.
Rebirth occurs again and again through 'destiny, chance, and nature' and
nothing we can do will make any difference.
We have no control over any of it, and eventually liberation will come when it
will come.

Makkhali Gosala :-

was an important founder of the rival religion of the Ajivikas, which

continued for many centuries in Ajita Kesakambali taught what appears to
 be a form of materialism, that there is no future life for us let alone
repeated rebirth.
Mankind is formed of earth, water, fire, and air, which return to their elements
after death.
There is no merit in good deeds (good karman) or demerit in wicked
ones.
Pakudha Kaccayana :-

held the view that earth, water, fire, air, joy, sorrow, and life are stable
and unproductive, independent primordial substances.
He seems to have drawn the conclusion from this that killing (presumably in
terms of moral responsibility) is impossible, since a sword would simply pass
between these primordial substances.

22.) Lokayatas and Ajivikas :-

Fatalists or Ajivikas were those who believe that everything is

predetermined.
Fatalists argue that the wise and the fool cannot come out of karma. It
can neither be lessened nor increased. So fool and wise alike will take their
course and make an end of sorrow. This is because the Universe operates on
certain fundamental laws, and the human being is no exception to those
laws.
Materialists or Lokayatas were those who believe that everything is
not predetermined.
Materialists say that a human being is made up of the four elements.
When he dies the earthy in him returns to the earth, the fluid to water, the
heat to fire, the windy to air, and his senses pass into space. The talk
of gifts is a doctrine of fools, an empty lie. Fools and wise alike are cut off and
perish. They do not survive after death.

TERRITORIAL STATES
MAHAJANAPADAS

23.) Magadha Mahajanpada :-

Initially, Rajagaha (the Prakrit name for present day Rajgir in Bihar) was the
capital of Magadha.
Later, in the fourth century BCE, the capital was shifted to Pataliputra,
present-day Patna, commanding routes of communication along the Ganga.
Between the sixth and the fourth centuries BCE, Magadha (in present-day Bihar)
became the most powerful mahajanapada.
Modern historians explain this development in a variety of ways:

Magadha was a region where agriculture was especially productive.

Besides, iron mines (in present-day Jharkhand) were accessible and provided
resources for tools and weapons.
Elephants, an important component of the army, were found in forests in the
region. Also, the Ganga and its tributaries provided a means of cheap and
convenient communication.
However, early Buddhist and Jaina writers who wrote about Magadha attributed its
power to the policies of individuals: ruthlessly ambitious kings of whom Bimbisara,
Ajatasattu and Mahapadma Nanda are the best known, and their ministers, who
helped implement their policies.
24.) Mahajanpada :-

The sixth century BCE is often regarded as a major turning point in early
Indian history. It is an era associated with early states, cities, the growing use
of iron, the development of coinage, etc.
It also witnessed the growth of diverse systems of thought, including Buddhism
and Jainism.
Early "Buddhist" and "Jaina" texts mention, amongst other things,
sixteen states known as mahajanapadas.
Although the lists vary, some names such as Vajji, Magadha, Koshala,
Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara and Avanti occur frequently. Clearly, these
were amongst the most important mahajanapadas.
While most mahajanapadas were ruled by kings, some, known as "ganas or
sanghas", were oligarchies, where power was shared by a number of
men, often collectively called rajas.
Both "Mahavira" and the "Buddha" belonged to such ganas.
In some instances, as in the case of the Vajji sangha, the rajas probably
controlled resources such as land collectively. Although their histories are often
difficult to reconstruct due to the lack of sources, some of these states lasted for
nearly a thousand years.
Each mahajanapada had a capital city, which was often fortified.
Maintaining these fortified cities as well as providing for incipient armies and
bureaucracies required resources.

25.) The sixth century BCE :-

It is an era associated with early states, cities, the growing use of iron(Silver
was being used since Harappan times), the development of coinage, etc.
It also witnessed the growth of diverse systems of thought, including Buddhism
and Jainism.
Early Buddhist and Jaina texts mention, amongst other things, sixteen states
known as mahajanapadas.
While most mahajanapadas were ruled by kings, some, known as ganas or
sanghas, were oligarchies, where power was shared by a number of men, often
collectively called rajas.
Both Mahavira and the Buddha belonged to such ganas.
In some instances, as in the case of the Vajji sangha, the rajas probably
controlled resources such as land collectively.

AGE OF MAURYAS

26.) "Rummindei", "Sanchi", "Sarnath" and "Sahasram" :-

They contain Ashokan pillar inscriptions.

Asoka was the first ruler who inscribed his messages to his subjects and
officials on stone surfaces – natural rocks as well as polished pillars.
He used the inscriptions to proclaim what he understood to be dhamma. This
included respect towards elders, generosity towards Brahmanas and those who
renounced worldly life, treating slaves and servants kindly, and respect for
religions and traditions other than one’s own.
27.) Dhamma mahamattas :-

Ashoka tried to hold his empire together by propagating dhamma, the

principles of which, as we have seen, were simple and virtually universally
applicable.
This, according to him, would ensure the well-being of people in this world and
the next.
Special officers, known as the dhamma mahamatta, were appointed to
spread the message of dhamma.
Dhamma Policy included included respect towards elders, generosity
towards Brahmanas and those who renounced worldly life, treating
slaves and servants kindly, and respect for religions and traditions other than
one’s own.
However, they gradually developed into a type of priesthood of Dhamma with
great powers and soon began to interfere in politics.

POST MAURYANS

28.)
Ardhanarishvara :-
 The Ardhanarishvara is a composite androgynous form of the Hindu deities
Shiva and Parvati (the latter being known as Devi, Shakti and Uma in this
icon).
Ardhanarishvara is depicted as half-male and half-female, equally split down
the middle.
The right half is usually the male Shiva, illustrating his traditional attributes.
The earliest Ardhanarishvara images are dated to the Kushan period,
starting from the first century CE.
Its iconography evolved and was perfected in the Gupta era.
The Puranas and various iconographic treatises write about the mythology and
iconography of Ardhanarishvara.
Ardhanarishvara remains a popular iconographic form found in most Shiva
temples throughout India, though very few temples are dedicated to this deity.

Kalyanasundara :-

Kalyanasundara (literally "beautiful marriage"), also spelt as Kalyansundar and

Kalyana Sundara, and known as Kalyanasundara-murti ("icon of the beautiful
marriage"), Vaivahika-murti ("nuptial icon") and Panigrahana-murti ("icon
related to panigrahana ritual"), is the iconographical depiction of the
wedding of the Hindu deities Shiva and Parvati.
The couple are often depicted performing the panigrahana ("accepting the
hand") ritual of a Hindu wedding, where the groom accepts the bride by taking
her right hand in his.
The Kalyanasundara icon is not the object of popular worship and is usually
used only in the celebrations of the divine marriage in annual temple festivals.
However, Kalyanasundara scenes are found across India in caves,
sculptures and on temple walls.
Though Kalyanasundara icons are found across India in caves, sculptures and
temple walls, no sect is centred on their worship. The icon is a popular feature
on temple gopurams (temple towers).

SOUTHERN KINGDOMS
SATAVAHANAS

29.) Satavahanas :-

The Satavahanas started the practice of granting tax-free villages to

brahmanas and Buddhist monks.
The cultivated fields and villages granted to them were declared free from
molestation by royal policemen and soldiers, and all kinds of royal
officers.
These areas therefore became small independent islands within the
Satavahana kingdom.
Possibly the Buddhist monks also preached peace and rules of good conduct
among the people they lived with, and taught them to respect political authority
and social order.
The military character of the Satavahana rule is evident from the common use
of such terms as kataka and skandhavaras in their inscriptions.
These were military camps and settlements which served as administrative
centres so long as the king was there.
Thus coercion played an important part in the Satavahana administration.

SANGAM LITERATURE

30.) Sangam texts :-

 There was a growing differentiation amongst people engaged in agriculture
were based on differential access to land, labour and some of the new
technologies.
Early Sangam texts mention different categories of people engaged in
agriculture were based on differential access to land, labour and some
of the new technologies.
In south India people who were divided into three groups–
"large landowners or vellalar", "ploughmen or uzhavar" and
"slaves or adimai".
In the country side of Northern India people were divided into three
groups - landless agricultural labourers, small peasants, as well as large
landholders.
The term "gahapati" was often used in Pali texts to designate the second
and third categories.

31.) Masattuvan (Rich Merchant) :-

From the sixth century BCE, land and river routes criss-crossed the
subcontinent and extended in various directions – overland into Central Asia
and beyond, and overseas, from ports that dotted the coastline – extending
across the Arabian Sea to East and North Africa and West Asia, and through the
Bay of Bengal to Southeast Asia and China.
Rulers often attempted to control these routes, possibly by offering protection
for a price. Those who traversed these routes included peddlers who probably
travelled on foot and merchants who travelled with caravans of bullock carts
and pack-animals. Also, there were seafarers, whose ventures were risky but
highly profitable.
Successful merchants, designated as "masattuvan" in Tamil and "setthis
and satthavahas" in Prakrit, could become enormously rich. A wide range of
goods were carried from one place to another – salt, grain, cloth, metal ores and
finished products, stone, timber, medicinal plants, to name a few.
Spices, especially pepper, were in high demand in the Roman Empire, as were
textiles and medicinal plants, and these were all transported across the Arabian
Sea to the Mediterranean.

32.) Yavanas :-

In some Sanskrit sources, the usage of the words "Yona", "Yauna", "Yonaka",
"Yavana" or "Javana" etc. appears repeatedly, and particularly in relation to the
Greek kingdoms which neighbored or sometimes occupied the Punjab region
over a period of several centuries from the 4th century BCE to the first century
CE.
Examples are the Seleucid Empire, the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and
the Indo-Greek Kingdom.
The Yavanas are mentioned in detail in Sangam literature epics such as
Pattinappalai, describing their brisk trade with the Early Cholas in the
Sangam period.

33.) ‘Yeru thazhuvuthal’ :-

In the ancient Sangam literature the sport has been called as ‘Yeru
thazhuvuthal’.
Jallikattu is a bull taming or bull vaulting sport played in Tamil Nadu on Mattu
Pongal day as a part of Pongal celebrations i.e. harvest festival.
It is one of the oldest living ancient traditions practiced in the modern era.
 Jallikattu has been derived from the words ‘calli’ (coins) and ‘kattu’ (tie),
which means a bundle of coins is tied to the bull’s horns.
It was called as ‘Yeru thazhuvuthal’ (means to embrace bulls). In older
times Jallikattu was popular amongst warriors during the Tamil classical
period.
The Supreme Court had banned Jallikattu in 2014 and held that bulls could not
be used as performing animals.
It completely banned use of bulls for Jallikattu events or bullock-cart races
across the country.
The ban was imposed by SC as it violated provisions of The Prevention of
Cruelty to Animals Act (PCAA), 1960; fundamental duty Article 51A (g):
compassion towards animal; Article 21 (Right to Life), which prohibits any
disturbance to the environment, including animals as it is considered essential
for human life.

GUPTA PERIOD

34.) Prashastis :-
Histories of the Gupta rulers have sometimes been reconstructed from Prashastis.
For the ancient Indian kings, one means of claiming high status was to identify
with a variety of deities.
This strategy is best exemplified by the Kushanas (c. first century BCE-first
century CE), who ruled over a vast kingdom extending from Central Asia to
northwest India. Their history has been reconstructed from inscriptions and
textual traditions. The notions of kingship they wished to project are perhaps
best evidenced in their coins and sculpture.
Colossal statues of Kushana rulers have been found installed in a shrine at
Mat near Mathura (Uttar Pradesh). Similar statues have been found in a shrine
in Afghanistan as well.
Some historians feel this indicates that the Kushanas considered themselves
godlike. Many Kushana rulers also adopted the title devaputra, or “son of god”,
possibly inspired by Chinese rulers who called themselves sons of heaven.
By the fourth century there is evidence of larger states, including the Gupta
Empire. Many of these depended on samantas, men who maintained
themselves through local resources including control over land. They offered
homage and provided military support to rulers. Powerful samantas could
become kings: conversely, weak rulers might find themselves being reduced to
positions of subordination.
Histories of the Gupta rulers have been reconstructed from literature, coins and
inscriptions, including prashastis, composed in praise of kings in particular,
and patrons in general, by poets. While historians often attempt to draw factual
information from such compositions, those who composed and read them often
treasured them as works of poetry rather than as accounts that were literally
true.
The Prayaga Prashasti (also known as the Allahabad Pillar Inscription)
composed in Sanskrit by Harishena, the court poet of Samudragupta,
arguably the most powerful of the Gupta rulers (c. fourth century CE), is a
case in point.

POST GUPTAS
HARSHA AND HIS TIMES

35.) Xuan Zang Memorial Hall :-

Buddhism largely disappeared from most of India with the Muslim conquest in
the Indian subcontinent, surviving in the Himalayan regions and south
 India.
In India, Xuanzang visited all the sacred sites connected with the life of the
Buddha, and he journeyed along the east and west coasts of the subcontinent.
He translated the scriptures of Buddhism from Sanskrit into Chinese
and provided a record of his travels in Central Asia and India, which, has been
of inestimable value to historians and archaeologists in discovering Buddhism
in India.
The Government of India received the relics of Ven. Xuanzang along with
an endowment for the construction of the Xuanzang Memorial Hall and some
Chinese Buddhist texts, from the Chinese Government in Nava Nalanda
Mahavihara, Nalanda.

36.) Harshacharita :-

The chief sources for tracing the history of Harsha and his times are the
Harshacharita written by Bana and the Travel accounts of Hiuen Tsang.
Bana was the court poet of Harsha.
Besides these two sources, the dramas written by Harsha, namely
"Ratnavali", "Nagananda" and "Priyardarsika" also provide useful
information.
The "Banskhera" inscription contains the signature of Harsha.

NEW DECCAN STATES

PALLAVAS

37.) Vichitrachitta :-

The Pallava kings, who succeeded the Chalukya kings in parts of South
India, were great patrons of arts.
Mahendravarma I who ruled in the seventh century was responsible for
building temples at "Panamalai", "Mandagapattu" and
"Kanchipuram".
The inscription at Mandagapattu mentions Mahendravarman I with
numerous titles such as
Vichitrachitta (curious-minded), Chitrakarapuli (tiger among artists),
Chaityakari (temple builder), which show his interest in art activities.
Mahendravarma was succeeded to the throne by his more famous son
Narasimhavarma I in 630 CE.
At last he defeated Pulakeshin II and ransacked the Chalukyan
capital city Vatapi (also known as Badami).

CHALUKYAS

38.) Badami caves :-

After Ajanta, very few sites with paintings have survived which provide valuable
evidences to reconstruct the tradition of paintings.
One such site is Badami in the State of Karnataka.
Badami was the capital of the western Chalukyan dynasty which ruled the
region from 543 to 598 CE.
With the decline of the Vakataka rule, the Chalukyas established their
power in the Deccan.
The Chalukya king, Mangalesha, patronised the excavation of the Badami
caves.
He was the younger son of the Chalukya king, Pulakesi I, and the brother of
Kirtivarman I.
 The inscription in Cave No.4 mentions the date 578–579 CE, describes the
beauty of the cave and includes the dedication of the image of Vishnu.
Thus it may be presumed that the cave was excavated in the same era and the
patron records his Vaishnava affiliation.
Therefore, the cave is popularly known as the Vishnu Cave.
Only a fragment of the painting has survived on the vaulted roof of the front
mandapa.

INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

39.)
Vishisht-advaita :-

is one of the most popular schools of the Vedanta school of Hindu

philosophy.
Vedanta literally means the end of the Vedas.
Vishisht Advaita is a non-dualistic school of Vedanta philosophy.
It is non-dualism of the qualified whole, in which Brahman alone exists, but
is characterized by multiplicity.
It can be described as qualified monism or qualified non-dualism or attributive
monism.
It is a school of Vedanta philosophy which believes in all diversity subsuming to
an underlying unity.

Turiya :-

In Hindu philosophy, turiya or caturiya, chaturtha, is pure consciousness.

Scientists described it as a hypo-metabolic state of "restful alertness".
Turiya is the background that underlies and transcends the three
common states of consciousness.
The states of consciousness are: waking consciousness, dreaming, and
dreamless sleep.

Bhedabheda Vedanta :-

The characteristic position of all the different Bhedabheda Vedanta schools is

that the individual self (jīvātman) is both different and not different from
the ultimate reality known as Brahman.
Bhedābheda reconciles the positions of two other major schools of Vedānta.

Advaita Vedanta :-

The Advaita (Non-dual) Vedanta that claims that the individual self is
completely identical to Brahman, and the Dvaita (Dualist) Vedānta that teaches
complete difference between the individual self and Brahman. Bādarāyaṇa’s
Brahma Sūtra (c. 4th century CE) may also have been written from a
Bhedābheda Vedāntic viewpoint.

40.) Shakti Peeth :-

There are 51 or 108 Shakti peethas by various accounts, of which between 4 and
18 are named as Maha (major) in medieval Hindu texts.
Most of these historic places of goddess worship are in India, but some are in
Nepal, Bangladesh, and one each in Tibet (Mansarovar), Sri Lanka and
Pakistan.
Some of the great religious texts like the Shiva Purana, the Devi Bhagavata, the
Kalika Purana and the AstaShakti recognize four major Shakti Peethas
(centers), like Bimala (Pada Khanda) (inside the Jagannath temple of Puri,
 Odisha), Tara Tarini (Sthana Khanda, Purnagiri, Breasts) (Near Berhampur,
Orissa), Kamakhya Temple (Yoni khanda) (Near Guwahati, Assam) and
Dakshina Kalika (Mukha khanda) (Kolkata, West Bengal) originated from the
parts of the Corpse of Mata Sati in the Satya Yuga.
Various legends explain how the Shakti Peetha came into existence. The most
popular is based on the story of the death of the goddess Sati. Out of grief and
sorrow, Shiva carried Sati's body, reminiscing about their moments as a couple,
and roamed around the universe with it. Vishnu had cut her body into 52 body
parts, using his Sudarshana Chakra, which fell on Earth to become sacred sites
where all the people can pay homage to the Goddess. To complete this
massively long task, Lord Shiva took the form of Bhairava.

41.) Schools of Indian philosophy :-

Different schools of Indian philosophy hold different means to liberation.

The Mimansa School developed and emphasized karma-kanda, or the

study of ritual actions, using the four early Vedas, while the
Vedanta schools developed and emphasized jnana-kanda, the study of
knowledge and spirituality, using the later parts of Vedas like the Upaniṣads.
The core tenets of Purva Mimansa are ritualism, anti-asceticism and anti-
mysticism.
The central aim of the school is elucidation of the nature of dharma, understood
as a set ritual obligations and prerogatives to be performed properly.

42.)
Purusha-sukta of Rig Veda Samhita :-

It mentions division of society in four class groups – Brahama, Kshatriya,

Vaishya and Shudra.
Panchavimsha Brahmana :-

There seems to have been some ambiguity about the relative positions of the
higher varnas.
In the Panchavimsha Brahmana where Indra is associated with the
creation of the varnas, the Rajanya are placed first, followed by the
Brahmana and Vaishya.
Others place different orders.
Chandogya Upanishad :-

Although there are no clear indications of the practice of untouchability in later

Vedic texts, groups such as the Chandalas were clearly looked on with
contempt by the elites.
The Chhandogya Upanishad and Taittiriya and Shatapatha Upanishad
mention the Chandala in a list of victims to be offered in the presumably
symbolic purusha-medha (human sacrifice), and describe him as
dedicated to the deity Vayu (wind).
The dedication to Vayu has been interpreted as indicating that the Chandala
lived in the open air or near a cemetery, but this is far from certain.

43.) Muziris (Muchiri, Muyirikode, Makotai, Mahodayapuram) :-

Muziris (Muchiri, Muyirikode, Makotai, Mahodayapuram) was an important

ancient seaport and urban center Situated on the Malabar Coast (modern-day
 Indian state of Kerala) that dates from at least the 1st century BC, if not
before it;
Muziris has found mention in the bardic Tamil Sangam literature and a
number of classical European historical sources.
The port was a key to the trade between southern India and the Phoenicians,
the Persians, the Egyptians, the Greeks and the Roman Empire.
The important known commodities exported from Muziris were spices (such
as black pepper and malabathron), semi-precious stones (such as beryl),
pearls, diamonds, sapphires, ivory, Chinese silk, Gangetic spikenard
and tortoise shells.
The Romans brought money (in gold coins), peridots, thin clothing, figured
linens, multicoloured textiles, sulfide of antimony, copper, tin, lead, coral, raw
glass, wine, realgar and orpiment.
The cry to re-enact the ancient (first Centuries AD/BC) Muziris-Red Sea
voyages made from the 1970s onwards by George Menachery and others has
become more intense of late.
The locations of unearthed coin-hoards suggest an inland trade link from
Muziris via the Palghat Gap and along the Kaveri Valley to the east coast of
India.
Though the Roman trade declined from the 5th century AD, the former Muziris
attracted the attention of other nationalities, particularly the Persians, the
Chinese and the Arabs, presumably until the devastating floods of Periyar in the
14th century.
As early as first century BC, the Chinese, Arabs, Jews, Phoenicians, Persians,
Egyptians, Assyrians, Arabs, Greeks and Romans flocked to Muziris’ shores to
trade in black pepper or ‘black gold’ in exchange for gold coins, wine and wheat.

44.) ‘Gahapati’ :-

In Ancient India, there was a growing differentiation amongst people engaged

in agriculture – stories, especially within the Buddhist tradition, refer to
landless agricultural labourers, small peasants, as well as large landholders.
The term gahapati was often used in Pali texts to designate the second and
third categories.
The large landholders, as well as the village headman (whose position
was often hereditary), emerged as powerful figures, and often exercised
control over other cultivators.
Early Tamil literature (the Sangam texts) also mentions different
categories of people living in the villages – large landowners or vellalar,
ploughmen or uzhavar and slaves or adimai.
It is likely that these differences were based on differential access to land,
labour and some of the new technologies.
In such a situation, questions of control over land must have become crucial, as
these were often discussed in legal texts.

45.)
Al-Biruni’s Kitab-ul-Hind :-

Al-Biruni’s Kitab-ul-Hind, written in Arabic, is simple and lucid.

It is a voluminous text, divided into 80 chapters on subjects such as religion
and philosophy, festivals, astronomy, alchemy, manners and customs, social
life, weights and measures, iconography, laws and metrology.
Generally (though not always), Al-Biruni adopted a distinctive structure in each
chapter, beginning with a question, following this up with a description
based on Sanskritic traditions, and concluding with a comparison with
other cultures.
 Some present-day scholars have argued that this almost geometric structure,
remarkable for its precision and predictability, owed much to his mathematical
orientation.
Al-Biruni, who wrote in Arabic, probably intended his work for peoples living
along the frontiers of the subcontinent.
He was familiar with translations and adaptations of Sanskrit, Pali and
Prakrit texts into Arabic – these ranged from fables to works on
astronomy and medicine.
However, he was also critical about the ways in which these texts were written,
and clearly wanted to improve on them.

Ibn Battuta’s Rihla :-

Ibn Battuta’s book of travels, called Rihla, written in Arabic, provides

extremely rich and interesting details about the social and cultural life in the
subcontinent in the fourteenth century.
Unlike most other members of his class, Ibn Battuta considered experience
gained through travels to be a more important source of knowledge than books.
He just loved travelling, and went to far-off places, exploring new worlds and
peoples.
Before he set off for India in 1332-33, he had made pilgrimage trips to Mecca,
and had already travelled extensively in Syria, Iraq, Persia, Yemen, Oman
and a few trading ports on the coast of East Africa.

46.) Ibn Battuta’s account of India :-

Ibn Battuta was a Moroccan traveler.

When travelling in India, he was attacked by bands of robbers several
times.
In fact he preferred travelling in a caravan along with companions, but this did
not deter highway robbers.
While travelling from Multan to Delhi, his caravan was attacked and many of
his fellow travellers lost their lives.
His account of India says that “Coconut trees looked like date palms. It
resembles a man’s head. Inside of it looks like a brain. Its fibre looks
like human hair. Its fibre used for making rope which is used for
pulling ships.”
He also noted that the subcontinent was well integrated with inter-Asian
networks of trade and commerce, with Indian manufactures being in great
demand in both West Asia and Southeast Asia, fetching huge profits for artisans
and merchants. Indian textiles, particularly cotton cloth, fine muslins,
silks, brocade and satin, were in great demand.
Further, almost all trade routes were well supplied with inns and guest houses.
Ibn Battuta was also amazed by the efficiency of the postal system(by horse
and human runners) which allowed merchants to not only send information
and remit credit across long distances, but also to dispatch goods
required at short notice.

47.) Coinage :-
Exchanges were facilitated by the introduction of coinage.

Punch-marked coins made of silver and copper (c. sixth century BCE
onwards) were amongst the earliest to be minted and used by many dynasties
including the Mauryas.
The first coins to bear the names and images of rulers were issued by
the Indo-Greeks, who established control over the north-western part of the
subcontinent c. second century BCE.
 The first gold coins were issued in the first century CE by the Kushanas
(some sources dispute this fact). These were virtually identical in weight with
those issued by Roman emperors and the Parthian rulers of Iran.
Coins were also issued by tribal republics of Punjab and Haryana called the
Yaudheyas. Archaeologists have unearthed several thousand copper coins
issued by the Yaudheyas.
Some of the most spectacular gold coins were issued by the Gupta rulers.
The earliest coins issued by Guptas were remarkable for their purity. These
coins facilitated long-distance transactions from which kings also benefited.
In Short we can say that,
1. Mauryas used punch-marked coins made of silver and copper.
2. The first coins to bear the names and images of rulers were issued by the Indo-
Greeks.
3. Yaudheyas of Punjab and Haryana were renowned for issuing copper coins.
4. Both Kushanas and Guptas issued gold coins.

48.) Developments in Medieval India :-

Humayun was absorbed in astrology and astronomy.

A personal astronomical observatory was built by Humayun on the banks of
Yamuna River.
Gyarah Sidi are the remains of the astrological observatory of the Mughal
Emperor Humayun.
The ruins are situated at a stone’s throw from Babur’s Mehtab Bagh, in a
field on the banks of the Yamuna River in Agra.
Other Technological developments too occurred during Mughal Empire.
· Fathullah Shirazi (1582), a Persian polymath and mechanical engineer
who worked for Akbar, developed a volley gun.
· Akbar was the first to initiate and use metal cylinder rockets known
as bans particularly against War elephants, during the Battle of Sanbal.
· Later, the Mysorean rockets were upgraded versions of Mughal rockets
used during the Siege of Jinji by the progeny of the Nawab of Arcot.
Sake Dean Mahomed had learned much of Mughal alchemy and understood
the techniques used to produce various alkali and soaps to produce
shampoo when he was in India. He introduced South Asian cuisine and
shampoo baths to Europe, where he offered therapeutic massage.
Sake Dean Mahomed was appointed as shampooing surgeon to both
Kings George IV and William IV!

49.) Sowa Rigpa :-

"Sowa-Rigpa" is commonly known as Amchi system of medicine, one of the

oldest, living and well documented medical tradition of the world.
It has been popularly practiced in Tibet, Magnolia, Bhutan, some parts of
China, Nepal, Himalayan regions of India and some parts of former
Soviet Union etc.
There are several schools of thought about the origins of the medical tradition,
some scholars believe that it is originated from India, some say China and
others are considered to be originated from Tibet itself.
The majority of theory and practice of Sowa-Rigpa is similar to
"Ayurveda". The first Ayurvedic influence came to Tibet during 3rd century
AD but it became popular only after 7th centuries with the approach of
Buddhism to Tibet. After this trend of Indian medical literature, along with
Buddhism and other Indian arts and sciences were continued till early 19th
century.
 Gyud-Zi (four tantra) The fundamental text book of this medicine was first
translated from India and enriched in Tibet with its own folklore and other
medical tradition like Chinese and Persian etc.
The impact of Sowa-Rigpa along with Buddhism and other Tibetan art and
sciences were spread out in the neighboring Himalayan regions.
In India this system has been practiced in Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh,
Darjeeling (West Bangal), Lahoul & Spiti (Himanchal Pradesh) and
Ladakh region of Jammu & Kashmir etc.
The impact of Sowa-Rigpa along with Buddhism and other Tibetan art and
sciences were spread out in the neighboring Himalayan regions.

50.) Indian systems of Medicine (ISM) :-

The treatment approach in the Ayurveda system is holistic and individualized

having preventive, curative, mitigative, recuperative and
rehabilitative aspects.
The preventive aspect of Ayurveda is called Svasth-Vritta and includes
personal hygiene, daily and seasonal regimens, appropriate social
behavior and use of materials & practices for healthy aging and prevention of
premature loss of health attribute.
The curative treatment consists of Aushadhi (drugs), Ahara (diet) and
Vihara (life style).
Ayurveda largely uses plants as raw materials for the manufacture of drugs,
though materials of animal and marine origin, metals and minerals are
also used.

51.) Indian systems of Medicine (ISM) :-

It is believed that Ayurveda is originated out of Vedas (particularly Rigveda and
Atharvaveda).
Numerous references of health, diseases, their treatment as well as use of
nonmaterialistic things such as sun rays, fasting, mantra etc; are available in these
Vedas.
The knowledge of Ayurveda was first comprehensively documented in the compendia
like ‘Brahma Samhita’, 'Ágnivesha tantra’, ‘Bhela Samhita’ etc.
‘Bhela Samhita’:-

Out of these, only some part of Bhela Samhita is available today.

Agnivesha Tantra:-

The Agnivesha Tantra was edited by Charak around 5000 years back
called Charak Samhita and thereafter re-edited by Dridhbala, which is
one of the main text of Ayurveda available in complete form today. This is the
most translated treatise of Ayurveda, which got translated into many foreign
languages like Tibetan, Arabic, Unani and Greek even in ancient time.

MEDIEVAL INDIAN HISTORY

BHAKTI MOVEMENT

52.) Silsila :-

Institutionally, the sufis began to organise communities around the hospice or

khanqah (Persian) controlled by a teaching master known as shaikh (in Arabic),
pir or murshid (in Persian).
Sufi silsilas began to crystallise in different parts of the Islamic world around
the twelfth century.
 The word silsila literally means a chain, signifying a continuous link between
master and disciple, stretching as an unbroken spiritual genealogy to the
Prophet.

53.) Alvars and Nayanars :-

Some historians suggest that the Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement
of protest against the caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas
or at least attempted to reform the system.
To some extent this is corroborated by the fact that bhaktas hailed from diverse
social backgrounds ranging from Brahmanas to artisans and cultivators and
even from castes considered “untouchable”.
The compositions of Andal, a woman Alvar, were widely sung. Another
woman, Karaikkal Ammaiyar, a devotee of Shiva, adopted the path of
extreme asceticism in order to attain her goal.
One of the major anthologies of compositions by the Alvars, the Nalayira
Divyaprabandham, was frequently described as the Tamil Veda, thus
claiming that the text was as significant as the four Vedas in Sanskrit that were
cherished by the Brahmanas.

SOCIAL LIFE AND DEVELOPMENT

54.) Sarais :-

Sarais ringed cities and dotted the vast space of the Indian subcontinent.
Sarais were largely built on a simple square or rectangular plan and were meant
to provide temporary accommodation to Indian and foreign travellers,
pilgrims, merchants, traders, etc.
In effect, sarais were public domains which thronged with people of varied
cultural backgrounds.
This led to cross-cultural interaction, influences and syncretic tendencies in the
cultural mores of the times and at the level of the people.

VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE

55.) “Devaputra” and “Hindu Suratrana” :-

The royal title of “Devaputra” and “Hindu Suratrana” are often associated with
Kushanas and Vijayanagara .
One means of claiming high status was to identify with a variety of deities. This
strategy is best exemplified by the Kushanas (c. first century BCE-first century CE),
who ruled over a vast kingdom extending from Central Asia to northwest India.

Colossal statues of Kushana rulers have been found installed in a shrine at Mat
near Mathura (Uttar Pradesh). Similar statues have been found in a shrine in
Afghanistan as well. Some historians feel this indicates that the Kushanas
considered themselves godlike.
Many Kushana rulers also adopted the title devaputra, or “son of
god”, possibly inspired by Chinese rulers who called themselves sons of
heaven.
The Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of the god Virupaksha.
Rulers also indicated their close links with the gods by using the title “Hindu
Suratrana” this meant Hindu Sultan.

56.) Krishnadevaraya :-
 Krishnadeva Raya’s rule was characterised by expansion and consolidation.
This was the time when the land between the Tungabhadra and Krishna
rivers (the Raichur doab) was acquired (1512), the rulers of Orissa were
subdued (1514) and severe defeats were inflicted on the Sultan of Bijapur
(1520).
Although the kingdom remained in a constant state of military preparedness, it
flourished under conditions of unparalleled peace and prosperity.
Krishnadeva Raya is credited with building some fine temples and
adding impressive gopurams to many important south Indian temples.
He also founded a suburban township near Vijayanagara called Nagalapuram
after his mother. Some of the most detailed descriptions of Vijayanagara come
from his time or just after.
Portuguese travellers Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz visited his Empire.
The south Indian mathematician Nilakantha Somayaji lived in his Empire.

57.) Vijayanagara Empire :-

Archaeologists have found fine Chinese porcelain in some areas of the

Empire, which suggest that these areas may have been occupied by rich traders.
The most striking feature about the location of Vijayanagara is the natural
basin formed by the river Tungabhadra which flows in a north-easterly
direction.
Water from this tank not only irrigated fields nearby but was also conducted
through a channel to the “royal centre”. One of the most prominent
waterworks to be seen among the ruins is the Hiriya canal.
Abdur Razzaq, an ambassador sent by the ruler of Persia was greatly
impressed by the fortifications, and mentioned seven lines of forts. These
encircled not only the city but also its agricultural hinterland and forests.
Abdur Razzaq quoted that between the first, second and the third walls
there are cultivated fields, gardens and houses.
The objective of medieval sieges was to starve the defenders into submission.
These sieges could last for several months and sometimes even years.
Normally rulers tried to be prepared for such situations by building large
granaries within fortified areas.

STRUGLE FOR EMPIRE IN NORTH INDIA

58.) Ahom :-

Tribes in the North-east had their chieftains. Many tribal chiefs had become
zamindars, some even became kings. For this they required to build up an
army.
They recruited people from their lineage groups or demanded that their
fraternity provide military service. Tribes in the Sind region had armies
comprising 6,000 cavalry and 7,000 infantry.
These people who exchanged military service for land were known
as paiks in the Ahom dynasty. The capture of wild elephants was declared a
royal monopoly by the Ahom kings. This was because war was a common
occurrence between tribal kingdoms in the north-east.
The practice was popular in the present day state of Assam.

CONSOLIDATION OF MUGHALS

59.) Shiqdar :-
This is an account of important officers appointed in Mughal India.
Appointment of two officers with specific responsibilities and jurisdiction was only to
avoid concentration of authority in one single individual and also to see that one acts
as a check over the other.

Sarkars were further subdivided as paraganas.

In each paragana a Shiqdar, an Amin, a Fotehdar, a Munsif, a Hindi
writer and a Persian writer were appointed besides the Patwari,
Chaudari and the Muqaddam who acted as the intermediaries between the
government and the people.
The duty of the Shiqdar was to maintain law and order, to collect the
revenue and also decide the legal matters.

60.) Forest Society and Tribes in the Mughal Period :-

For the state, the forest was a place of rebels and troublemakers.
Babur says that jungles provided a good defence “behind which the
people of the pargana become stubbornly rebellious and pay no taxes”.
The state required elephants for the army. Elephants were captured from forest
and sold. So the peshkash (tribute) levied from forest people often included
a supply of elephants.
The spread of commercial agriculture was an important external factor
that impinged on the lives of tribals.
Forest products –like honey, beeswax and gum lac – were in great demand.
Some, such as gum lac, became major items of overseas export from
India in the seventeenth century.

61.) Trade in Mughal Period :-

Voyages of discovery and the opening up of the New World (America) resulted
in a massive expansion of India’s trade with Europe.
An expanding trade brought in huge amounts of Silver bullion into India to
pay for goods procured from India. This was good for India because it did
not have natural resources of silver.
As a result, the period between the 16th and 17th centuries was also marked
by a remarkable stability in the availability of metal currency, particularly the
silver rupya in India. This facilitated an unprecedented expansion of minting
and circulating of silver coins.
Copper, Gold and Silver coinages were issued during the British
rule.
There are many rare coins of this period which interests the coin collectors. The
1939 Rupee is the most expensive rupee, as after 1939 all silver coins
effectively became less pure, due to the shortage of silver during the world war.

62.) Important officials in the Mughal Empire and their responsibilities :-

Fotehdar - The treasurer was Fotehdar and the entire amount collected
was kept in his custody. He also maintained account of the income and
expenditure of the paragana.
Karkuns - Besies Fotedar, Karkuns handled matters related to accounts
of the Paraganas.
The central government of Sher Shah Suri consisted of several departments. The king
was assisted by four important ministers:

Diwan –i- Wizarat – (Wazir) – in charge of Revenue and Finance.

Diwan-i-Ariz – in charge of Army.
Diwan-i-Rasalat- Foreign Minister.
 Diwan-i-Insha- Minister for Communications.

63.) Mansabdari System :-

The Mughal administrative system had at its apex a military cum-

bureaucratic apparatus (mansabdari) which was responsible for looking
after the civil and military affairs of the state.
The mansabdari system was not hereditary as appointments were made
by the King.
Caste system too prevailed in the mansabdari system.
Since the property of a mansabdar was confiscated after his death, he
used to spend it lavishly during his lifetime. This made the nobles luxurious and
it led to their moral degradation which had an adverse effect on their efficiency.
Some mansabdars were paid in cash (naqdi), while the majority of
them were paid through assignments of revenue (jagirs) in different
regions of the empire.
Every civil and military officer was given a ‘mansab’ and different numbers
which could be divided by ten were used for ranking officers. It was also meant
for fixing the salaries and allowances of officers.

AKBAR
64.) Sulh-i-kul :-

Akbar abolished the tax on pilgrimage in 1563 and jizya in 1564 as the
two were based on religious discrimination.
All Mughal emperors gave grants to support the building and
maintenance of places of worship.
Even when temples were destroyed during war, grants were later issued for
their repair.
In sulh-i kul all religions and schools of thought and freedom of
expression but on condition that they did not undermine the authority of the
state or fight among themselves. This was in line with Akbar’s view that all
religions point towards the same thing – the essential unity among human
beings.
The ideal of sulh-i kul was implemented through state policies.

LIFE AND DEVELOPMENT

65.) Terminologies used in Medieval India :-

The Telangana Archives and Research Institute holds a whopping 1.55 lakh
documents — all on handmade paper — including 5,000 from the period of Shah
Jahan (1628-1658) and another 1.5 lakh of Aurangzeb (1658-1707). Written in Persian
in Shikasta script, cursive style, the documents are linked and arranged in
chronological order — date, month and regional year-wise.

Farman- order of the emperor.

Nishan- order of a member of the royal family.
Yaddasht-i-ahkam-i-muqaddas- Memorandum containing imperial orders.
Parwana- orders issued by higher authorities.
Siyaha huzur- proceedings of the provincial court.
Roznamcha-i-waqai- daily news report.
Qabzul wasil- bill payments.
Andarz-o-chihra- documents on personnel and horses.
Daftar-i-Diwani- the administrative wing of Hyderabad State.
 Theyaddasht-i-ahkam-i-muqaddas- Reports on recommendations of pay
hikes for staff sent to the emperor.

66.) Khud-kashta and Pahi-kashta :-

These terms were used for two kinds of peasants.

The khud-kashta were residents of the village in which they held their
lands.
The pahi-kashta were non-resident cultivators who belonged to some other
village, but cultivated lands elsewhere on a contractual basis.
People became pahi-kashta either out of choice or out of compulsion.
When terms of revenue in a distant village were more favourable peasants
moved to other villages. Sometimes they were forced by economic distress after
a famine.

67.) Rural institutions in Medieval India :-

The village panchayat was an assembly of elders. In mixed-caste villages, the
panchayat was usually a heterogeneous body. The panchayat represented
various castes and communities in the village so it is called an oligarchy.

In addition to the village panchayat each sub-caste or jati in the village had its
own jati panchayat.
These panchayats wielded considerable power in rural society.
In Rajasthan jati panchayats arbitrated civil disputes between members of
different castes.

The panchayat was headed by a headman known as "muqaddam" or mandal.

Some sources suggest that the headman was chosen through the consensus of the
village elders, and that this choice had to be ratified by the zamindar.
Headmen held office as long as they enjoyed the confidence of the village elders.

The chief function of the headman was to supervise the preparation of

village accounts, assisted by the accountant or patwari of the panchayat.
The panchayat derived its funds from contributions made by individuals
to a common financial pool.

68.)
Jajmani system :-

Zamindars in Bengal who remunerated blacksmiths, carpenters, even

goldsmiths for their work by paying them “a small daily allowance and
diet money”.
This later came to be described as the jajmani system, though the term was not
in vogue in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
Mallahzadas :-

Despite the abundance of cultivable land, certain caste groups were

assigned menial tasks and thus relegated to poverty.
In Muslim communities menials like the halalkhoran, those who cut meat
were housed outside the boundaries of the village; similarly the
mallahzadas, boatmen in Bihar were comparable to slaves.
Milkiyat :-

The zamindars held extensive personal lands termed milkiyat, meaning

property.
 Milkiyat lands were cultivated for the private use of zamindars, often with the
help of hired labour.
The zamindars could sell or donate these lands at will.
Zamindars also derived their power from the state that they could often
collect revenue on behalf of the state.

MODERN INDIAN HISTORY

BRITISH EXPANSION AND CONSOLIDATION

69.) Battle of Plassey :-

Battle of Plassey was fought between the Company and Sirajuddaulah

asked the Company to stop meddling in the political affairs of his dominion,
stop fortification, and pay the revenues.
Plassey is an anglicised pronunciation of Palashi and the place derived its
name from the palash tree known for its beautiful red flowers that yield
gulal, the powder used in the festival of Holi.

70.) Certain events pertaining to the 17th CE, colonial India :-

The Company had first set up its trading activities in the well-established
port of Surat on the west coast.
Subsequently the search for textiles brought British merchants to the
east coast.
In 1639 they constructed a trading post in Madraspatam. This settlement was
locally known as Chenapattanam.
The Company had purchased the right of settlement from the local Telugu
lords, the Nayaks of Kalahasti, who were eager to support trading activity
in the region.
Rivalry (1746-63) with the French East India Company led the British to
fortify Madras and give their representatives increased political and
administrative functions. With the defeat of the French in 1761, Madras
became more secure and began to grow into an important commercial town.
It was here that the superiority of the British and the subordinate position of
the Indian merchants was most apparent.

71.) Younghusband's Mission to Tibet (1904) :-

The British expedition to Tibet, also known as the British invasion of Tibet
or the Younghusband expedition to Tibet began in December 1903 and lasted
until September 1904.
The expedition was effectively a temporary invasion by British Indian
forces under the auspices of the Tibet Frontier Commission, whose purported
mission was to establish diplomatic relations and resolve the dispute over the
border between Tibet and Sikkim.
In the nineteenth century, the British conquered Burma and Sikkim,
occupying the whole southern flank of Tibet. The Tibetan Ganden
Phodrang regime, which was then under administrative rule of the Qing
dynasty, remained the only Himalayan state free of British influence.
The expedition was intended to counter Russia's perceived
ambitions in the East and was initiated largely by Lord Curzon, the head
of the British India government. Curzon had long obsessed over Russia's
advance into Central Asia and now feared a Russian invasion of British India.
In April 1903, the British received clear assurances from the Russian
government that it had no interest in Tibet. "In spite, however, of the Russian
 assurances, Lord Curzon continued to press for the dispatch of a mission to
Tibet", a high level British political officer noted.

72.) Durand Commission (1893) :-

The Durand Line is the 2,430-kilometre international border between

Pakistan and Afghanistan.
It was established in 1896 between Sir Mortimer Durand, a British
diplomat and civil servant of the British Raj, and Abdur Rahman Khan, the
Afghan Amir, to fix the limit of their respective spheres of influence and
improve diplomatic relations and trade.
Afghanistan was considered by the British as an independent state at
the time, although the British controlled its foreign affairs and
diplomatic relations.
The Durand Line cuts through the Pashtun tribal areas and further south
through the Balochistan region, politically dividing ethnic Pashtuns, as well as
the Baloch and other ethnic groups, who live on both sides of the border.
It demarcates Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Balochistan and Gilgit-Baltistan of
northern and western Pakistan from the northeastern and southern provinces
of Afghanistan.
From a geopolitical and geostrategic perspective, it has been described as one of
the most dangerous borders in the world.

THE REVOLT OF 1857

73.) Ganga Dhar Nehru :-

Ganga Dhar Nehru served as the last kotwal of Delhi (Chief of police) in the
court of the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah II, before the position was
abolished following the Indian Rebellion of 1857.
He was the father of freedom fighter Motilal Nehru and grandfather of
India's first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru.
When Emperor Shahjahan shifted his capital from Agra to Delhi, in
1648, he appointed Ghaznafar Khan as the first Kotwal of the new city,
bestowing on him also the very important office of Mir-iAtish (Chief of
Artillery).
The institution of Kotwal came to an end with the crushing of the revolt
of 1857, the first war of freedom by the British.

74.) Azamgarh Proclamation :-

This proclamation was published in the Delhi Gazette in the midst of the
“Great Mutiny” of 1857.
The author was most probably Firoz Shah, a grandson of the Mughal
emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar, whose restoration to full power was a main
aim of the rebels.
It expressed complete disillusionment with the British Rule and express the fear
that British missionaries were, with government connivance, attempting to
Christianize India came to a head among the British East India Company’s
sepoy troops.
It is one of the most significant sources of information about the objective of the
rebels.

75.) Awadh :-

When Awadh was annexed, Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was the ruler.
 Awadh was an allied province for the British, and the Nawab had a son named
Birjis Qadra.
Lord Dalhousie took the pretext of misrule to annex Awadh, by accusing him of
refusing to introduce reforms as suggested by the British.
When the Nawab failed to do so, Dalhousie annexed Awadh on the pretext of
mis-governance.

76.) The revolt of 1857 :-

The revolt of 1857 nearly coincided or followed certain events in which the British
suffered serious losses or were involved for major gains; these included
1. The First Afghan War
2. Punjab Wars (1845-49)
3. Crimean Wars
4. Santhal rebellion

The First Anglo-Afghan War (also known as Disaster in Afghanistan) was

fought between the British East India Company and the Emirate of Afghanistan
from 1839 to 1842. The war is notorious for the loss of 4,500 British and
Indian soldiers, plus 12,000 of their camp followers to Afghan tribal fighters. It
was one of the first major conflicts during the Great Game, the 19th century
competition for power and influence in Central Asia between Britain and
Russia.
The First Anglo-Sikh War was fought between the Sikh Empire and the East
India Company between 1845 and 1846. It resulted in partial subjugation of
the Sikh kingdom.The Sind was annexed and the British established a cantt. at
Ferozpur and amid the accusations and mutual demands, the British side. The
outcome of this war was a peace pact called Treaty of Lahore signed on
March 9, 1846.
Crimean War, (October 1853–February 1856), war fought mainly on the
Crimean Peninsula between the Russians and the British, French,
and Ottoman Turkish, with support from January 1855 by the army of
Sardinia-Piedmont. The war arose from the conflict of great powers in the
Middle East and was more directly caused by Russian demands to exercise
protection over the Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman sultan. Another major
factor was the dispute between Russia and France over the privileges of the
Russian Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches in the holy places in Palestine.
During Santhal rebellion, suffered a blow from the tribal front.

77.) Revolts in the British Indian Army before the 1857 revolt :-

Some of these revolts happened in Bengal (1764), Vellore (1806),

Barrackpore (1825) and during the Afghan Wars (1838-42) indicating
that a general discontentment against British policies was not only realized
during the 1857 revolt; only to remark that the latter was much more successful
than all the others.
Learning: We wanted to highlight this information from the book: To the
religious Hindu of the time, crossing the seas meant loss of caste. In 1856
Lord Canning's Government passed the General Service Enlistment
Act which decreed that all future recruits to the Bengal Army would
have to give an undertaking to serve anywhere their services might
be required by the Government. This caused resentment.

78.) 'Queen's Proclamation' :-

These were some of consequences of the 1857 revolt:
 The direct responsibility for the administration of the country was assumed by
the British Crown and Company rule was abolished. The assumption of the
Government of India by the sovereign of Great Britain was announced by Lord
Canning at a durbar at Allahabad in the 'Queen's Proclamation' issued on
November 1, 1858.
The era of annexations and expansion ended and the British promised to
respect the dignity and rights of the native princes.
The Indian states were henceforth to recognise the paramountcy of the
British Crown and were to be treated as parts of a single charge.
The Army, which was at the forefront of the outbreak, was thoroughly
reorganised and British military policy came to be dominated by the idea of
"division and counterpoise".

79.) Azamgarh Proclamation :-

This proclamation was published in the Delhi Gazette in the midst of the “Great
Mutiny” of 1857.

The author was most probably Firoz Shah, a grandson of the Mughal emperor
Bahadur Shah Zafar, whose restoration to full power was a main aim of the
rebels.
It expressed complete disillusionment with the British Rule and express the fear
that British missionaries were, with government connivance, attempting to
Christianize India came to a head among the British East India Company’s
sepoy troops.
It is one of the most significant sources of information about the objective of the
rebels.

80.) Queen Victoria’s Proclamation of 1858 :-

The Proclamation of Queen Victoria was announced by Lord Canning at
Allahabad.

This royal Proclamation was translated into Indian languages and publicly
read in many important places. It announced the end of Company’s rule in
India and the Queen’s assumption of the Government of India.
It endorsed the treaty made by the Company with Indian princes and
promised to respect their rights, dignity and honour.
It assured the Indian people equal and impartial protection of law and
freedom of religion and social practices.
The Proclamation of Queen Victoria gave a practical shape to the Act of 1858.

RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL REFORM MOVEMENTS

81.)
Rettaimalai Srinivasan :-

He was affectionately called Thatha (Grandfather) for his untiring efforts to

re-establish the cultural ownership and legacy of the scheduled
communities, he accompanied Dr. Ambedkar to the Round Table
Conference.
He rejected demeaning terms like ‘Depressed classes’ , which was perhaps
the precursor to today’s label ‘Dalit’.
He wanted Scheduled Communities to be named ‘reformist Hindus’ because
they rejected the disease of untouchability plaguing the so-called caste Hindus.
E.V. Ramasami Naicker :-
 Known as Periyar (the respected); strong supporter of atheism; famous for
his anti-caste struggle and rediscovery of Dravid identity; initially a
worker of the Congress party; started the self-respect movement
(1925); led the anti-Brahmin movement; worked for the Justice party
and later founded Dravid Kazhagam; opposed to Hindi and domination of
north India; propounded the thesis that north Indians and Brahmins are
Aryans.
The Dravidian movement led to the formation of Dravida Kazhagam [DK]
under the leadership of E.V. Ramasami ‘Periyar’.

82.) Brahmo Samaj :-

In 1839, Debendranath Tagore along with his friends started the

Tattwaranjini Sabha which was later renamed to Tattwabodhini
Sabha. At this time the affairs of the Samaj were being managed by the
Tattwabodhini Sabha and Pt. Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar was its secretary.
In 1859 the Tattwabodhini Sabha was abolished and the propagatroy
work was taken up by the Samaj - the printing press, library and other
properties were made over to the Trustees of the same. Vidyasagar could not
agree with the changes introduced and resigned from his post.
He joined the Brahmo Samaj in 1857 by privately signing the Brahmo covenant
and took to studying mental and moral philosophy.
During this time in 1860, the Sangat Sabha was established - which was a
society of fellow believers to promote mutual spiritual intercourse amongst its
members.

83.) Justice party – Dravidian Movement :-

Communal division between Brahmins and non-Brahmins began in the

presidency during the late-19th and early-20th century, mainly due to caste
prejudices and disproportionate Brahminical representation in government
jobs.
The Justice Party's foundation marked the culmination of several efforts to
establish an organisation to represent the non-Brahmins in Madras
Presidency and is seen as the start of the Dravidian Movement. In 1920, it
won the first direct elections in the presidency and formed the
government.
It came under the leadership of Periyar E. V. Ramaswamy and his Self-
Respect Movement.
In 1944, Periyar transformed the Justice Party into the social organisation
Dravidar Kazhagam and withdrew it from electoral politics. So, 2 is correct.
It opposed Annie Besant and her Home rule movement, because it
believed home rule would benefit the Brahmins.
The party also campaigned against the non-cooperation movement in
the presidency. It was at odds with M. K. Gandhi, primarily due to his praise for
Brahminism.
The Justice Party is credited with passing in 1921 a bill which allowed
Women to vote in Madras Presidency for the first time in India.
Its mistrust of the Brahmin–dominated Congress led it to adopt a hostile stance
toward the Indian independence movement.
For the next seventeen years, it formed four out of the five ministries and was in
power for thirteen years. It was the main political alternative to the
nationalist Indian National Congress in Madras.

84.)
Bengal regulations of 1795 and 1804 :-
 The practice of murdering female infants immediately after birth was common
among upper class Bengalis and Rajputs who considered females to be an
economic burden.
The Bengal regulations of 1795 and 1804 declared infanticide illegal and
equivalent to murder, while an Act passed in 1870 made, it compulsory for
parents to register the birth of all babies.

Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856 :-

The Brahmo Samaj had the issue of widow remarriage high on its agenda and
did much to -popularise it. But it was mainly due to the efforts of Pandit
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820-91), the principal of Sanskrit College,
Calcutta, that the Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856, which legalised
marriage of widows and declared issues from such marriages as legitimate,
was passed by the Government. Vidyasagar cited Vedic texts to prove that the
Hindu religion sanctioned widow remarriage.
Jagannath Shankar Seth and Bhau Daji were among the active promoters
of girls' schools in Maharashtra.
Vishnu Shastri Pandit founded the Widow Remarriage Association in the
1850s.
Another prominent worker in this field was Karsondas Mulji who started the
Satya Prakash in Gujarati in 1852 to advocate widow remarriage.

The Native Marriage Act (or Civil Marriage Act) signified the coming of
legislative action in prohibiting child marriage in 1872. It had a limited
impact as the Act was not applicable to Hindus, Muslims and other recognised faiths.
Age of Consent Act (1891) :-

The relentless efforts of a Parsi reformer, B.M. Malabari, were rewarded, by the
enactment of the Age of Consent Act (1891) which forbade the marriage of
girls below the age of 12.

The Sarda Act (1930) :-

The Sarda Act (1930) further pushed up the marriage age to 18 and 14
for boys and girls respectively.

Child Marriage Restraint (Amendment) Act, 1978 :-

In free India, the Child Marriage Restraint (Amendment) Act, 1978 raised the
age of marriage for girls from 15 to 18 years and for boys from 18 to 21.

85.)
Paramhans Mandali :-

Paramahansa Mandali was a secret socio-religious group, established in

1849, in Bombay and is closely related to Manav Dharma Sabha which
was found in 1844 in Surat.
It was started by Mehtaji Durgaram, Dadoba Pandurang and a group of
his friends. Dadoba Pandurang assumed leadership of this organisation after he
left Manav Dharma Sabha. He outlined his principles in Dharma Vivechan in
1848 for Manav Dharma Sabha and "Paramhansik Bramhyadharma" for
Paramahansa Mandali.
It was the first socio-religious organization of Maharashtra. Founded in 1849
Maharashtra, the founders of these mandli believed in one god.
They were primarily interested in breaking caste rules. At their meetings
food cooked by lower caste people was taken by the members.
The mandali also advocated women's education and widow remarriage.
Satnami movement :-

The most-important Satnami group was founded in 1820 in the Chattisgarh

region of middle India by Ghasidas, a farm servant and member of the
Chamar caste (a Dalit caste whose hereditary occupation was leather tanning,
a task regarded by Hindus as polluting).
His Satnam Panth (“Path of the True Name”) succeeded in providing a
religious and social identity for large numbers of Chattisgarhi Chamars (who
formed one-sixth of the total population of the region), in defiance of their
derogatory treatment by upper-caste Hindus and their exclusion
from Hindu temple worship.

86.)
Deoband movement :-

The Deoband Movement was established in Deoband in Saharanpur district

(United Provinces) in 1866 by Mohammad Qasim Nanotavi (1832-80) and
Rashid Ahmed Gangohi (1828- 1905) to train religious leaders for the
Muslim community.
In contrast to the Aligarh Movement, which aimed at the welfare of Muslims
through western education and support of the British Government, the aim of
the Deoband Movement was moral and religious regeneration of the
Muslim community.
The instruction imparted at Deoband was in original Islamic religion.
On the political front, the Deoband School welcomed the formation of
the Indian National Congress and in 1888 issued a fatiua (religious
decree) against Syed Ahmed Khan’s organisations,

Aligarh movement :-

Aligarh movement emphasised reconciliation of Islamic teachings with the

needs of the modern age.
Aimed at the welfare of Muslims through western education and
support of the British Government

87.)
Brahmo Samaj :-

The Brahmo Samaj, formed in 1830, prohibited all forms of idolatry and
sacrifice, believed in the Upanishads, and forbade its members from
criticising other religious practices.
It critically drew upon the ideals of religions – especially of Hinduism and
Christianity – looking at their negative and positive dimensions.
Henry Louis Vivian Derozio, a teacher at Hindu College, Calcutta, in the
1820s, promoted radical ideas and encouraged his pupils to question
all authority.
Referred to as the Young Bengal Movement, his students attacked tradition
and custom, demanded education for women and campaigned for the freedom
of thought and expression.
Prarthana Samaj :-

Established in 1867 at Bombay, the Prarthana Samaj sought to remove

caste restrictions, abolish child marriage, encourage the education
of women, and end the ban on widow remarriage.
Its religious meetings drew upon Hindu, Buddhist and Christian texts.
88.) Mahadev Govind Ranade :-

Ranade’s principal forte was social and religious reform.

He worked unceasingly for the eradication of child marriage, the purdah
system and other such ills.
INSC often met alongside congress for its sessions. During his life he also
helped to establish the Vaktruttvottejak Sabha, the Poona Sarvajanik
Sabha and the Prarthana Samaj, and would edit a Bombay Anglo-
Marathi daily paper, the Induprakash, founded on his ideology of social
and religious reform.
He served as member of the Bombay legislative council, member of the
finance committee at the centre, and the judge of Bombay High Court.
To encourage consideration of social problems on a national scale, he
inaugurated the Indian National Social Conference (INSC).

89.) Socio-religious movements in Northern part of India :-

After the fall of kingdom of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, there were several attempts
to raise the old glory of the Khalsa. Several movements to reform Sikhism were
started.
First one being the Namdhari movement, which was started by Baba Ram
Singh Namdhari after the Anglo-Sikh wars. He was a soldier in Khalsa army.
Like the Nirankari, this second reform movement known as the Namdhari, or
Kuka, movement also had its origin in the north-west corner of the Sikh
kingdom, away from the places of royal pomp and grandeur. It harked back to a
way of life more in keeping with the spiritual tradition of the community. Its
principal object was to spread the true spirit of Sikhism shorn of tawdry
customs and mannerism, which had been growing on it since the beginning of
Sikh monarchy.
In the midst of national pride born of military glory and political power, this
movement extolled the religious obligation for a pious and simple living.
They were called "Kukas" because of their peculiar style they used in
reciting Gurbani (Sayings of the Gurus).
This style was in a high pitched voice, called Kook in punjabi, and thus
Namdhari Khalsa's were named Kukas.

1. The Singh Sabhas were aimed at reforming the Sikh society.

2. The Nirankari Movement insisted on the worship of formless God.
3. The Namdhari Movement followers wore white clothes and practiced
vegetarianism.

90.) Ezhava community :-

The lowly status of the Ezhava meant that, as Thomas Nossiter has
commented, they had "little to lose and much to gain by the economic
and social changes of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries".
They sought the right to be treated as worthy of an English education and for
jobs in government administration to be open to them.
An early Ezhava campaigner and their "political father", according to Ritty
Lukose, was Padmanabhan Palpu.
In 1896, he organised a petition of 13,176 signatories that was submitted to the
Maharajah of the princely state of Travancore, asking for government
recognition of the Ezhavas' right to work in public administration and to have
access to formal education.
In 1903, a small group of Ezhavas, led by Palpu, established Sree Narayana
Dharma Paripalan Yogam (SNDP), the first caste association in the region.
This was named after Narayana Guru, who had established an ashram from
where he preached his message of "one caste, one religion, one god" and a
 Sanskritised version of the Victorian concept of self-help. His influence locally
has been compared to that of Swami Vivekananda.
One of the initial aims of the SNDP was to campaign for the removal of the
restrictions on school entry but even after those legal barriers to education were
removed, it was uncommon in practice for Ezhavas to be admitted to
government schools. Thus, the campaign shifted to providing schools operated
by the community itself.

91.) Swadhyay Parivar movement :-

The Swadhyay Parivar is a devotional movement based in Maharashtra,

India. It claims to have over 50,000 kendra locations and 60,00,000 followers
in India, Portugal, USA, UK, Canada, and the Middle East who carry out various
activities of self-development, self-learning, devotional activities and
social awareness activities around the world.
Swadhyaya means study of self for a spiritual quest.
Pandurang Shastri Athavale (1920-2003) was the originator of this
movement that promotes a particular interpretation and reading of
the Vedic scriptures like Bhagavad Gita, Vedas and the Upanishads.

THE STRUGGLE BEGINS

PRE-CONGRESS

92.) "Early Political Associations" in British India :-

The details are:

The British Indian Association – 1851 Bengal

The Bombay Association — 1852 Dadabhai Naoroji
Madras Native Association 1852
East India Association - 1856 London
Poona Sarvojanik Sabha—1870
The Madras Mahajana Sabha—1884

Among the above, Madras Mahajana Sabha and Poona Sarvojanik Sabha were
influential organizations serving as important precursors to the Indian National
Congress which was established in 1885.

93.) Ilbert Bill Controversy :-

According to the system of law, a European could be tried only by a

European Judge or a European Magistrate. The disqualification was
unjust and it was sought to cast a needless discredit and dishonour upon the
Indian-born members of the judiciary.
C.P. Ilbert, Law Member, introduced a bill in 1883 to abolish this
discrimination in judiciary. But Europeans opposed this Bill strongly.
They also suggested that it was better to end the English rule in India than to
allow the English to be subjected to the Indian Judges and Magistrates. The
bill ended due to this opposition.
The Ilbert Bill controversy helped the cause of Indian nationalism. The
immediate result of this awakening of India was the birth of the Indian
National Congress in 1885, the very next year of Ripon’s departure.

INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

94.) Indian National Congress (INC) :-

 The first president of Indian National Congress was Womesh Chandra
Banerji.
The first session of the INC was held in 1885 in Mumbai.
Mahatma Gandhi presided over the Belgaum session of INC in 1924.
The first woman president of INC was Mrs Annie Besant.
The first Indian woman president of the INC was Mrs Sarojini Naidu.
The first Englishman to become the president of INC was George Yule.
The first Muslim president of the INC was Badruddin Tayabji.
The president of INC at the time of India's independence was Acharya JB
Kriplani.

95.) Chronological order :-

The Second Afghan War (1878-80) happened during the tenure of Lytton.
The Ilbert Bill controversy happened in 1883-84.
INC was established in 1885.
Lord Curzon’s (1899-1905) tenure saw the appointment of Police
Commission (1902) under Sir Andrew Frazer to review police
administration.

NATIONAL MOVEMENT 1905-1918

MITITANT NATIONALISM

96.) Ghadr Party :-

The Ghadr Party was a revolutionary group organized around a weekly

newspaper The Ghadr with its headquarters at San Francisco and branches
along the US coast and in the Far East.
These revolutionaries included mainly ex-soldiers and peasants who had
migrated from the Punjab to the USA and Canada in search of better
employment opportunities.
Their plans were encouraged by two events in 1914—the Komagata Maru
incident and the outbreak of the First World War.
Moving spirits behind the Ghadr Party were Lala Hardayal, Ramchandra,
Bhagwan Singh, Kartar Singh Saraba, Bark Bhai Parmanand. The
Chiarites intended to Yring about a revolt in India.
Komagata Maru Incident:

The importance of this event lies in the fact that it created an explosive situation
in the Punjab.
Komagata Maru was the name of a ship which was carrying 370 passengers,
mainly Sikh and Punjabi Muslim would-be immigrants, from Singapore to
Vancouver. They were turned back by Canadian authorities after two months
of privation and uncertainty. It was generally believed that the Canadian
authorities were influenced by the British Government. The ship finally
anchored at Calcutta in September 1914. The inmates refused to board the
Punjab-bound train. In the ensuing with the police at Budge Budge near
Calcutta, 22 persons died.
Inflamed by this and with the outbreak of the War, the Ghadr leaders decided to
launch a violent attack on British rule in India.

97.) Militant approach to political work towards Indian Independence :-

By the dawn of the twentieth century, a band of nationalist thinkers had emerged who
advocated a more militant approach to political work.
These included Raj Narain Bose, Ashwini Kumar Datta, Aurobindo Ghosh
and Bengal; Vishnu Shastri Chiplunkar and Tilak. in Maharashtra; and Lala
Lajpat Rai in Punjab.
The bask' tenets of this school of thought were: hatred for foreign rule; since no hope
could be derived from it, Indians should work out their own salvation;

swaraj to be the goal of national movement; direct political action required;

belief in capacity Of the masses to challenge the authority;
personal sacrifices required and a true nationalist to be always ready for it.

Anti-Partition Campaign Under Moderates (1903-05): The leadership was

provided by men like Surendranath Banerjee, K.K. Mitra and
Prithwishchandra Ray. The methods adopted were petitions to the Government,
public meetings, memoranda, and propaganda through pamphlets and newspapers
such as Hitabadi, Sanjibani and Bengalee.

98.) 'Alipore Bomb Case' :-

It became a high profile case.

The British Government arrested Sri Aurobindo, a prominent Nationalist
Leader at the time, Barindra Ghose, and many young revolutionaries.
They were charged with "Conspiracy" or "waging war against the King" -
the equivalent of high treason and punishable with death by hanging.
The case dragged on with preliminary hearings in the Magistrate's court,
involving 1000 artefacts as evidence and 222 witnesses followed by a trial in
Sessions Court, involving 1438 exhibits and 206 witnesses. During this period,
the under-trial prisoners were illegally held in Presidency Jail under torturous
conditions (including solitary confinement).
The judgment was finally delivered by Judge Beachcroft on 6 May 1909 after
a protracted trial of one year.
Sri Aurobindo was acquitted of all charges with the Judge condemning the
flimsy nature of the evidence against him. Of the thirty-seven prisoners on trial,
Barindra Ghose, as the head of the Secret society of revolutionaries and
Ullaskar Dutt, as the maker of bombs, were given the death penalty (later
commuted to transportation for life), seventeen others were given varying
terms of imprisonment or transportation and the rest were acquitted.
It was the first state trial of such a high magnitude in India
It was not the first attempt of any extremist at overthrowing the
state.

SWADESHI AND BOYCOTT

99.) Congress split 1907 :-

The Indian National Congress(INC) which was established in 1885 was divided
into two groups(in the year 1907) mainly by extremists and moderates at
the Surat Session of the Congress.
The split between these two sections became outward at the end of Banaras
Session of congress (1905).
Moderates believed in the policy of settlement of minor issues with the
government by deliberations. But the extremists believed in agitation,
strikes and boycotts to force their demands.
The moderates opposed the resolutions on Swaraj, Swadeshi,
Boycott of foreign goods and National Education and requested to
withdraw from the policy laid down in the Calcutta session. But the extremists
were not ready to do so.
Lokmanya Tilak and his followers held a separate conference and declared
the formation of the Extremist Party.
 However they decided to work as a part of the Indian National Congress.
Difference between moderates and extremists further widened in Calcutta
Session of congress (1906) and there were attempts between them to elect
one of them as the president of congress.
In Surat Session (1907), extremists wanted Lala Lajpat Rai or Bal
Gangadhar Tilak as a President candidate of congress and Moderates
supported Dr. Rashbihari Ghosh to be the President.
But Lala Lajpat Rai stepped down and Dr. Rashbihari Ghosh became the
President. The British Government immediately launched a massive attack on
the extremists and Extremist newspaper were suppressed. Lokmanya Tilak,
their main leader, was sent to Mandalay jail for six years.

100.) “X” session of Indian National Congress :-

The Extremist Programme Emboldened by Dadabhai Naoroji's declaration

at the Calcutta session (1906) that self-government or swaraj was to
be the goal of the Congress, the Extremists gave a call for passive
resistance in addition to swadeshi and boycott.
This would include a boycott of government schools and colleges,
government service, courts, legislative councils, municipalities,
government titles, etc. so as to, as Aurobindo put it, "make the
administration under present conditions impossible by an organized refusal to
do anything-which will help either the British commerce in the exploitation of
the country or British officialdom in the administration of India.
At the Calcutta session of the Congress in December 1906, the Moderate
enthusiasm had cooled a bit because of the popularity of the Extremists and the
revolutionary terrorists and because of communal riots. Here, the Extremists
wanted either Tilak or Lajpat Rai as the president, while the Moderates
proposed the name of Dadabhai Naoroji, who was widely respected by all the
nationalists. Finally, Dadabhai Naoroji was elected as the president and
as a concession to the militants, the goal of the Indian National Congress was
defined as swarajya or self-government like the United Kingdom or the
colonies'.

101.) Swadeshi movement :-

By 1908, the open phase of Swadeshi movement (as different from the underground
revolutionary phase) of the movement was almost over. This was due to many
reasons-
1. There was severe government repression.
2..The movement failed to create an effective organisation or a party structure. It
threw up an entire gamut of techniques that came to be associated with Gandhian
politics—noncooperation, passive resistance, filling of British jails, social reform and
constructive work—but failed to give these techniques a disciplined focus.
3. The movement was rendered leaderless with most of the leaders either arrested
or deported by 1908 and with Aurobindo-Ghosh and Bipin. Chandra Pal
retiring from active politics.
4. Internal squabbles among leaders, magnified by the Surat split (1907), did much
harm to the movement.
5. The movement aroused the people but did not know how to tap the newly released
energy or how to find new forms to give expression to popular resentment.
6. The movement largely remained confined to the upper and middle classes
and zamindars, and failed to reach the masses—especially the peasantry.
7. Non-cooperation and passive resistance remained mere ideas.
8. It is difficult to sustain a mass-based movement at a high pitch for too long.

EXTREMIST LEADERSHIP
102.) Rowlatt Act :-

The Act clearly violated the rule of law, which the British often used to
justify their administration in India. Indian nationalists including Mahatma
Gandhi were vehement in their opposition to the Rowlatt bills due to such
arbitrary provisions.
There was no provision for banning all indian owned press. Seditious acts were
definitely penalize by the act though.
Some restrictive provisions on Press were made by the Vernacular Press
Act, 1878.
Despite the large number of protests, the Rowlatt Act came into effect on
10 March 1919.
In Punjab, protests against this Act continued quite actively and on April 10 two
leaders of the movement, Dr Satyapal and Dr Saifuddin Kitchlew were arrested.
· To protest these arrests, a public meeting was held on 13 April at Jallianwala Bagh in
Amritsar.
· General Dyer entered the park and ordered the troops to fire.
· Several hundreds of people died in this gunfire. This incident is known as
Jallianwala Bagh massacre.

103.) Home Rule Movement in India :-

Tilak and Annie Besant set up their separate leagues to avoid any friction.
Tilak's League was set up in April 1916 and was restricted to Maharashtra
(excluding Bombay city), Karnataka, Central Provinces and Berar. It
had six branches and the demands included swarajya, formation of
linguistic states and education in the vernacular languages.
Besant's League was set up in September 1916 in Madras and covered the
rest of India (including Bombay city). It had 200 branches, was
loosely organized as compared to Tilak's League and had George
Arundale as the organising secretary. Besides Arimdale, the main work was
done by B.W. Wadia and C.P. Ramaswamy Aiyar.
The Home Rule agitation was later joined by Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal
Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai, Chittaranjan Das, Madan Mohan Malaviya,
Mohammad Ali jinnah, Tej Bahadur Sapru and Lala Lajpat Rai.
Some of these leaders became heads of local branches. Many of the Moderate
Congressmen who were disillusioned with. Congress inactivity, and some
members of Gokhale's Servants of India Society also joined the agitation.
However, Anglo-Indians, most of the Muslims and nonbrahmins
from South did not join as they felt Home Rule would mean rule of
the Hindu majority, mainly the high caste.
By early 1915, Annie Besant had launched a campaign to demand
selfgovernment for India after the war on the lines of white
colonies.
She campaigned through her newspapers, "New India ind Commonweal",
and through public meetings and conferences. At the annual session of the
Congress in 1915 the efforts of Tilak and Besant met with some success. It was
decided that the Extremists be admitted to the Congress.
Although Besant failed to get the Congress to approve her scheme of
Home Rule Leagues, the Congress did commit itself to a programme of
educative propaganda and to a revival of local-level Congress committees. Not
willing to wait for too long, Besant laid the condition that if the Congress did
not implement its commitments, she would be free to set up her own League—
which she finally had to, as there was no response from the Congress.
The Home Rule Movement was the Indian response to the First World War in a
less charged but a more effective way than the response of Indians living abroad
which took the form of the romantic Ghadr adventure.
104.) Differences Between Moderates and Extremists :-
Moderates :
1. Social base—zamindars and upper middle classes in towns.
2. Ideological inspiration— western liberal thought and European history.
3. Believed in England's providential mission in India.
4. Believed political connections with Britain to be in India's social, political and
cultural interests.
5. Professed loyalty to the British Crown.
6. Believed that the movement should be limited to middle class intelligentsia;
masses not yet ready for participation in political work.
7. Demanded constitutional reforms and share for Indians in services.
8. Insisted on the use of constitutional methods only.
9. They were patriots and did not play the role of a comprador class.
Extremists :
1. Social base educated middle classes in towns and lower middle class.
2. Ideological inspiration—Indian history, cultural heritage and Hindu
traditional symbols.
3. Rejected 'providential mission theory' as an illusion.
4. Believed that political connections with Britain would perpetuate
British exploitation of India.
5. Believed that the British Crown was unworthy of claiming Indian loyalty.
6. Had immense faith in the capacity of masses to participate and to make sacrifices.
7. Demanded swaraj as panacea for Indian ills.
8. Did not hesitate to use extra-constitutional methods like boycott and
passive resistance to achieve their objectives.
9. They were patriots who made sacrifices for the sake of the country.

105.) The Lucknow Pact, 1916 :-

A significant development to take place at Lucknow was the coming together of

the Muslim League and the Congress and the presentation of common
demands by them to the Government.
This happened at a time when the Muslim League, now dominated by the
younger militant nationalists, was coming closer to the Congress objectives and
turning increasingly anti-imperialist. There were many reasons for this shift in
the League's position:

(i) Britain's refusal to help Turkey (ruled by the Khalifa who claimed religio-
political leadership of all Muslims) in its wars in the Balkans (1912-13) and with Italy
(during 1911) had infuriated the Muslims.
(ii) Announcement of cancelation partition of Bengal in 1911 had annoyed
those sections of Muslims who had supported the partition.
(iii) The refusal of the British Government in India to set up a university at
Aligarh with powers to affiliate colleges all over India also alienated some Muslims.
(iv) The younger League members were turning to bolder nationalist politics and were
trying to outgrow the limited political outlook of the Aligarh school. The Calcutta
session of the Muslim League (1912) had committed the League to "working
with other groups for a system of self-government suited to India,
provided it did not come in conflict with its basic objective of protection
of interests of the Indian Muslims".
Thus, the goal of self-government similar to that of the Congress brought both sides
closer.
(v) Younger Muslims were infuriated by the government repression during the War.
Maulana Azad's Al Hilal and Mohammad Ali's Comrade faced suppression
while the Ali brothers, Maulana Azad and Hasrat Mohani faced
internment. This generated anti-imperialist sentiments among the "Young
Party".
106.) Home Rule Movement (1916) :-

Two Home Rule Leagues were established, one by B.G. Tilak at Poona in
April 1916 and the other by Mrs. Annie Besant at Madras in September
1916.
The aim of the Movement was to get self-government for India within the
British Empire. It believed freedom was the natural right of all nations.
Moreover, the leaders of the Home Movement thought that India’s resources
were not being used for her needs.
The two Leagues cooperated with each other as well with the Congress
and the Muslim League in putting their demand for home rule.

107.) Lahore Session of the Indian National Congress (INC) :-

Gandhiji served as INC President only in 1924 in Belgaum, and generally

rescued himself from formal political responsibilities.
It was Pandit Nehru who was elected in the Lahore session. His election
signified the passing of the baton of leadership INC to the younger generation.
“Purna Swaraj”, or complete independence declaration was proclaimed
for the first time. Now the pace of politics picked up once more.
On 26 January 1930, “Independence Day” was observed, with the national
flag being hoisted in different venues.

108.) “India League” :-

V. K. Krishna Menon was the driving force behind it. It evolved from the
Commonwealth of India League (est. 1922) – which in turn evolved from
Annie Besant’s Home Rule for India League (est. 1916).
Menon became joint secretary of the Commonwealth of India League in 1928
and radicalized the organization, rejecting its objective of Dominion Status
for the greater goal of full independence and alienating figures such
as Besant in the process.
The League’s activities were closely linked to events in India.
It is often described as ‘the Sister Organization of the Congress Party in
India’.

WORLD WAR 1 and Indian response

109.) “The Policy of His Majesty's Government, with which the
Government of India are in complete accord, is that of increasing
association of Indians in every branch of the administration and the
gradual development of self-governing institutions with a view to the
progressive realisation of responsible government in India as an integral
part of the British Empire" :-

This statement coming from the then Secretary of State is closely associated
with the events of First World War (1914-18).
First Great War (1914-18) accelerated the national movement, especially under
the direction of Gandhiji.
The British Government was thus finding itself under a growing compulsion to
define its towards India.
On 20 August 1917, the Secretary of State for Lord Edwin S. Montagu, the
historic statement in the British Parliament: what is mentioned in the question
statement.
Thus, for the first time in the history of its rule in India, the British
Government made explicit its Policy towards India and announced the goal
of government for the colony.
 Thus, the act of 1919 was enacted.

110.) Nationalist response to the First World war :-

In the First World War (1914-1919), Britain allied with France, Russia, USA,
Italy and Japan against Germaney Austria Hungary and this period saw the
maturing of Indian nationalism. The nationalist response to British participation in
the War was three-fold:

the Moderates supported the empire in the War as a matter of duty;

the extremists, including Tilak (who was released in June 1914),
supported the war efforts in the mistaken belief that Britain would repay
India's loyalty with gratitude in the form of self-government;
the revolutionaries decided to utilise the opportunity to wage a war and
liberate the country.
The Indian supporters of British war efforts failed to see that the imperialist powers
were fighting precisely to safeguard their own colonies and markets.

111.)

In 1911, Delhi became capital of India, headed by a Commissioner and then

known as “Chief Commissioner’s Province”.
In key legislations of that era, in 1919 and 1935, Delhi was seen as a centrally-
administered territory.
In 1950 Delhi became a Part C state but in 1951 this category was
abolished.
All C-states got their own Legislative Assembly.
It is administered under Article 239 AA.
Article 239 AA was incorporated in the Constitution in 1992. It creates a
“special” constitutional set up for Delhi.
It has provisions for popularly elected assembly, a council of ministers
responsible to the assembly and a certain demarcation of responsibilities
between the LG and the council of ministers.
As per Article 239 AA (3) (a), the Delhi assembly can legislate on all those
matters listed in the State List and Concurrent List as are applicable to
union territories.
The public order, police and land are reserved for the LG.
This special set up worked well mainly because the same party held office at the
Centre as well as in Delhi for much of the time. Things changed when different
government ruled the city and the centre.

NATIONAL MOVEMENT 1919-1939

EMERGENCE OF GANDHI

112.) ‘Swaraj’ by Gandhi ji :-

The term Swaraj incorporates within it two words — Swa (Self) and Raj
(Rule).
It can be understood to mean both the rule of the self and rule over self.
Swaraj, in the context of the freedom struggle in India referred to freedom as a
constitutional and political demand, and as a value at the social-collective level.
That is why Swaraj was such an important rallying cry in the freedom
movement inspiring Tilak’s famous statement — “Swaraj is my birth right
and I shall have it.”
It is the understanding of Swaraj as Rule over the Self that was highlighted by
Mahatma Gandhi in his work Hind Swaraj where he states, “It is swaraj
 when we learn to rule ourselves”.
Swaraj is not just freedom but liberation in redeeming one’s self-
respect, self-responsibility, and capacities for self-realisation from
institutions of dehumanisation.
Understanding the real ‘Self ’, and its relation to communities and society, is
critical to the project of attaining swaraj. This is because only then can we learn
about ourselves and how best to govern ourselves.

113.) Pietermaritzburg, South Africa :-

External Affairs Minister recently undertook a train journey from Pentrich to

Pietermaritzburg reminding ourselves of Gandhi’s heritage.
It is a railway station in South Africa where a young Mahatma Gandhi was
thrown out of a “Whites-only” compartment 125 years ago. On June 7, 1893,
Gandhi, then a young lawyer, was thrown off the train’s first class compartment
at Pietermaritzburg station after he refused to give up his seat as ordered by
racially prejudiced officials.
The incident led him to develop his Satyagraha principles of peaceful
resistance and mobilize people in South Africa and in India against the
discriminatory rules of the British.

114.) Gandhian ideas of non-violence or Ahimsa :-

We usually understand non-violence to mean non-injury. A non-violent act is

thought to be one that does not cause physical injury. Gandhi changed this
meaning in two fundamental ways.
For him non-violence meant not just refraining from causing physical
harm, mental harm or loss of livelihood. It also meant giving up even
the thought of harming someone. For him ‘causing’ did not mean doing
the harm oneself.
For Gandhi, “I would be guilty of violence, if I helped someone in
harming someone else or if I benefited from a harmful act.”
In this sense Gandhi’s notion of violence was close to ‘structural violence’.
The second major change that Gandhi introduced was to give the idea of
nonviolence a positive meaning.
Not causing harm was not enough. Ahimsa required an element of
conscious compassion. Gandhi was opposed to passive spiritualism.
For him non-violence meant a positive and active pursuit of well-being and
goodness. Therefore those who practise nonviolence must exercise physical and
mental restraint under the gravest provocation.
Nonviolence is an extremely active force that has no room for cowardice or
weakness. Gandhi in fact went to the extent of stating that if non-violence were
inadequate to defend oneself, then it would be better to resort to violence than
take refuge in passivity in the name of non-violence.

115.) “Sarvodaya” :-

It is a Sanskrit term meaning 'universal uplift' or 'progress of all'. The

term was used by Mahatma Gandhi as the title of his 1908 translation of
John Ruskin's tract on political economy, Unto This Last, and Gandhi
came to use the term for the ideal of his own political philosophy
Later Gandhians, like the Indian nonviolence activist Vinoba Bhave,
embraced the term as a name for the social movement in post-
independence India which strove to ensure that self-determination and
equality reached all strata of Indian society.
Samantabhadra, an illustrious Digambara monk, as early as 2nd century
A.D., called the tirtha of Mahavira (24th Tirthankara) by the name
 sarvodaya.

116.)

He wanted to know the land of India and its peoples, and hence decided to
travel across India on the advice of Gokhale.
Such statements are often asked by UPSC (e.g. see Q on Home Rule Movement
CSP 2015 or Q on Champaran Satyagraha in CAPF 2016) despite their inherent
subjectivity.
His first major public appearance was at the opening of the Banaras
Hindu University (BHU) in February 1916. We have covered the speech in
the previous test.
In 1915, Gandhi returned to his homeland after two decades of residence
abroad. These years had been spent for the most part in South Africa, where he
went as a lawyer, and in time became a leader of the Indian community in that
territory.
As the historian Chandran Devanesan has remarked, South Africa was “the
making of the Mahatma”.
It was in South Africa that Mahatma Gandhi first forged the distinctive
techniques of non-violent protest known as satyagraha, first promoted
harmony between religions, and first alerted upper-caste Indians to their
discriminatory treatment of low castes and women.

117.) Civil Disobedience Movement :-

On 12th March, 1930: Gandhi began his famous March to Dandi from
Sabarmati.
He reached the coast of Dandi on 5 April 1930 after marching a distance of
200 miles and on 6 April formally launched the Civil Disobedience
Movement by breaking the salt laws.
On 9th April, Mahatma Gandhi laid out the programme of the movement which
included making of salt in every village in violation of the existing salt laws;
picketing by women before the shops selling liquor, opium and foreign clothes
etc.
He also organised the bonfires of foreign clothes; spinning clothes by using
charkha fighting untouchability; boycotting of schools and colleges by students
and resigning from government jobs by the people.
Over and above all these, the programme also called upon the people not
to pay taxes to the government.

118.) “Praja Mandals” :-

While Mahatma Gandhi’s mass appeal was undoubtedly genuine – and in the
context of Indian politics, without precedent – it must also be stressed that his
success in broadening the basis of nationalism was based on careful
organisation. New branches of the Congress were set up in various parts of
India.
A series of “Praja Mandals” were established to promote the nationalist creed
in the princely states.
Gandhiji encouraged the communication of the nationalist message in the
mother tongue, rather than in the language of the rulers, English.
Thus the provincial committees of the Congress were based on
linguistic regions, rather than on the artificial boundaries of British India.
In these different ways nationalism was taken to the farthest corners of the
country and embraced by social groups previously untouched by it.
119.) Gandhiji’s speech at Banaras in February 1916 :-

On Gokhale’s advice, Gandhiji spent a year travelling around British India,

getting to know the land and its peoples. His first major public appearance was
at the opening of the Banaras Hindu University (BHU) in February 1916.
Among the invitees to this event were the princes and philanthropists whose
donations had contributed to the founding of the BHU. Also present were
important leaders of the Congress, such as Annie Besant. Compared to these
dignitaries, Gandhiji was relatively unknown. He had been invited on account
of his work in South Africa, rather than his status within India.
When his turn came to speak, Gandhiji charged the Indian elite with a lack of
concern for the labouring poor. The opening of the BHU, he said, was
“certainly a most gorgeous show”. But he worried about the contrast
between the “richly bedecked noblemen” present and “millions of the
poor” Indians who were absent.
Gandhiji told the privileged invitees that “there is no salvation for India
unless you strip yourself of this jewellery and hold it in trust for
your countrymen in India”.
“There can be no spirit of self-government about us,” he went on, “if
we take away or allow others to take away from the peasants almost
the whole of the results of their labour. Our salvation can only come
through the farmer. Neither the lawyers, nor the doctors, nor the rich landlords
are going to secure it.”

120.) Round Table Conferences :-

The three Round Table Conferences of 1930–32 were a series of conferences

organized by the British Government and Indian national congress was
participant to discuss constitutional reforms in India. These started in
November 1930 and ended in December 1932.
They were conducted as per the recommendation of Jinnah to Viceroy
Lord Irwin and Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald, and by the report
submitted by the Simon Commission in May 1930. Demands for swaraj,
or self-rule, in India had been growing increasingly strong.
The Congress had boycotted the first conference was requested to come
to a settlement by Sapru, M. R. Jayakar and V. S. Srinivasa Sastri.
A settlement between Mahatma Gandhi and Viceroy Lord Irwin known as the
Gandhi–Irwin Pact was reached and Gandhi was appointed as the sole
representative of the Congress to the second Round Table Conference.
Although MacDonald was still Prime Minister of Britain, he was by this time
heading a coalition Government (the "National Government") with a
Conservative majority.
It was held in London in September 1931.

121.) Gandhiji listed seven rules as “essential for every Satyagrahi in

India” :-
He believed that these rules should be taught to everyone. he said that a Satyagrahi

have living faith in God

have faith in the inherent goodness of human nature
be a habitual khadi wearer and spinner
must believe in truth and non-violence and have faith in the inherent
goodness of human nature which he expects to evoke by suffering in the
satyagraha effort
must be leading a chaste life, and be willing to die or lose all his
possessions
must abstain from alcohol and other intoxicants
 must willingly carry out all the rules of discipline that are issued
must obey the jail rules unless they are specially devised to hurt his self-
respect

122.) Fasting :-
Fasting was made a major instrument for Satygraha in British India by Gandhi. He
undertook fast unto death for the following causes.
a) Ahmedabad Mill Workers strike
b) Communal Award that gave separate electorate to untouchables
c) In 1947 for communal harmony

Statement 1: In 1918, the workers in the textile mills of Ahmedabad asked their
masters for a 35% increase in wages. The owners offered a 20% increase.
Gandhi, an independent outsider, advised the workers to go on a strike and said
that he will be on hunger strike until the demand was conceded.
Statement 2: Gandhi believed that, if not stopped, this award would cause
severe social division and would perpetuate untouchability in India.
Statement 3: Two such fasts were kept, one in 1947 and another in 1948. He
1947 fast ended when Gandhi received a signed declaration from several
parties.

NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT
123.) Khilafat Movement :-

The Khilafat Movement, (1919-1920) was a movement of Indian Muslims, led

by Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali.
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad one of the founders of the Khilafat movement.
It demanded the following: The Turkish Sultan or Khalifa must retain
control over the Muslim sacred places in the erstwhile Ottoman
empire; the jazirat-ul-Arab (Arabia, Syria, Iraq, Palestine) must
remain under Muslim sovereignty; and the Khalifa must be left with
sufficient territory to enable him to defend the Islamic faith.
The Congress supported the movement and Mahatma Gandhi sought to
conjoin it to the Non-cooperation Movement.

124.) Non-Cooperation Movement :-

M.K. Gandhi issued a manifesto in March 1920, announcing his doctrine

of non-violent Non-Cooperation Movement.
Gandhi was the main force behind the movement and C.R. Das moved the
main resolution on non-cooperation in the annual session of the Congress
in Nagpur in 1920 and played a major role in promoting the movement.
A successful lawyer, he boycotted the law courts and gave up a lucrative
practice. His three subordinates and supporters, Birendranath Samsal in
Midnapore, J.M. Sertgupta in Chittagong and Subhash Bose in
Calcutta played a major role in uniting the Hindus and Muslims.
All these led to the fomalization of the movement.

125.) Anti-Simon Movement :-

All political groups decided to boycott Simon Commission because Simon

Commission has no Indian member.
 The Simon Commission was a group of 7 MPs from Britain who was sent to
India in 1928 to study constitutional reforms and make recommendations
to the government.
The Commission was originally named the "Indian Statutory
Commission".
One of its members was Clement Attlee, who became committed to Indian
independence by 1934 and achieved that goal as Prime Minister in 1947 in
the granting of independence to India and Pakistan
Some people in India were outraged and insulted that the Simon Commission,
which was to determine the future of India, did not include a single Indian
member.
The Indian National Congress, at its December 1927 meeting in Madras
(now Chennai), resolved to boycott the Commission and challenged Lord
Birkenhead, the Secretary of State for India, to draft a constitution that would
be acceptable to the Indian populace.
A faction of the Muslim League, led by Mohammed Ali Jinnah, also
decided to boycott the Commission.

126.) The Nehru Report of 1928 :-

It was prepared by an All Parties Conference chaired by Motilal Nehru with his
son Jawaharlal Nehru acting as secretary.
There were nine other members in this committee.
The final report was signed by Motilal Nehru, Ali Imam, Tej Bahadur Sapru,
Madhav Shrihari Aney, Mangal Singh, Shuaib Qureshi, Subhas Chandra
Bose, and G. R. Pradhan.
Qureshi disagreed with some of the recommendations.
Some of the important elements of the report

Unlike the eventual Government of India Act 1935 it contained a Bill of

Rights.
All power of government and all authority - legislative, executive and
judicial - are derived from the people and the same shall be exercised
through organisations established by, or under, and in accord with, this
Constitution.
There shall be no state religion; men and women shall have equal
rights as citizens.
There should be federal form of government with residuary powers
vested in the centre.(Some scholars, such as Moore 1988 considered the
Nehru Report proposal as essentially unitary rather than federal);
It included a description of the machinery of government including a proposal
for the creation of a Supreme Court and a suggestion that the provinces
should be linguistically determined.
It did not provide for separate electorates for any community or
weightage for minorities. Both of these were liberally provided in the eventual
Government of India Act 1935.
However, it did allow for the reservation of minority seats in
provinces having a minorities of at least ten percent, but this was to be
in strict proportion to the size of the community.
The language of the Union shall be Indian, which may be written either in
Devanagari (Hindi/Sanskrit), Telugu, Kannada, Marathi, Gujarati,
Bengali or Tamil in character. The use of the English language shall be
permitted.
The Nehru Report, along with that of the Simon Commission was available to
participants in the three Indian Round Table Conferences (1930–1932).

127.) Which of the following situations led to the Congress constituting a committee
for that ultimately produced the Nehru report in 1928?
 The then Secretary of State, Lord Birkenhead, challenged the Indians to
produce a Constitution that would be acceptable to all.
This challenge was accepted by the Congress, which convened an all party
meeting in 1928.
A committee consisting of eight was constituted to draw up a blueprint for the
future Constitution of India. It was headed by Motilal Nehru.
The Report published by this Committee came to be known as the Nehru
Report.
The Report favoured: Dominion Status as the next immediate step;
certain fundamental rights that would be given to Indians etc.

CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT

128.) Dandi March :-

Gandhi wrote, “The salt monopoly is thus a fourfold curse. It deprives the
people of a valuable easy village industry, involves wanton destruction of
property that nature
produces in abundance, the destruction itself means more national expenditure,
and fourthly, to crown this folly, an unheard-of tax of more than 1,000
per cent is exacted from a starving people.”
He further explained, “In order to prevent the use of salt that has not paid the
tax which is at times even fourteen times its value, the Government destroys the
salt it cannot sell profitably. Thus it taxes the nation’s vital necessity; it prevents
the public from manufacturing it and destroys what nature manufactures
without effort.”
The Dandi march was launched against this background and became successful
in allowing people the right to manufacture salt.

129.) Karachi Session :-

The Karachi Session of the Indian National Congress is famously known for
1. A concrete Fundamental Rights and Economic Programme
2. Endorsing the Gandhi Irwin Pact
The draft constitution of India was called “Nehru Committee Report“.
This report was submitted in 1928 at the Lucknow conference of all the parties,
where Jinnah opposed it.
In the Calcutta Session 1929 of INC, the Nehru Report was accepted by a
majority vote. The congress gave an ultimatum to the British Government to accept
the recommendation of the report by the end of 1929, and also threatened for another
mass movement in case the report is not accepted. The report was not accepted by the
Government.
Karachi Session :-
Some important aspects of these resolutions were:
· Basic civil rights of freedom of speech, Freedom of Press, Freedom of assembly,
Freedom of association, Equality before law
· Elections on the basis of Universal Adult Franchise
· Free and compulsory primary education
· Substantial reduction in rent and taxes
· Better conditions for workers including a living wage, limited hours of work
· Protection of women and peasants Government ownership or control of key
industries, mines, and transport
· Protection of Minorities.
Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were executed a week before the Pact was
endorsed. So, there was anger in the public why Gandhi signed the pact.

130.) Red Shirts movement :-

 In 1929, the Khudai Khidmatgars or the Red Shirts movement (“Servants
of God”) movement, led by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, nonviolently
mobilized to oppose the British in India’s Northwest Frontier
Province.
Ghaffar Khan and the Khudai Khidmatgar movement inspired thousands of
Pashtuns (also called Pathans), who were known as fierce warriors, and others
to lay down their arms and use civil resistance to challenge British rule.
Although Ghaffar Khan’s initial reform efforts predated his involvement with
Gandhi and the Indian National Congress (INC), he later formed a formal
alliance with them and became a formidable force during and following the
INC’s civil disobedience campaign of 1930-1931, helping the INC win
provincial elections in 1937.
Members of the movement were known as “Red Shirts” because of the red
uniforms they wore. Initially they set to work organizing village projects and
opening schools, but soon they became part of the broader Indian
Independence movement, accepting without retaliation some of the most
fierce British repression—mass firings on unarmed crowds, torture, personal
humiliation, setting homes and fields on fire, and even the destruction of entire
villages.
Inspired by the dissidence of the INC and the charismatic spiritual-political
leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, the Red Shirts blossomed in 1930 during
the civil disobedience movement.

131.)

C. Rajagopalachari led a salt march from Trichinopoly to Vedaranniyam on

the Tanjore coast in Tamil Nadu, in support of the Civil Disobedience
Movement.
K. Kelappan, a Nair Congress leader, launched the Vaikom Satyagraha and
marched from Calicut to Payanneer in defiance of salt laws.
C. Rajagopalachari was arrested on April 30, 1930.
Jawaharlal Nehru was also actively involved in the movement and was arrested
on April 17, 1930 for defiance of the salt law. He formulated a radical agrarian
programme and suggested formation of the Constituent Assembly as the prime
political slogan.
P. Krishna Pillai defended the national flag and resisted lathicharge on the
Calicut beach on November 11, 1930. He later founded the Kerala
Communist Movement.

132.) The Civil Disobedience Movement :-

The Civil Disobedience Movement was called off by Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
Below were the proposed conditions of the Gandhi-Irwin pact:-

Discontinuation of the Civil disobedience movement by the Indian National

Congress.
Participation by the Indian National Congress in the Second Round Table
Conference.
Withdrawal of all ordinances issued by the British Government imposing curbs
on the activities of the Indian National Congress.
Withdrawal of all prosecutions relating to several types of offenses except those
involving violence.
Release of prisoners arrested for participating in the Civil disobedience
movement.
Removal of the tax on salt, which allowed the Indians to produce,
trade, and sell salt legally and for their own private use
In reply, the British Government agreed to:-
 Withdraw all ordinances and end prosecutions.
Release all political prisoners, except those guilty of violence.
Permit peaceful picketing of liquor and foreign cloth shops.
Restore confiscated properties of the satyagrahis.
Permit free collection or manufacture of salt by persons near the sea-
coast.
Lift the ban over the congress.

ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE

133.) Separate Electorates :-

Gandhi opposed separate electorates because he believed It would mean perpetual

bondage of the harijans & It would lead to social disharmony and lack of unity.
Separate Electorates mean the community to which the electorate belongs would
choose their own leaders via an election in which the candidates of only their
community would be allowed to contest and only their community members would
vote.
This would mean that the elections for choosing the leaders of that particular
community would be held separately and would not come under general elections.
He believed this system will institutionally cement the untouchable status of
harijans forever.
Gandhi, who was in jail in Poona, declared, “I am certain that the question of separate
electorates for the Untouchables is the modern manufacture of satanic government.
I will resist it with my life.” He was opposed to separate electorates and saw three
Indias: Hindus, Muslims, and Untouchables.

134.) Major Events/Occurrences in 1930-1940s :-

Ramsay MacDonald, the British Prime Minister, announced a scheme of

representation of the minorities, which came to be known as the
Communal Award.
The award not only continued separate electorates for the Muslims, Sikhs,
Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians and Europeans but also extended it to
the depressed classes (scheduled castes).
Gandhiji was distressed over this extension of the principle of communal
representation to the depressed classes and undertook fast unto death in
Yeravada Jail (Poona) to get the award modified.
At last, there was an agreement between the leaders of the Congress and
the depressed classes.
The agreement, known as Poona Pact, retained the Hindu joint electorate
and gave reserved seats to the depressed classes.
Lord Mountbatten became the first governor-general of the new
Dominion of India.
He swore in Jawaharlal Nehru as the first prime minister of independent India.
The Constituent Assembly of India formed in 1946 became the
Parliament of the Indian Dominion.
The members of the interim government were members of the Viceroy’s
Executive Council.
The Viceroy continued to be the head of the Council. But, Jawaharlal Nehru
was designated as the Vice-President of the Council.

135.) Socialist Party :-

 The Socialist Party went through many splits and reunions leading to the
formation of many socialist parties.
These parties were Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party, the Praja Socialist Party
and Samyukta Socialist Party.
Jayaprakash Narayan, Achyut Patwardhan, Asoka Mehta, Acharya
Narendra Dev, Rammanohar Lohia and S.M. Joshi were among the
leaders of the socialist parties.
Many parties in contemporary India, like the Samajwadi Party, the
Rashtriya Janata Dal, Janata Dal (United) and the Janata Dal
(Secular) trace their origins to the Socialist Party.
Learning: The origins of the Socialist Party can be traced back to the mass
movement stage of the Indian National Congress in the pre-independence era.
The Congress Socialist Party (CSP) was formed within the Congress in 1934 by
a group of young leaders who wanted a more radical and egalitarian
Congress.
In 1948, the Congress amended its constitution to prevent its
members from having a dual party membership. This forced the
Socialists to form a separate Socialist Party in 1948. The Party’s electoral
performance caused much disappointment to its supporters.
Although the Party had presence in most of the states of India, it could achieve
electoral success only in a few pockets.
The socialists believed in the ideology of democratic socialism which
distinguished them both from the Congress as well as from the Communists.

136.) Congress socialist party :-

The origins of the Socialist Party can be traced back to the mass
movement stage of the Indian National Congress in the pre-
independence era.
The Congress Socialist Party (CSP) was formed within the Congress in
1934 by a group of young leaders who wanted a more radical and
egalitarian Congress.
In 1948, the Congress amended its constitution to prevent its members
from having a dual party membership.
This forced the Socialists to form a separate Socialist Party in 1948.
The socialists believed in the ideology of democratic socialism which
distinguished them both from the Congress as well as from the Communists.
They criticised the Congress for favouring capitalists and landlords and for
ignoring the workers and the peasants.
But the socialists faced a dilemma when in 1955 the Congress declared its
goal to be the socialist pattern of society.
Thus it became difficult for the socialists to present themselves as an effective
alternative to the Congress. Some of them, led by Rammanohar Lohia,
increased their distance from and criticism of the Congress party.
Some others like Asoka Mehta advocated a limited cooperation with the
Congress.
The Socialist Party went through through many splits and reunions leading to
the formation of many socialist parties. These included the Kisan Mazdoor
Praja Party, the Praja Socialist Party and Samyukta Socialist Party.
Jayaprakash Narayan, Achyut Patwardhan, Asoka Mehta, Acharya
Narendra Dev, Rammanohar Lohia and S.M. Joshi were among the
leaders of the socialist parties.
Many parties in contemporary India, like the Samajwadi Party, the Rashtriya
Janata Dal, Janata Dal (United) and the Janata Dal (Secular) trace their origins
to the Socialist Party.

137.) Karachi Session, 1931 :-

Some of the provisions are as follows:
1. All citizens are equal before the law, irrespective of religion, caste, creed or sex.
2. No disability attaches to any citizen, by reason of his or her religion, caste, creed or
sex, in regard to public employment, office of power or honour, and in the exercise of
any trade or calling.
3. The franchise shall be on the basis of universal adult suffrage.
4. Woman shall have the right to vote, to represent and the right to hold public
offices. (Report of the Sub-Committee, ‘Woman’s Role in Planned Economy’,
1947: 37-38).

138.) Demand for a Constituent Assembly :-

In 1934 (ONLY), the Indian National Congress made the demand for a
Constituent Assembly.
During the Second World War, this assertion for an independent Constituent
Assembly formed only of Indians gained momentum and this was convened in
December 1946.
Between December 1946 and November 1949, the Constituent Assembly
drafted a constitution for independent India.

139.) Political parties and their place of establishment :-

1. Communist Party of India: Kanpur
2. Congress Socialist Party: Bombay
3. Swaraj Party: Gaya

In 1925 a communist conference was organised in Kanpur. The conference was

convened by a man called "Satyabhakta".At the conference Satyabhakta
argued for a 'National communism' and against subordination under
Comintern. Being outvoted by the other delegates, Satyabhakta left both the
conference venue in protest. The conference adopted the name 'Communist
Party of India'.
CSP was established in Bombay. We have covered the details in the last test.
It was established as the Congress-Khilafat Swarajaya Party, formed in
1923 after the Gaya annual conference in December 1922 of the National
Congress, that sought greater self-government and political freedom for the
Indian people from the British Raj. The main leaders were Motilal Nehru and
C.R. Das, among others.

140.)

It was Shyamji Krishan who founded the Indian Home Rule Society,
India House and The Indian Sociologist in London. As an admirer of
Lokmanya Tilak he supported him during the Age of Consent bill
controversy of 1890.
M.S. Subbulakshmi: She is Bharat Ratna Carnatic Musician, the
United Nations issued a stamp to mark the birth centenary of M.S.
Subbulakshmi recently. Subbulakshmi performed at the UN fifty years ago,
making her the first Indian to have the honour.
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu was a distinguished promoter for the Vaishnava
School of Bhakti Yoga. The Bhakti movement initiated by him strove to
eradicate the evils of caste and feudal systems of medieval India. He
propagated the worship of Shri Krishna and popularized the chanting of
“Hare Krishna Mantra” to all without any discrimination. Ministry of
Culture has released a Commemorative Non-Circulation Coin of ₹500
and a Circulation Coin of ₹10 as part of year-long celebrations of
commemoration of “500th Anniversary of Shri Krishna Chaitanya
Mahaprabhu’s Coming to Vrindavan”.
 In 1934, Jagjivan Ram founded the Akhil Bhartiya Ravidas Mahasabha
in Calcutta and the All India Depressed Classes League. Through these
Organizations he involved the depressed classes in the freedom struggle. In
1935, Babuji appeared before the Hammond Commission at Ranchi and
demanded, for the first time, voting rights for the Dalits.

141.) Important elements in the popular Indian movements :-

1. Social inequality and the unequal distribution of Resources
2. Capturing of Parliamentary democracy by the elite
3. Exploitation of peasants

In the old social movements, the role of political parties was central. Political
scientist Rajni Kothari attributes the surge of social movements in India in the
1970s to people’s growing dissatisfaction with parliamentary democracy.
Kothari argues that the institutions of the state have been captured by
elites.
Due to this, electoral representation by political parties is no longer
an effective way for the poor to get their voices heard. People left out
by the formal political system join social movements or non-party political
formations in order to put pressure on the state from outside.
Gail Omvedt in her book Reinventing Revolution points out that concerns about
social inequality and the unequal distribution of resources continue
to be important elements in these movements. Peasant movements have
mobilised for better prices for their produce and protested against the removal
of agricultural subsidies. Dalit labourers have acted collectively to ensure that
they are not exploited by upper-caste landowners and money-lenders. The
women’s movement has worked on issues of gender discrimination in diverse
spheres like the workplace and within the family.

142.) “India League” :-

During the colonial era, the “India League” was a Britain-based

organization whose main aim was "to Achieve full independence and
self-government for India".
V. K. Krishna Menon was the driving force behind it. It evolved from the
Commonwealth of India League (est. 1922) – which in turn evolved from
Annie Besant’s Home Rule for India League (est. 1916).
Menon became joint secretary of the Commonwealth of India League in 1928
and radicalized the organization, rejecting its objective of Dominion Status for
the greater goal of full independence and alienating figures such as Besant in
the process.
The League’s activities were closely linked to events in India. It is often
described as ‘the Sister Organization of the Congress Party in India’.

143.) “Red Shirts Movement” :-

Khudai Khidmatgar literally translates as the servants of God, represented a

"non-violent struggle" against the British Empire by the Pashtuns of the
North-West Frontier Province of British India (now in Pakistan).
Also called "Red Shirts", it was originally a social reform organisation
focussing on education and the elimination of blood feuds.
The movement was led by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan. It gradually became
more political as it was being targeted by the British Raj, by 1929 its leadership
was exiled from the province and large numbers were arrested.
Seeking allies, it approached the Muslim League and Indian National Congress,
rebuffed by the former in 1929 the movement formally joined the
Congress party.
NATIONAL MOVEMENT 1939-INDEPENDENCE
WORLD WAR 2
144.) “Deliverance Day” :-

The Muslim League celebrated the “Deliverance Day” in British India in the
wake of Congress Ministries resigning from the Provinces in 1939 on
account of the British involving Indians in the Second World War
without consulting them.
In 1937 elections were held under the provisions of the Government of India Act
of 1935. Congress Ministries were formed in seven states of India. In 1939 the
Second World War broke out.
The British Government without consulting the people of India involved the
country in the war. The Congress vehemently opposed it and as a mark of
protest the Congress Ministries in the Provinces resigned on 12 December
1939.
The Muslim League celebrated that day as the Deliverance Day.
In March 1940 the Muslim League demanded the creation of
Pakistan.

145.) Provincial Elections, 1937 :-

Only about 10 to 12 per cent of the population enjoyed the right to vote.
The Congress did well in the elections, winning an absolute majority in five
out of eleven provinces and forming governments in seven of them. It
did badly in the constituencies reserved for Muslims, but the Muslim
League also fared poorly, polling only 4.4 per cent of the total Muslim
vote cast in this election.
The League failed to win a single seat in the North West Frontier
Province (NWFP) and could capture only two out of 84 reserved
constituencies in the Punjab and three out of 33 in Sind. In the United
Provinces, the Muslim League wanted to form a joint government with the
Congress.
The Congress had won an absolute majority in the province, so it rejected the
offer. Some scholars argue that this rejection convinced the League that if India
remained united, then Muslims would find it difficult to gain political power
because they would remain a minority.

146.) ‘August Offer’ of 1940 :-

The ‘August Offer’ of 1940 accepted important demands of the Indian freedom
movement leadership regarding "Constituent Assembly of India elected
on the basis of adult franchise".
It was in 1934 that the idea of a Constituent Assembly for India was
put forward for the first time by M. N. Roy, a pioneer of communist
movement in India and an advocate of radical democratism.
In 1935, the Indian National Congress (INC), for the first time,
officially demanded a Constituent Assembly to frame the Constitution of
India.
In 1938, Jawaharlal Nehru, on behalf the INC declared that ‘the
Constitution of free India must be framed, without outside
interference, by a Constituent Assembly elected on the basis of adult
franchise’.
The demand was finally accepted in principle by the British Government in
what is known as the ‘August Offer’ of 1940.
147.) First Satyagrahi to start Individual Satyagraha :-
The aims of launching individual satyagrahas were:
(i) To show that nationalist patience was not due to weakness;
(ii) to express people’s feeling that they were not interested in the war and that
they made no distinction between Nazism and the double autocracy that ruled India;
and
(iii) to give another opportunity to the Government to accept Congress’ demands
peacefully.

The demand of the Satyagrahi would be the freedom of speech against the
war through an anti-war declaration. If the Government did not arrest
the Satyagrahi, he or she would not only repeat it but move into villages and
start a march towards Delhi, thus precipitating a movement which came to be
known as the “Delhi Chalo Movement”.
Vinoba Bhave was the first to offer the satyagraha and Nehru, the
second. By May 1941, 25,000 people had been convicted for individual civil
disobedience.
The Congress leaders, released in December 1941, were anxious to defend
Indian Territory and go to the aid of the Allies. The CWC overrode Gandhi’s and
Nehru’s objections and passed a resolution offering to cooperate with the
Government in the defence of India, if

(i) Full independence was given after the war, and

(ii) Substance of power was transferred immediately. It was at this time that
Gandhi designated Nehru as his chosen successor.

148.) The ‘August Offer’ of 1940 :-

It was in 1934 that the idea of a Constituent Assembly for India was put
forward for the first time by M. N. Roy, a pioneer of communist movement
in India and an advocate of radical democratism.
In 1935, the Indian National Congress (INC), for the first time, officially
demanded a Constituent Assembly to frame the Constitution of India.
In 1938, Jawaharlal Nehru, on behalf the INC declared that ‘the Constitution
of free India must be framed, without outside interference, by a
Constituent Assembly elected on the basis of adult franchise’.
The demand was finally accepted in principle by the British Government in
what is known as the ‘August Offer’ of 1940.

QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT

149.) Quit India movement :-

It was started in 1942 by Gandhi but it drew protests from the All-India
Congress Committee demanding what Gandhi called was “An Orderly
British Withdrawal” from India. This forced the British to act immediately
and soon all the senior INC leaders were imprisoned without trial
within hours of Gandhi’s speech.
On 14th July 1942, the Congress Working Committee at Wardha had
passed a resolution demanding complete independence from the
British government. On August 8, 1942, Mahatma Gandhi made a Do or
Die call in his Quit India speech which was delivered in Bombay at the
Gowalia Tank Maidan.
Even though the speech caused some turmoil within the party and even leaders
like Jawaharlal Nehru and Maulana Azad were apprehensive and
critical of the call, but backed it and stuck with Gandhi’s leadership until the
end.
Several national leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Abdul Kalam Azad,
Jawaharlal Nehru and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel were arrested.
 The Congress was declared an unlawful association, leaders were
arrested and its offices all over the country were raided and their funds were
frozen.
The first half of the movement was peaceful with demonstrations and
processions. The peaceful protest was carried till Mahatma Gandhi’s
release.
The second half of the movement was violent with raids and setting fire
at post offices, government buildings and railway stations.
Lord Linlithgow adopted the policy of violence.
The Viceroy’s Council of Muslims, Communist Party and Americans
supported Britishers.

150.) Indian National Army (INA) :-

The Indian National Army was an armed force formed by Indian nationalists in 1942
in Southeast Asia during World War II.

Its aim was to secure Indian independence from British rule. It formed an
alliance with Imperial Japan in the latter's campaign in the Southeast Asian
theatre of WWII.
The army was first formed in 1942 under Mohan Singh, by Indian PoWs
of the British-Indian Army captured by Japan in the Malayan campaign and at
Singapore.
This first INA collapsed and was disbanded in December that year after
differences between the INA leadership and the Japanese military over its role
in Japan's war in Asia.
It was revived under the leadership of Subhas Chandra Bose after his
arrival in Southeast Asia in 1943.
The creation of the INA by Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose during the Second
World War was the clearest manifestation of the linkages established between
India and overseas Indians during the freedom struggle.

151.) Azad Hind Government :-

Known as Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind, it was supported by the Axis

powers of Imperial Japan, Nazi Germany, the Italian Social
Republic, and their allies.
He had launched a struggle to free India from British rule under the banner of
the provisional government-in exile during the latter part of the Second World
War.
Objectives:

Bose was convinced that armed struggle was the only way to achieve
independence for India. He had been a leader of the radical wing of the
Indian National Congress in the late 1920s and 1930s, rising to become
Congress president in 1938 and 1939 but was ousted following differences
with Mahatma Gandhi and the Congress leadership.
Under his provisional government, the Indians living abroad had been united.
The Indian National Army drew ex- prisoners and thousands of civilian
volunteers from the Indian expatriate population in Malaya (present-day
Malaysia) and Burma (now Myanmar).
The formation:

On October 21, 1943, in his address announcing the setting up of the

provisional government, he said India’s Army of Liberation was drawn up in
military formation on the battlefield of Singapore which was once the bulwark
of the British Empire.
 Under the provisional government, Bose was the head of the state, the
prime minister and the minister for war and foreign affairs. Captain
Lakshmi headed the women’s organisation while S A Ayer headed the
publicity and propaganda wing.
Revolutionary leader Rash Behari Bose was designated as the supreme
advisor. The provisional government was also formed in the Japanese-
occupied Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The islands were reoccupied by
the British in 1945.
Bose’s death was seen as the end to the Azad Hind movement. The Second
World War, also ended in 1945 with the defeat of the Axis powers.
Seventy years after Subhash Chandra Bose assumed the leadership of the ‘Azad
Hind Government’, PM Narendra Modi will hoist the national flag and unveil a
plaque to celebrate the 75th anniversary of the erstwhile government on
October 21 at the Red Fort.

152.) Timeline:

1937-39 Congress ministries come to power in seven out of 11 provinces of

British India
1940 The Muslim League moves a resolution at Lahore demanding a
measure of autonomy for the Muslim-majority areas
1946 Elections are held in the provinces. The Congress wins massively in the
general constituencies. The League’s success in the Muslim seats is equally
spectacular
March to June The British Cabinet sends a three-member Cabinet
Mission to Delhi
August The Muslim League decides on “Direct Action” for winning Pakistan.

CABINET MISSION
153.) Cabinet Mission's members :-

The Cabinet Mission was sent to India to negotiate the constitutional position of
India and the future of British empire in India.
It consisted of three members - Lord Pethick Lawrence, Sir Stafford
Cripps and A V Alexander. The Cabinet Mission published its plan on 1946.
It was notable that there was no Indian member in the Mission.

154.)
M.K Gandhi :- “Today you have worn on your heads a crown of thorns. The seat of
power is a nasty thing. You have to remain ever wakeful on that seat….you have to be
more humble and forbearing…now there will be no end to your being tested.”
Nehru :- "India will awake to a life of freedom….we step out from the old to the
new…we end today a period of ill fortune and India discovers herself again. The
achievement we celebrate today is but a step, an opening of
opportunity…”

155.) Mountbatten Plan :-

On February 20, 1947, the British Prime Minister Clement Atlee declared that
the British rule in India would end by June 30, 1948; after which the power
would be transferred to responsible Indian hands.
This announcement was followed by the agitation by the Muslim League
demanding partition of the country. Again on June 3, 1947, the British
Government made it clear that any Constitution framed by the Constituent
Assembly of India (formed in 1946) cannot apply to those parts of
the country which were unwilling to accept it.
 On the same day (June 3, 1947), Lord Mountbatten, the viceroy of India, put
forth the partition plan, known as the Mountbatten Plan.
The plan was accepted by the Congress and the Muslim League.
Immediate effect was given to the plan by enacting the Indian
Independence Act which ended the British rule in India and declared India
as an independent and sovereign state from August 15, 1947.
It provided for the partition of India and creation of two independent
dominions of India and Pakistan with the right to secede from the British
Commonwealth.

156.) Partition of India :-

On 20 June 1947, the Bengal Legislative Assembly met to decide the future of
the Bengal Presidency, on whether it would be a United Bengal within India or
Pakistan; or be divided into East and West Bengal. At the preliminary joint
session, the assembly decided by 120 votes to 90 that it should remain
united if it joined the new Constituent Assembly of Pakistan. Later, a
separate meeting of legislators from West Bengal decided by 58 votes to 21
that the province should be partitioned and that West Bengal should
join the existing Constituent Assembly of India.
There was no conception that population transfers would be
necessary because of the partitioning. Religious minorities were expected to
stay put in the states they found themselves residing in. However, an
exception was made for Punjab where transfer of populations were
organised because of the communal violence affecting the province. This did
not apply to other provinces.

157.) Independence Date of India :-

The date "15 August" was chosen by Lord Mountbatten himself because he had
considered this date to be lucky. It was on this day during the World War
II, that the Japanese Army surrendered to the allies.
Indian Independence Bill was introduced in the British House of Commons
on July 4, 1947 and passed within a fortnight.
In 1929, when Jawaharlal Nehru as Congress President gave the call for
‘Poorna Swaraj’ or total independence from British colonial rule, January
26 was chosen as the Independence Day. Later it was declared as the Republic
Day.

158.) On the 15th August, 1947, Mahatma Gandhi did not participate in any of the
Independence Day celebrations because :

He was in Kolkata. He was saddened by the communal violence and

disheartened that the principles of ahimsa (non-violence) and satyagraha
(active but non-violent resistance) that he had lived and worked for, had
failed to bind the people in troubled times. Gandhiji went on to persuade the
Hindus and Muslims to give up violence.
His presence in Kolkata greatly improved the situation, and the coming of
independence was celebrated in a spirit of communal harmony, with joyous
dancing in the streets. Gandhiji’s prayer meetings attracted large crowds. But
this was short lived as riots between Hindus and Muslims erupted once again
and Gandhiji had to resort to a fast to bring peace.

159.) C. Rajagopalachari's formula (or C. R. formula) :-

It was formulated by Chakravarti Rajagopalachari to solve the political

deadlock between the All India Muslim League and the Indian
 National Congress on the independence of British India.
The League's position was that the Muslims and Hindus of British India were of
two separate nations and hence the Muslims had the right to their own nation.
The Congress, which included both Hindu and Muslim members, was opposed
to the idea of partitioning India. With the advent of the Second World War the
British administration required both parties to agree so that Indian help could
be sought for the war effort.
Although the formula was opposed, even within the Congress party,
Gandhi used it as the basis of his proposal in talks with Jinnah in 1944.
However, Jinnah rejected the proposal and the talks failed.

ADMINISTRATIVE CHANGES
160.) Indianization of Colonial British administration :-

Civil Servants for the East India Company used to be nominated by the
Directors of the Company and thereafter trained at Haileybury College
in London and then sent to India.
Following Lord Macaulay’s Report of the Select Committee of British
Parliament, the concept of a merit based modern Civil Service in India
was introduced in 1854.
The Report recommended that patronage based system of East India Company
should be replaced by a permanent Civil Service based on a merit based system
with entry through competitive examinations.
Throughout the next 50 years, Indians petitioned for simultaneous
examinations to be held in India without success because the British
Government did not want many Indians to succeed and enter the ICS.
It was only after the First World War and the Montagu Chelmsford
reforms that this was agreed to.
From 1922 onwards the Indian Civil Service Examination began to be held in
India also, first in Allahabad and later in Delhi with the setting up of the
Federal Public Service Commission. The Examination in London continued to
be conducted by the Civil Service Commission.
Similarly, prior to independence superior police officers belonged to the Indian
(Imperial) Police appointed by the Secretary of State by competitive
examination.
The first open competition for the service was held in England in
June, 1893.
Entry into Imperial Police was thrown open to Indians only after 1920 and
the following year examinations for the service were conducted both in England
and India.
Indianisation of the police service continued to be very slow despite
pronouncement and recommendations of the Islington Commission and the
Lee Commission.
Till 1931, Indians were appointed against 20% of the total posts of
Superintendents of Police. However, because of non availability of the
suitable European candidates, more Indians were appointed to the Indian
Police from the year 1939 onwards.
Learning: Regarding Central Civil Services, the Civil Services in British India
were classified as covenanted and uncovenanted services on the basis of
the nature of work, pay-scales and appointing authority. In 1887, the
"Aitchinson Commission" recommended the reorganization of the
services on a new pattern and divided the services into three groups-
Imperial, Provincial and Subordinate. The recruiting and controlling
authority of Imperial services was the ‘Secretary of State’.
With the passing of the Indian Act 1919, the Imperial Services headed by the
Secretary of State for India, were split into two-All India Services and Central
Services.
 The central services were concerned with matters under the direct control of the
Central Government. Apart from the Central Secretariat, the more important of
these services were the Railway Services, the Indian Posts and
Telegraph Service, and the Imperial Customs Service.

161.) CONSTITIONAL CHANGES :-

Regulating Act of 1773 :

designated the Governor of Bengal as the ‘Governor-General of Bengal’ and

created an Executive Council of four members to assist him.
The first such Governor-General was Lord Warren Hastings.
It made the governors of Bombay and Madras presidencies subordinate to the
governor general of Bengal, unlike earlier, when the three presidencies were
independent of one another.
It provided for the establishment of a Supreme Court at Calcutta (1774)
comprising one chief justice and three other judges.
It prohibited the servants of the Company from engaging in any private
trade or accepting presents or bribes from the ‘natives’.
It strengthened the control of the British Government over the Company by
requiring the Court of Directors (governing body of the Company) to report on
its revenue, civil, and military affairs in India.
Charter Act of 1853 :

separated, for the first time, the legislative and executive functions
of the Governor-General’s council.
Charter Act of 1853 was the last of the series of Charter Acts passed by the
British Parliament between 1793 and 1853. It was a significant constitutional
landmark.
It separated, for the first time, the legislative and executive functions of the
Governor- General’s council. It provided for addition of six new members
called legislative councillors to the council.
It extended the Company’s rule and allowed it to retain the possession of
Indian territories on trust for the British Crown. But, it did not specify any
particular period, unlike the previous Charters.
This was a clear indication that the Company’s rule could be terminated at any
time the Parliament liked.
It introduced, for the first time, local representation in the Indian
(Central) Legislative Council. Of the six new legislative members of the
governor-general’s council, four members were appointed by the local
(provincial) governments of Madras, Bombay, Bengal and Agra.
The Act of 1909 :

provided, for the first time, for the association of Indians with the
executive Councils of the Viceroy and Governors.
It considerably increased the size of the legislative councils, both Central and
provincial.
It retained official majority in the Central Legislative Council but
allowed the provincial legislative councils to have non-official
majority.
It enlarged the deliberative functions of the legislative councils at both the
levels. For example, members were allowed to ask supplementary questions,
move resolutions on the budget, and so on.
It provided (for the first time) for the association of Indians with the executive
Councils of the Viceroy and Governors.
Satyendra Prasad Sinha became the first Indian to join the Viceroy’s
Executive Council. He was appointed as the law member.
162.) Montagu's statement made in August 1917 :-
His statement was that "The government policy is of an increasing participation of
Indians in every branch of administration and gradual development institutions with
a view to the progressive realisation of responsible government of India”.
Importance of Montagu's Statement :

From now onwards, the demand by nationalists for self-government or Home

Rule could not be termed as seditious since attainment of self government for
Indians now became a government policy, unlike Morley's statement in
1909 that the reforms were not intended to give self-government to India.
Indian Objections:
The objections of the Indian leaders to Montagu's statement were twofold:
i) No specific time frame was given.
(ii) The Government alone was to decide the nature and the timing of
advance towards a responsible government, and the Indians were resentful that the
British would decide what was good and what was bad for Indians.

163.) Salient feature of the Act of 1892 :-

It increased the functions of legislative councils and gave them the power of
discussing the budget.

The Act of 1892 also increased the number of additional (non-official)

members in the Central and provincial legislative councils, but maintained the
official majority in them.
The act made a limited and indirect provision for the use of election in
filling up some of the nonofficial seats both in the Central and provincial
legislative councils. The word “election” was, however, not used in the act.
The process was described as nomination made on the recommendation of
certain bodies.

164.) Women suffrage in India before independence :-

In 1917: The Women’s Indian Association (WIA), with links to the

women’s suffrage movement, was formed by Annie Besant, Dorothy
Jinrajadasa and Margaret Cousins.
In 1918, the Montagu-Chelmsford commission was sent by the British
government to suggest changes to the franchise in India where the WIA,
led by Sarojini Naidu, petitioned for women’s right to vote
In 1921, Madras was the first legislature in British India to pass the
women’s suffrage resolution by a considerable majority.
This meant that for the first time, women were recognised as ‘people’ by
the State, thereby given the right to vote on the same condition as men.
Women suffrage movement in India dates back to the First world war days.
The other provinces followed, but not the princely states (which did not
have votes for men either).

165.) Charter Act of 1833 :-

The first Law Commission was established, under the Chairmanship of Lord
Macaulay which recommended codification of the Penal Code and the Criminal
Procedure Code, by the Charter Act of 1833.

Law Reform in the ancient period was ad hoc and not institutionalised.
However, since the third decade of the nineteenth century, Law Commissions
were constituted by the Government from time to time.
The first law commission was established in 1834 under the Charter
Act of 1833.
 Thereafter, the second, third and fourth Law Commissions were
constituted in 1853, 1861 and 1879 respectively helped adapt English Laws to
Indian conditions.
The Indian Code of Civil Procedure, the Indian Contract Act, the Indian
Evidence Act, the Transfer of Property Act etc. are products of the labour of the
first four Law Commissions.
The First Law Commission of Independent India in 1955 with the then
Attorney-General of India, Mr. M. C. Setalvad, as its Chairman.

GOVERNOR GENERALS AND VICEROYS

166.) Father of Communal Electorate in India :-

Minto was known for the act of 1909 which introduced a system of communal
representation for Muslims by accepting the concept of ‘separate electorate’.
Under this, the Muslim members were to be elected only by Muslim
voters.
Thus, the Act ‘legalised communalism’ and Lord Minto came to be
known as the Father of Communal Electorate.
It also provided for the separate representation of presidency
corporations, chambers of commerce, universities and zamindars.

167.) Last Governor General of free India :-

"British Crown" appointed the last Governor General of free India.

Even though India was a free country after 1947, it was still a British
dominion, and became a republic only after the enactment of the constitution.
Till this point, the British government (even though not sovereign in India)
played an important role in managing Indian affairs.
C.Rajagopalachari was appointed as the last Governor General of free
India by the British crown.

168.) Charles Cornwallis :-

Permanent Settlement: Lord Cornwallis introduced the Permanent

Settlement in Bengal, Banaras, Bihar, Carnatic (North Karnataka) and
Orissa. As per this system, the Zamindars who formerly collected revenues
were recognized as Land Lords and the ownership of the Land was made
hereditary. This means that now onwards there would be no auctioning.
Police Reforms: Police was under the Zamindars previously. It was taken
away from Zamindars and handed over to the Superintendent of the
Police at District level. The Police was Europeanized. They were now paid
salary and given unlimited powers to arrest the suspected persons.
He defeated Tipu Sultan in third Anglo-Mysore war and signed Treaty
of Srirangpatanam.
He declared the practice of Slavery to be illegal.

169.) Warren Hastings' impeachment in England :-

In 1775 the Nawab of Oudh died, and the East India Company (the Company)
decided that the governance of Varanasi no longer resided with Oudh, and
wished to take over the city. Anxious to raise money to fight the war in Madras,
Hastings decided to install a British Resident, Thomas Graham, and to charge
Chait Singh the 2.3 million rupees that he would have paid the
Nawab. He then imposed an additional “war tax” of 5 lakhs of rupees
 on Chait Singh from 1778 to 1779 who paid up with considerable
reluctance.
In 1780, the Company demanded that Chait Singh provide them with 2000
mounted troops. Chait Singh ignored this demand, which resulted in the
Company reducing its demand to 1000 mounted troops, with a counteroffer
from Chait Singh of 500 mounted troops and 500 foot soldiers.
Chait Singh failed to provide such troops. Hastings then decided to pay him a
visit in 1781 with 500 soldiers and a few aides. The news of this prompted Chait
Singh to offer gifts of several lakhs of rupees to Hastings, some of which was
accepted and deposited with the Company.
When Hastings arrived at Varanasi, further negotiations having failed, he
ordered 2 companies of sepoys to arrest Chait Singh. An odd fact is that these
soldiers had not been provided with ammunition. The palace guard had no
trouble slaughtering the sepoys. In the meantime Chait Singh escaped using
a rope made of turbans. He lived in exile for another 30 years, a “broken
man”.
This and other events later led to the 7 year impeachment trial of
Warren Hastings with Edmund Burke leading the prosecution.

170.)
Warren Hastings 1773-1785 :
(i) Regulating Act of 1773.
(ii) Act of 1781, under which the powers of jurisdiction between the governor-general
in council and the Supreme Court at Calcutta, were clearly divided.
(iv) Pitt's India Act of 1784.
(iv) The Rohilla War of 1774.
(v) The First Maratha War in 1775-82 and the Treaty of Salbai in 1782.
(vi) Second Mysore War in 1780-84.
(vii) Strained relationships with Chait Singh, the Maharaja of Benaras, which led to
Hastings' subsequent impeachment in England.
(viii) Foundation of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (1784).
Lord Cornwallis 1786-1793 :
(i) Third Mysore War (1790-92) and Treaty of Seringapatam (1792).
(ii) Cornwallis Code (1793) incorporating several judicial reforms, and separation of
revenue administration and civil jurisdiction.
(iii) Permanent Settlement of Bengal, 1793.
(iv) Europeanisation of administrative machinery and introduction of civil services.

171.) Last Governor General of free India :-

"British Crown" appointed the last Governor General of free India.

Even though India was a free country after 1947, it was still a British
dominion, and became a republic only after the enactment of the constitution.
Till this point, the British government (even though not sovereign in India)
played an important role in managing Indian affairs.
C.Rajagopalachari was appointed as the last Governor General of free
India by the British crown.

ECONOMIC IMPACT

172.) The Transport of Native Labourers Act (No. III) of 1863 of Bengal :-

The advent of the railways in Bengal …marked an important turning point,

which saw the Tea industry began in India in 1851.
Most of the tea gardens were situated in Assam. In 1903, the industry employed
4,79,000 permanent and 93,000 temporary employees. Since Assam
 was sparsely populated and the tea plantations were often located on
uninhabited hillsides, bulk of the sorely needed labour had to be imported from
other provinces.
But to bring thousands of people every year from their far-off homes into
strange lands, possessing an unhealthy climate and infected with strange fevers,
required the provision of financial and other incentives, which the tea-planters
of Assam were unwilling to offer.
Instead, they had recourse to fraud and coercion; and they persuaded the
government to aid and abet them in this unholy task by passing penal laws.
The recruitment of labourers for tea gardens of Assam was carried on
for years mostly by contractors under the provisions of the Transport of Native
Labourers Act (No. III) of 1863 of Bengal as amended in 1865, 1870 and
1873.

173.) Zamindari system :-

Under the zamindari system which was implemented in the then Bengal
Presidency comprising parts of India’s present-day eastern states, the profit
accruing out of the agriculture sector went to the zamindars instead
of the cultivators.
Zamindars were not the real owners of the land and were entrusted
supervisory functions of the land in the hope that they would improve its
condition.
However, a considerable number of zamindars, and not just the colonial
government, did nothing to improve the condition of agriculture. The main
interest of the zamindars was only to collect rent regardless of the economic
condition of the cultivators; this caused immense misery and social tension
among the latter.
To a very great extent, the terms of the revenue settlement were also
responsible for the zamindars adopting such an attitude; dates for
depositing specified sums of revenue were fixed, failing which the
zamindars were to lose their rights.
Besides this, low levels of technology, lack of irrigation facilities and negligible
use of fertilisers, all added up to aggravate the plight of the farmers and
contributed to the dismal level of agricultural productivity.

174.) Commercialisation of agriculture in British India :-

Indian villages were largely self-sufficient in the production of crops in the pre-British
era. The farmers grew what they consumed and traded the rest based on the barter
system within the community. The idea of producing crops for sale was not deeply
ingrained. The British introduced commercialization where the farmer was now not
only producing to feed his family but also to sell the excess produce in the market.

Statement 1: The American Civil War dramatically reduced the economic

isolation of India and brought about the Commercialisation of agriculture. The
War transferred the British demand for Cotton from America to
India as a result of which exports of cotton at once jumped from 5 lakh bales in
1859 to 12.6 lakh bales in 1865. The exports of rice, wheat and other food
grains also increased. Although the British demand for Indian raw Cotton fell
off after the Civil War was over, it was largely compensated by the increase in
domestic demand.
Statement 2: The opening of the Suez canal in 1869 was another event of
world-wide importance. The opening of the canal cut the sea-route between
India and England by over 3000 miles and shortened the period of journey
between Calcutta and London by 36 days.
Statement 3 and 4: Another factor was the ‘revolution and depression’ in
the British shipping industry. The revolution was caused when, from 1869
 onwards, the new and more efficient steamships began to replace the old, slow
moving sailing vessels, especially on long distance routes.
The depression in British shipping was brought when, with the opening of the
Suez Canal, the distance between England and the East was reduced and a good
many ships were rendered surplus. This led to competition among shipping
companies and a fall in freight rates.
Statement 5: The most significant event was the revolution in the means of
transport. The railways were rapidly extended, the route mileage
increasing from 432 in 1859 to 1990 in 1881 and 25,363 in 1901. Every railway
station became a Mandi or an export Centre to which traders and exporters
alike-flocked.
Statement 6: Another contributory factor was the introduction of money
economy in the form of cash assessment of land revenue and the substitution
of rent in kind by cash rents. Money economy allowed cash crops and other
crops to be sold in far off markets.

175.) Industrialization of India induced by the British :-

The Census of India Report, 1911, notes that, “The extensive

importation of cheap European piece goods and utensils, and the
establishment in India itself of numerous factories of the Western
type, have more or less destroyed many village industries.
The high prices of agricultural produce have also led many village artisans
to abandon their hereditary craft in favour of agriculture…The extent to which
this disintegration of the old village organisation is proceeding varies
considerably in different parts. The change is most noticeable in the more
advanced provinces.”
It was then noted that unlike Britain where the impact of industrialisation led to
more people moving into urban areas, in India the initial impact of the
same British industrialisation led to more people moving into
agriculture.

176.) When the British took over Indian (colonial) states, some famous towns lost
their courts and thus their artisans and court gentry. These include
1. Thanjavur
2. Dhaka
3. Murhidabad

In India the impact of the very same British industrialisation led to

deindustrialisation in some sectors. And decline of old urban centres. Just as
manufacturing boomed in Britain, traditional exports of cotton and silk
manufactures from India declined in the face of Manchester competition.
This period also saw the further decline of cities such as Surat and
Masulipatnam while Bombay and Madras grew.
From the end of the 19th century, with the installation of mechanised factory
industries, some towns became much more heavily populated.
Urban luxury manufactures like the high quality silks and cottons of Dacca or
Murshidabad must have been hit first by the almost simultaneous collapse of
indigeneous court demand and the external market on which these had largely
depended.
Village crafts in the interior, and particularly, in regions other than eastern
India where British penetration was earliest and deepest, probably survived
much longer, coming to be seriously affected only with the spread of railways.

177.) India’s foreign trade throughout the colonial period :-

 significant aspect of India’s foreign trade during the British rule was the
favourable balance of trade, i.e., excess of exports over imports. Theoretically, it
implies a great advantage. But our foreign ruler was rather in an averse mood to
confer any benefits to India.
Practically, export surplus represented a drain of India’s wealth and resources.
Britain habitually maintained export surplus because India had to make
considerable payments to Britain for which no visible return was made.
These payments included Home Charges (comprising interest on public debt,
civil and military expenditure, interest and profits on private
foreign capital, service charges for using foreign banking,
insurance, and shipping business, etc.). Thus the drain facilitated the
penetration and exploitation of India by foreign capital. This drain exposed the
exploitative nature of the foreign ruler.
Statement 1 and 2: Several essential commodities—food grains, clothes,
kerosene etc. — became conspicuous by their acute scarcity in the
domestic market. Furthermore, this export surplus did not result in any
flow of gold or silver into India.

178.) ‘Home Charges’ :-

This included
1. Private remittances sent home by British officials and traders
2. Interest payments on India’s external debt
3. Pensions of British officials in India
Over the nineteenth century, British manufactures flooded the Indian market.
Food grain and raw material exports from India to Britain and the rest of the
world increased.
But the value of British exports to India was much higher than the
value of British imports from India.
Thus Britain had a ‘trade surplus’ with India. We have covered this concept
in an earlier test (Test 2, export surplus concept).
Britain used this surplus to balance its trade deficits with other countries – that
is, with countries from which Britain was importing more than it was selling to.
This is how a multilateral settlement system works – it allows one country’s
deficit with another country to be settled by its surplus with a third
country.
By helping Britain balance its deficits, India played a crucial role in the late-
nineteenth-century world economy.
Britain’s trade surplus in India also helped pay the so-called ‘home charges’ that
included private remittances home by British officials and traders,
interest payments on India’s external debt, and pensions of British
officials in India.

179.) Effect of commercialization of agriculture in British India :-

The commercialisation also brought about an enormous increase in

foreign demand for India’s agricultural produce which, in turn, led to a
general but steady rise in prices. In 1859-60, the total value of India’s
exports amounted to Rs. 29 crores; it rose to rupees 69 crores in 1879-80 and
Rs. 166 crores in 1906-7.
The commercial Revolution had a far reaching impact on the socio-economic
structure of the Indian rural society. It brought a severe break with the past for
it remained no longer necessary for a village or even a whole region to be self-
sufficient in food-grains and other necessaries of life.
A national market for agricultural produce developed where the farmer could
sell his crop as it was harvested and from where he could buy his requirements
when the need arose. Thus, under the impact of new forces, the village could no
 longer remain the compact unit that it was before. Instead, the growing
tendency was for each family to make ends meet as best as it could.
Wheat was mostly Exported to the U.K. Rice, however, was sent to every part of
the world such as Ceylon, East Africa, West Indies and South America. Oil seeds
were another important item of export.
While choosing his crops, the farmer now began to pay greater attention to
market demand and prices than to the needs of his home or village.
As India was linked up with foreign markets, price movements and
business fluctuations in the world markets began to affect the
fortunes of the Indian farmer to a degree never seen before. The same rail
roads which carried away the Commercial Crops from the village brought back
machine-made products.

180.) Mahalwari settlement :-

By the early nineteenth century many of the Company officials were convinced
that the Permanent Settlement system of revenue had to be changed.
In the North Western Provinces of the Bengal Presidency Holt
Mackenzie devised the new system which came into effect in 1822.
He felt that the village was an important social institution in north Indian
society and needed to be preserved.
Under his directions, collectors went from village to village, inspecting the land,
measuring the fields, and recording the customs and rights of different groups.
The charge of collecting the revenue and paying it to the Company was given to
the village headman, rather than the zamindar. This system came to be known
as the mahalwari settlement.

Option A: The estimated revenue of each plot within a village was added up to
calculate the revenue that each village (mahal) had to pay.
Option B: This demand was to be revised periodically, not permanently fixed.

181.) Book "Poverty and Unbritish Rule in India" :-

This book contains selections from the papers written by Dadabhai Naoroji
from time to time on the question of poverty of the Indian people and the drain
of wealth from the country by the British rulers. First published in 1901 this
became a source for nationalist leaders for understanding the intricacies of
colonial economic policies and colonial economy. Referring to it Mahatma
Gandhi wrote in 1924 "my first acquaintance with the extent of
Indian poverty was through Dadabhai's book".
The author Dadabhai Naoroji, who devoted his entire life to the cause of India's
upliftment and independence was a social reformer, a member of the British
Parliament and founder of the Indian National Congress. A bitter critic of the
British imperialism, his articles on the colonial economy were published in
Indian and foreign newspapers and journals.

182.) Ryotwari system :-

Ryotwari was tried first on a small scale by Captain Alexander Read in some
of the areas that were taken over by the Company after the wars with Tipu
Sultan.
Subsequently developed by Thomas Munro, this system was gradually
extended all over south India.
Read and Munro felt that in the south there were no traditional
zamindars. The settlement, they argued, had to be made directly with the
cultivators (ryots) who had tilled the land for generations.
 Their fields had to be carefully and separately surveyed before the revenue
assessment was made. Munro thought that the British should act as paternal
father figures protecting the ryots under their charge.

183.) Economic conditions in India during the 1850s-60s :-

This was the time of the Deccan riots. Read the following in this light.
The ryots of Deccan region of western India suffered heavy taxation under
the Ryotwari system. Here again the peasants found themselves trapped in a
vicious network with the moneylender as the exploiter and the main
beneficiary. These moneylenders were mostly outsiders— Marwaris or
Gujaratis.
The conditions had worsened due to a crash in cotton prices after the end of
the American civil war in 1864, and the Government's decision to
raise the land revenue by 50% in 1867, and a succession of bad harvests.
In 1874, the growing tension between the moneylenders, and the peasants
resulted in a social boycott movement organised by the ryots against the
"outsider" moneylenders. The ryots refused to buy from their shops.
No peasant would cultivate their fields. The barbers, washermen, shoemakers
would not serve them. This social boycott spread rapidly to the villages of
Poona, Ahmednagar, Sholapur and Satara.

184.) Patuas and Kumors :-

In the nineteenth century a new world of popular art developed in many of the
cities of India.
In Bengal, around the pilgrimage centre of the temple of Kalighat, local village
scroll painters (called patuas) and potters (called kumors in eastern
India and kumhars in north India) began developing a new style of art.
They moved from the surrounding villages into Calcutta in the early 19th
Century.

185.) "It was the British intruder who broke up the Indian handloom and
destroyed the spinning-wheel. England began with depriving the Indian
cottons from the European market; it then introduced twist into
Hindustan and in the end inundated the very mother country of cotton
with cottons”?

Karl Marx remarked this in 1853.

Marx's theories about society, economics and politics—collectively understood
as Marxism—hold that human societies develop through class struggle. In
capitalism, this manifests itself in the conflict between the ruling classes
(known as the bourgeoisie) that control the means
of production and the working classes (known as the proletariat) that enable
these means by selling their labour power in return for wages.
In the same line of though, the colonial policies of the East India Company
destroyed the traditional economic fabric of the Indian society. The peasantry
were never really to recover from the disabilities imposed by the new and a
highly unpopular revenue settlement.
Impoverished by heavy taxation, the peasants resorted to loans from
moneylenders/traders at usurious rates, the latter often evicting the former on
non-payment of debt dues. These moneylenders and traders emerged as the
new landlords. While the scourge of indebtedness has continued to plague
Indian society to this day.
British rule also meant misery to the artisans and handicraftsmen. The
annexation of Indian states by the Company cut off their major source of
patronage. Added to this, British policy discouraged Indian handicrafts and
 promoted British goods. The highly skilled Indian craftsmen were forced to look
for alternate sources of employment .

186.) American Civil War :-

In the 1860s, cotton was a key import, supplying Britain’s busy textile mills. The
majority of raw cotton supplies came from America.
However, during the American Civil War (1861–65) raw cotton was no longer
being grown and shipped. The British needed to find new sources for their
mills, so turned to India to supply their needs.
In 1860, India was supplying 31% of British cotton imports, but the
outbreak of war in America saw that supply escalate to 90% in 1862.
Although it declined somewhat, India’s cotton growers were still supplying 67%
of Britain’s cotton imports in the later years of the war.

187.) Major centres of textile production in British India :-

India’s cotton, silk and woolen products were sought after all over the world.
Particularly, the muslin of Dacca, carpets of Lahore, shawls of
Kashmir, and the embroidery works of Banaras were very famous.
Apart from Dacca, which was highly famous for its muslins, the other important
centres of textile production were Krishnanagar, Chanderi, Arni and
Banaras.
Dhotis and dupattas of Ahmedabad, Chikan of Lucknow, and silk
borders of Nagpur had earned a worldwide fame.
For their silk products some small towns of Bengal besides, Malda and
Murshidabad were very famous. Similarly, Kashmir, Punjab and western
Rajasthan were famous for their woolen garments.

DEVELOPMENT OF PRESS
188.) Sankhya :-

Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis established the Indian Statistical

Institute (ISI) in Calcutta and started a journal, Sankhya, which still serves
as a respected forum for statisticians to discuss their ideas.
Both, the ISI and Sankhya, are highly regarded by statisticians and
economists all over the world to this day.
Mahalanobis was the founding editor-in-chief of this journal.
During the second plan period, Mahalanobis invited many distinguished
economists from India and abroad to advise him on India’s economic
development.

189.)
Arms Act :-

Passed during the viceroyship of Lord Lytton, the act prevented the
Indians to keep arms without appropriate license.
Its violation was to become a criminal offence.
The Europeans and the Anglo- Indians were exempted from the
operation of this legislation.
Vernacular Press Act :-
 In the same year the Vernacular Press Act was also enacted in an effort to
silence those who were critical of the government.
The Act allowed the government to confiscate the assets of
newspapers including their printing presses if the newspapers published
anything that was found “objectionable”.

DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION
190.) Wood’s Despatch 1854 :-
The Despatch had the following objectives in view:

To impart Western knowledge, information about the western culture to

the Indians.
To educate the natives of India so that a class of public servants could be
created.
To promote intellectual development and also raise the moral character of
the young generation.
To develop practical and vocational skills of the Indians people so that
more and more articles could be produced and also to create a good market for
consumption of those goods.

The Wood’s Despatch recommended the sanction of a grant-in-aid system in

the Indian educational system and argued that schools must charge fees from
their students.
Outlining the educational policy that was to be followed in India, it emphasised
once again the practical benefits of a system of European learning, as opposed to
Oriental One of the practical uses the Despatch pointed to was economic.

European learning, it said, would enable Indians to recognise the

advantages that flow from the expansion of trade and commerce, and make
them see the importance of developing the resources of the country.
Introducing them to European ways of life, would change their tastes and
desires, and create a demand for British goods, for Indians would begin to
appreciate and buy things that were produced in Europe.
Following the 1854 Despatch, several measures were introduced by the British.
Education departments of the government were set up to extend control over all
matters regarding education. Steps were taken to establish a system of
university education

191.) Wardha Educational Conference, 1937 :-

In 1937, Gandhiji had published an article in the Harijan, based upon which, an all
India National Education Conference was held in 1937 - Wardha Educational
Conference. The president of this conference was Gandhi.
The resolutions passed were as follows:

Free and compulsory education to be provided for 7 years at a

nationwide scale.
Mother tongue should be the medium of instruction.
Throughout this period of 7 years, the education should be around some
forms of manual and productive work and for this purpose a handicraft
must be chosen, based upon the environment of the child.
This system would generate the remuneration of the teachers.

Also, a Basic Education Committee was setup under Dr. Zakir Hussain following
Wardha conference to formulate the scheme of the basic education.
The aim of the basic education was to develop the qualities of the ideal citizenship and
more aspect should be give to the Indian culture than the literacy. There should be NO
PLACE for English in the curriculum. There was no place for religious education in
this scheme.

192.) Wood’s Despatch 1854 :-

The Despatch had the following objectives in view:

To impart Western knowledge, information about the western culture to

the Indians.
To educate the natives of India so that a class of public servants could be
created.
To promote intellectual development and also raise the moral character of
the young generation.
To develop practical and vocational skills of the Indians people so that
more and more articles could be produced and also to create a good market for
consumption of those goods.

The Wood’s Despatch recommended the sanction of a grant-in-aid system in

the Indian educational system and argued that schools must charge fees from
their students.
Outlining the educational policy that was to be followed in India, it emphasised
once again the practical benefits of a system of European learning, as opposed to
Oriental One of the practical uses the Despatch pointed to was economic.

European learning, it said, would enable Indians to recognise the

advantages that flow from the expansion of trade and commerce, and make
them see the importance of developing the resources of the country.
Introducing them to European ways of life, would change their tastes and
desires, and create a demand for British goods, for Indians would begin to
appreciate and buy things that were produced in Europe.
Following the 1854 Despatch, several measures were introduced by the British.
Education departments of the government were set up to extend control over all
matters regarding education. Steps were taken to establish a system of
university education

193.)
Bengal National College :-

Bengal National College, inspired by Tagore's Shantiniketan was set up with

Aurobindo Ghosh as its principal.
Soon on August 15, 1906, the National Council of Education was set up to
organize a system of education—literary, scientific and technical—on
national lines and under national control.
Education was to be imparted through the medium of vernaculars. A Bengal
Institute of Technology was set up for technical education and funds were
raised to send students to Japan for advanced learning.

Swadesh Bandhab Samiti :-

Swadesh Bandhab Samiti of Ashwini Kumar Dutta during National

Movement-1905-1918 (in Barisal) emerged as a very popular and
powerful method of mass mobilisation. These samitis, generated political
consciousness among the masses through magic lantern lectures,
swadeshi songs, physical and moral training to their members,
social work during famines and epidemics, organisation of schools,
training in swadeshi crafts and arbitration courts.

194.) Hunter Commission,1982 :-

The Hunter Commission setup under the tenure of Ripon as the Governor-
General d India (1880-1884) concerned reforms in "Education".
Besides the chairman, William Hunter, the commission consisted of 20 other
members. There was a good representation of missionaries and Indians in the
commission. Among the Indian members were Sayed Mahmud, Bhudev
Mukherjee, Anand Mohan Bose and K.T.Telang.
The background to the above was the following:

As a result of the first struggle for Independence by Indians in 1857,the power

of administration was transferred from the East India Company to the Crown.
The Queen’s Proclamation of 1858 advocated a policy of strict religious
neutrality.
The missionaries were greatly disappointed with the Government policy for
religious neutrality and started an agitation and formed the “General Council
of Education in India” in London.
The General Council of Education requested Lord Ripon, the viceroy of India to
institute an enquiry into Indian education.
Lord Ripon appointed the Indian Education Commission on 3rd February 1882,
with Sir Willium Hunter as its Chairman. It is known as Hunter Commission of
1882.
The following also happened under the tenure of Ripon:

Repeal of the Vernacular Press Act (1882).

The first Factory Act (1881) to improve labour conditions.
Continuation of financial decentralisation.
Government resolution on local self-government (1882).
The Ilbert Bill controversy (1883-84).
Rendition of Mysore

195.)
Indian Universities Act 1904 :-
Indian Universities Act ensured greater government control over universities.

The first provision of this act was that the governing bodies of the universities
were to be reconstituted and the size of the Senates was reduced. Now
the number in the senate could be minimum 50 and maximum 100.
Each of them would hold the office for 6 years.
For the Universities of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras, the elected fellows were
to be 50 and for rest of the universities, the number was fixed 15.
This act allowed the Government to appoint a majority of the fellows in a
university.
The Governor General was now empowered to decide a University’s territorial
limits and also affiliation between the universities and colleges.
The Indian Universities Act made the universities and colleges completely
under the Government control.
Official secret Act 1923 :-

The Official secret Act 1923 is India's anti espionage ("Spy" and "Secret agent")
act held over from British colonisation.
It states clearly that actions which involves helping an enemy state against
India. It also states that one cannot approach, inspect, or even pass over a
prohibited government site or area.
It curbed the freedom of speech of the press considerably.
The Act only empowers persons in positions of authority to handle official
secrets, and others who handle it in prohibited areas or outside them are liable
for punishment. [2]
 Journalists have to help members of the police forces above the rank of the sub-
Inspector and members of the Armed forces with investigation regarding an
offence, up to and including revealing his sources of information (If required).
Under the Act, search warrants may be issued at any time if the
magistrate feels that based on the evidence in front of them there is enough
danger to the security of the state.

196.) Dalhousie :-
The following occurred during his reign:
(i) Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49) and annexation of Punjab (1849).
(ii) Annexation of Lower Burma or Pegu (1852).
(iii) Introduction of the Doctrine of Lapse and annexation of Satara (1848), Jaitpur
and Sambhalpur (1849), lidaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur (1854) and Awadh
(1856).
(iv) "Wood's (Charles Wood, President of the Board of Control) Educational
Despatch" of 1854 and opening of Anglovernacular schools and government colleges.
(v) Railway Minute of 1853; and laying down of first railway line connecting Bombay
and Thane in 1853.
(vi) Telegraph (4000 miles of telegraph 'fines to connect Calcutta with Bombay,
Madras and Peshawar) and postal (Post Office Act, 1854) reforms.
(vii) Ganges Canal declared open (1854); establishment of separate public works
department in every province.
(viii) Widow Remarriage Act (1856).

ADMINISTRATIVE POLICY
197.) Public Service Commission in India :-
Which of the following had a bearing on the establishment of a Public Service
Commission in India?
1. First Dispatch of the Government of India on the Indian Constitutional Reforms,
1919
2. Lee Commission, 1924
3. Government of India Act, 1935

This is a long explanation, and important because it covers the history of UPSC.

The origin of the Public Service Commission in India is found in the First Dispatch
of the Government of India on the Indian Constitutional Reforms on the
5th March, 1919 which referred to the need for setting up some permanent office
charged with the regulation of service matters.

This concept of a body intended to be charged primarily with the regulation of

service matters, found a somewhat more practical shape in the Government of
India Act, 1919. Section 96(C) of the Act provided for the establishment in India
of a Public Service Commission which should “discharge, in regard to
recruitment and control of the Public Services in India, such functions as may
be assigned thereto by rules made by the Secretary of State in Council”.
After passing of the Government of India Act, 1919, in spite of a prolonged
correspondence among various levels on the functions and machinery of the
body to be set up, no decision was taken on setting up of the body.
The subject was then referred to the Royal Commission on the Superior Civil
Services in India (also known as Lee Commission). The Lee Commission,
in their report in the year 1924, recommended that the statutory
Public Service Commission contemplated by the Government of
India Act, 1919 should be established without delay.
Subsequent to the provisions of Section 96(C) of the Government of India Act,
1919 and the strong recommendations made by the Lee Commission in 1924 for
 the early establishment of a Public Service Commission, it was on October 1,
1926 that the Public Service Commission was set up in India for the first time.
Statement 4: The functions of the Public Service Commission were not laid down in
the Government of India Act, 1919, but were regulated by the Public Service
Commission (Functions) Rules, 1926 framed under sub-section (2) of Section 96(C) of
the Government of India Act, 1919.
Further, the Government of India Act, 1935 envisaged a Public Service Commission
for the Federation and a Provincial Public Service Commission for each Province or
group of Provinces. Therefore, in terms of the provisions of the Government of India
Act, 1935 and with its coming into effect on 1st April, 1937, the Public Service
Commission became the Federal Public Service Commission.
With the inauguration of the Constitution of India in January 26, 1950, the Federal
Public Service Commission came to be known as the Union Public Service
Commission.
Whitley Commission, 1929 (Not related to UPSC) :- A Whitley Council is a
workplace partnership institution in the UK and elsewhere that serves as a forum
between employers and employees.
During World War I, in 1917, John Henry Whitley chaired a committee which
produced a report on the ‘Relations of Employers and Employees’. The smooth
running of industry was vital to the war effort, so good industrial relations were a
priority.
He proposed a system of regular formal consultative meetings between workers and
employers, known to this day as Whitley Councils.

198.)
Lewellyn Smith Committee (1920) :-

The Lewellyn Smith Committee (1920) re-examined the tenure system

operating from Lord Curzon's time in 1905.
The Lewellyn Smith Committee observed that the tenure of the office of secretaries
and deputy secretaries should remain fixed at four years to bring about stability in the
working of secretariat. The Secretarial Committee (1935), or Wheeler Committee,
studied the problem of delays in the working of the secretariat and recommended the
practice of double notings to speed up the work.
Maxwell Committee (1937) :-

The Maxwell Committee (1937) suggested that the secretary of the

department should be responsible to the minister concerned.
Further, the Maxwell Committee (1937) suggested that the secretary of the
department should be responsible to the minister and that the secretary was the
officer competent toguide the minister. Later, the Tottenham Committee (1945-46)
reported on the organization of departments, the question of staffing and the
reorganization of the entire secretariat system. It recommended that distinct duties be
assigned to different grades of secretarial officers and agreed nomenclatures for each
grade.

199.) Policy of “paramountcy” :-

Under Lord Hastings (GovernorGeneral from 1813 to 1823) a new policy of

“paramountcy” was initiated. Now the Company claimed that its authority
was paramount or supreme, hence its power was greater than that of
Indian states.
In order to protect its interests it was justified in annexing or
threatening to annex any Indian kingdom. This view continued to guide
later British policies as well.
This process, however, did not go unchallenged. For example, when the British
tried to annex the small state of Kitoor (in Karnataka today), Rani Channamma
took to arms and led an anti-British resistance movement.
200.) “Doctrine of Lapse” :-
The final wave of kingdom annexations occurred under Lord Dalhousie who was
the Governor-General from 1848 to 1856.
He devised a policy that came to be known as the Doctrine of Lapse. The doctrine
declared that if an Indian ruler died without a male heir his kingdom would
“lapse”, that is, become part of Company territory.

One kingdom after another was annexed simply by applying this doctrine:
Satara (1848), Sambalpur (1850), Udaipur (1852), Nagpur (1853)
and Jhansi (1854).
Finally, in 1856, the Company also took over Awadh. This time the British
had an added argument – they said they were “obliged by duty” to take over
Awadh in order to free the people from the “misgovernment” of the
Nawab!
Enraged by the humiliating way in which the Nawab was deposed, the people of
Awadh joined the great revolt that broke out in 1857.

201.) Age of Consent Bill :-

The bill would have raised the marriageable age for girls from 10 years to 12
years.
The Bill was opposed by many orthodox leaders who believed it as an
interference in the Hindu religion. Bal Gangadhar Tilak opposed the bill
stating "We would not like that the government should have anything
to do with regulating our social customs or ways of living, even
supposing that the act of government will be a very beneficial and
suitable measure"[citation needed].
So, his objection was mainly that such reforms must come from people
governing themselves and not under an alien rule.
The Bill was also opposed by revivalist nationalists who were against any
colonial interference.

202.) Categorisation of Civil services into Imperial, Provisional and

subordinate was done under the tenure of ? :-

Lord Lansdowne.
Lord Dufferin 1884-1888:

The Third Burmese War (1885-86).

Establishment of the Indian National Congress (1885)
Lord Lansdowne 1888-1894 :

Factory Act (1891).

Categorisation of civil services into imperial, provisional and
subordinate.
Indian Councils Act (1892).
Setting up of Durand Commission (1893) to define the Durand Line
between India and Afghanistan (now between Pakistan and Afghanistan).

203.)
On July 7th 1896, the Lumiere Brothers showcased six films at the Watson Hotel
in Mumbai (then Bombay) and this marked the birth of Indian cinema as we know it
today.
The Lumiere brothers were French Cinematographers who arrived in India after
having proved their cinematic excellence in Paris. The screening of the films took
place on July 7th 1896 at the Watson Hotel in Mumbai and the ticket was priced at
Re.1.
The Times of India referred to this event as the “miracle of the century”. The show
received an overwhelming response and motion pictures were soon introduced to
India, in Kolkata (Calcutta) and Chennai (Madras).

204.) Hill stations :-

1. Simla (present-day Shimla) was founded during the course of the Gurkha War
(1815-16).
2. The Anglo-Maratha War of 1818 led to British interest in Mount Abu as a Hill
station.
3. Darjeeling was wrested by the British from the rulers of Sikkim in 1835.

The founding and settling of hill stations was initially connected with the needs
of the British army. Simla (present-day Shimla) was founded during
the course of the Gurkha War (1815-16); the Anglo-Maratha War of
1818 led to British interest in Mount Abu; and Darjeeling was
wrested from the rulers of Sikkim in 1835. Hill stations became strategic
places for billeting troops, guarding frontiers and launching campaigns against
enemy rulers.
The temperate and cool climate of the Indian hills was seen as an advantage,
particularly since the British associated hot weather with epidemics.
Cholera and malaria were particularly feared and attempts were made to
protect the army from these diseases. The overwhelming presence of the army
made these stations a new kind of cantonment in the hills. These hill stations
were also developed as sanitariums, i.e., places where soldiers could be sent for
rest and recovery from illnesses.
Because the hill stations approximated the cold climates of Europe, they
became an attractive destination for the new rulers.
205.) Official residence of the commander-in-chief of the Indian army in
colonial India :-
Shimla

During the colonial rule, the Commander-in-Chief, India (often "Commander-

in-Chief in or of India") was the supreme commander of the British Indian
Army. The Commander-in-Chief and most of his staff were based at General
Headquarters, India, and liaised with the civilian Governor-General of India.
Following the Partition of India in 1947 and the creation of the independent
dominions of India and Pakistan, the post was abolished. It was briefly
replaced by the position of Supreme Commander of India and Pakistan before
the role was abolished in November 1948.
Subsequently, the role of Commander-in-Chief was merged into the offices of
the Governors-General of India and Pakistan, respectively, before becoming
part of the office of President of India from 1950, of the President of Pakistan
from 1956.
Apart from Simla, prior to independence, the official residence was the
Flagstaff House, which later became the residence of the first Prime Minister
of India; as Teen Murti House, it is now a museum.

206.) First state of British India :-

In 1921, Madras was the first legislature in British India to pass the women’s
suffrage resolution by a considerable majority.

This meant that for the first time, women were recognised as ‘people’ by the
State, thereby given the right to vote on the same condition as men.
Women suffrage movement in India dates back to the First world war days.
The other provinces followed, but not the princely states (which did not have
votes for men either).
Learning: 1917: The Women’s Indian Association (WIA), with links to the
women’s suffrage movement, was formed by Annie Besant, Dorothy
Jinrajadasa and Margaret Cousins.
In 1918, the Montagu-Chelmsford commission was sent by the British
government to suggest changes to the franchise in India where the WIA, led by
Sarojini Naidu, petitioned for women’s right to vote

207.)
The Religious Disabilities Act, 1856 :-
The Religious Disabilities Act, 1856 provided that a change of religion did not
debar a son from inheriting the property of his heathen father.

From the early decades of the 19th CE, the British had abandoned its policy of
non-interference in the socio-religious life of the Indians. Abolition of Sati in
1829 under Lord Bentinck, the Hindu Widow Remarriage Act of 1856, and
western education all led to disruption in the social world of the people After
the Charter of 1813, the Christian missionaries were allowed to enter India and
carry on with their mission of proselytizing.
This, combined with the Religious Disabilities Act of 1856, which sought to do
away with the previous ban on Christian converts from Hinduism in inheriting
property, created a feeling amongst the people of threat to their religion and
way of life.
The Caste Disabilities Removal Act, 1850 :-
The Caste Disabilities Removal Act, 1850 abolished all laws affecting the rights
of Indian persons converting to another religion or caste.

The Caste Disabilities Removal Act, 1850, was a law passed in British India
under East India Company rule, that abolished all laws affecting the rights of
 persons converting to another religion or caste. The new Act allowed Indians
who converted from one religion to another religion equal rights
under no law, especially in the case of inheritance.

208.) Cornwallis Code of 1793 :-

The code dealt with many issues: revenue, judiciary, police etc.

The best-known provision of the code was the Permanent Settlement (the
zamindari system), under which revenue assessment was fixed permanently
with zamindars. Zamindars were treated as landowners, and they were
deprived of magisterial and police functions, which were discharged by a newly
organized government police.
The code also provided that the East India Company’s service personnel be
divided into three branches: revenue, judicial, and commercial.
The judiciary was reorganized; there were district judges with magisterial
powers responsible to provincial courts in civil cases and to courts of circuit in
criminal cases.
Cornwallis changed the police system as well and took away the police
power from the Zamindars and divided the district in the small units.

209.) Town planning in British India :-

After Wellesley’s departure the work of town planning was carried on by the
Lottery Committee (1817) with the help of the government. The Lottery
Committee was so named because funds for town improvement were raised
through public lotteries.
In other words, in the early decades of the nineteenth century raising
funds for the city was still thought to be the responsibility of public
minded citizens and not exclusively that of the government. The
Lottery Committee commissioned a new map of the city so as to get a
comprehensive picture of Calcutta.
By the early nineteenth century the British felt that permanent and public rules
had to be formulated for regulating all aspects of social life. Even the
construction of private buildings and public roads ought to conform to
standardised rules that were clearly codified.
By the late nineteenth century, official intervention in the city became more
stringent.
Gone were the days when town planning was seen as a task to be shared by
inhabitants and the government. Instead, the government took over all the
initiatives for town planning including funding.
This opportunity was used to clear more huts and develop the British portions
of the town at the expense of other areas. The existing racial divide of the
“White Town” and “Black Town” was reinforced by the new divide of
“healthy” and “unhealthy”. Indian representatives in the municipality
protested against this unfair bias towards the development of the European
parts of the town. Public protests against these government policies
strengthened the feeling of anti-colonialism and nationalism among Indians.

THE INDIAN STATES

210.)

During colonial rule, the state boundaries were drawn either on

administrative convenience or simply coincided with the territories
 annexed by the British government or the territories ruled by the princely
powers.
Our national movement had rejected these divisions as artificial and had
promised the linguistic principle as the basis of formation of states.
In the Nagpur session of Congress in 1920, the linguistic principle
was recognised as the basis of the reorganisation of the Indian
National Congress party.
Many Provincial Congress Committees were created by linguistic zones, which
did not follow the administrative divisions of British India.
A few days before Independence, the Maharaja of Manipur,
Bodhachandra Singh, signed the Instrument of Accession with the
Indian government on the assurance that the internal autonomy of
Manipur would be maintained.
Under the pressure of public opinion, the Maharaja held elections in Manipur
in June 1948 and the state became a constitutional monarchy. Thus Manipur
was the first part of India to hold an election based on universal adult franchise.
In the Legislative Assembly of Manipur there were sharp differences over the
question of merger of Manipur with India.
The Nizam wanted an independent status for Hyderabad. He entered into what
was called the Standstill Agreement with India in November 1947 for a year
while negotiations with the Indian government were going on.
In the meantime, a movement of the people of Hyderabad State against the
Nizam’s rule gathered force.
The peasantry in the Telangana region in particular, was the victim of Nizam’s
oppressive rule and rose against him.
Hyderabad was ultimately integrated in India.

211.) Princely States :-

British India was divided into what were called the British Indian Provinces
and the Princely States. The British Indian Provinces were directly under the
control of the British government. On the other hand, several large and small
states ruled by princes, called the Princely States, enjoyed some form of control
over their internal affairs as long as they accepted British supremacy.
This was called paramountcy or suzerainty of the British crown.
Princely States covered one-third of the land area of the British
Indian Empire and one out of four Indians lived under princely rule.
Just before Independence it was announced by the British that with the end of
their rule over India, paramountcy of the British crown over Princely States
would also lapse. This meant that all these states, as many as 565 in all, would
become legally independent.
The British government took the view that all these states were free to join
either India or Pakistan or remain independent if they so wished. This decision
was left not to the people but to the princely rulers of these states. This was a
very serious problem and could threaten the very existence of a united India.

CIVIL REBELLION
CASTE MOVEMENTS
212.) Dalit Movements :-
1. Satnami Movement
2. Adi Dharma Movement
3. Mahar Movement

Background and Justification: There has not been a single, unified Dalit
movement in the country now or in the past. Different movements have
highlighted different issues related to Dalits, around different ideologies.
 However, all of them assert a Dalit identity though the meaning may not be
identical or precise for everyone.
Notwithstanding differences in the nature of Dalit movements and the meaning
of identity, there has been a common quest for equality, self-dignity and
eradication of untouchability.
This can be seen in the Satnami Movement of the Chamars in the
Chattisgarh plains in eastern MP, Adi Dharma Movement in Punjab, the
Mahar Movement in Maharashtra, the socio-political mobilisation among
the Jatavas of Agra and the Anti Brahman Movement in south India.
It stood for repudiation of all "distinctions between people" and foundation of a
modern educated secular Indian nation under the timeless and formless One
God, and its adherents as Adi-Dharmis.
Adi Dharma was originally propounded by these Brahmins of Bengal
who were excommunicated from Hindu faith for opposing social
and priestly evils of the time (18th and 19th centuries). Previously the
original ancestors (5 legendary Brahmin scholars of Kannauj Kanyakubja
school deputed to the King of Bengal) of all these Bengali Brahmins had been
excommunicated from Kannauj (Uttar Pradesh) in the 10th/11th century AD
after their return from Bengal.
In 1949-1950 B.R.Ambedkar approached the Adi Dharm leaders at Delhi to get
absorbed his followers into Adi Dharma. Due to bitter debates in the
Constituent Assembly with Brahmo members and over the Hindu Validity
Marriages Validity Act 1949, he could not be
accommodated within the Adi Dharma principles. This was chiefly due to his
insistence on denouncing Manu - paradoxically respected by Adi Dharma's
founding father's as a great Law Giver. Thereafter in about 1955 Ambedkar and
his followers instead chose to join Buddhism.

TRIBAL REVOLT
213.) Kukis' Revolt (1917-19; Manipur) :-

The 100 years of the momentous Anglo-Kuki War 1917-1919, will be

commemorated by the Kukis across the globe in 2017.
In 1916 Britain approached the government of India for the supply of a
volunteer Labour Corps to serve in both France and Mesopotamia. The
Indian government delegated the responsibility to raise separate Corps of 2,000
men to United Provinces, Bihar & Orissa, Assam, North-West
Frontier, Burma and Bengal.
The rulers of the Princely States of India demonstrated their support for the
Allied war effort in various ways, and the Hindu Ruler of Manipur in north-
eastern India supplied his own labour corps of 2,000 men.
However the Ruler did not nominate his Hindu citizens for this service,
but he recruited 1,200 Christian or animist Naga tribesmen and 800
similar Kuki tribesmen from the mountainous areas in his state.
The head-hunting hill tribesmen were not highly regarded by the Hindus and it
is likely that tribal chiefs were just ordered to produce the required numbers of
men whether they were volunteers or not.
However when certain of the more remote Kuki chiefs heard that further labour
was needed an insurrection broke out that lasted for 18 months. But it should
be noted that initially the insurrection was not confined to the Kuki family of
tribes, and also that many Kukis remained loyal to the State of Manipur and to
the British, some of them assisting the British military effort against their
disaffected tribal brethren.

214.) Kol Uprisings :-

 Kol Uprisings by the Kols of ‘Chottanagpur’ region led by Buddho Bhagat
(1831) against expansion of British rule on their lands and transfer of their
lands to outsiders was eventually suppressed by the government.
The term "Kol people" or Kolarian is used in India to refer to some of the
indigenous Austroasiatic tribal groups of India.
In eastern and northeastern India, Kol is a generic umbrella term which
includes certain closely related to indigenous tribal groups such as the Munda
and Ho as well as the Khasi, Jaintia in Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh,
Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, North Bengal, Bangladesh, and Nepal.
At one time, the name "Kol" was used to identify a group of primitive aboriginal
tribes thought to be descended from Negrito and Australoid peoples who had
entered India in prehistoric times. These tribes are concentrated in central
India and the northeastern regions of the Deccan plateau.
They speak related languages described as "Kolarian," which are known today
as the Munda languages. The tribes include the Santal, Munda, and Ho. But
in modern usage, the term "Kol" is used in a more restricted sense to identify a
specific tribe among these Munda-speaking peoples.

215.)

The Santhals of Rajmahal Hills resented the oppression by revenue

officials, police, money-lenders, landlords—in general, by the "outsiders' (whom
they called diku). The Santhals under Sido and Kanhu rose up against their
oppressors, declared the end of the Company's rule and asserted
themselves independent in 1854. It was only in 1856 after' extensive
military operations that the situation was brought under control. Sido died in
1855, while Kanhu was arrested in 1866.
A separate district of Santhal Pargana!, was created by the Government to
pacify the Santhals.
Ahom Revolt :-

The British had pledged to withdraw after the First Burma War (1824-26)
from Assam. But, after the war, instead of withdrawing, the British attempted
to incorporate the Ahoms' territories in the Company's dominion. This sparked
off a rebellion in 1828 under the leadership of Gomdhar Konwar. Finally, the
Company decided to follow a conciliatory policy and handed over Upper
Assam to Maharaja Purandar Singh Narendra and part of the kingdom
was restored to the Assamese king.
Khasi Uprising :-

After having occupied the hilly region between Garo and Jaintia Hills, the
East India Company wanted to build a road linking the Brahmaputra Valley
with Sylhet. For this, a large number of outsiders including Englishmen,
Bengalis and the labourers from the plains were brought to these regions. The
Khasis, Garos, Khamptis and the Singhpos organised themselves under to drive
away the strangers from the plains. The uprising developed into a popular
revolt against British rule in the area. By 1833, the superior English military
force had suppressed the revolt.

216.) Rampa Rebellion of 1879 :-

Ban of toddy tapping was an important factor behind the rebellion.

It was an insurrection by the hill tribes in the Rampa region of the
Vizagapatam Hill Tracts Agency of Vizagapatam District against the
British government of the Madras Presidency and Zamindars.
The hill tracts of Vishagapatanam were inhabited by hill tribes who led a more
or less independent way of life for centuries.
 These tribes paid a regular tribute to a zamindar or mansabdar who was a
subject of British India.
The then zamindar of the region was an oppressive tyrant. There were smaller
riots and uprisings before, but to make matters worse, the Madras government
introduced a law making toddy tapping illegal and introducing a
toddy tax, this wouldn't have been a great deal to the Hill tribes, but toddy
tapping was part of their culture.
This led to a full-scale rebellion in early 1879.

PEASANT MOVEMENTS
217.) Poligars' Revolt, 1799-1806 :-
1. The British showed little honour to the customs of the Poligar’s land and denied due
share of the crops to the peasants.
2. The British not only waged a series of wars against the Poligars, but deposed and
even executed several of them.

The Poligars of Dindigal and Malabar rose up against the oppressive

land revenue system under the British rule using 1801-06. Sporadic rising of
the Poligars in Madras Presidency continued till 1856.
The Period from 1799 to 1801 was the most important one in the history of
Kayathar. It was one of anti-British outbreaks to free the land from the British
conquests. The growing unrest in Kayathar culminated in the Poligar Rebellion
of 1799, and the East India Company suppressed the rebellion with an iron-
hand.
Though the Company reorganized the Poligar system in 1800, it could not
eliminate the sources of trouble. Therefore there was another rebellion which
spread far and wide in 1801. But the Company suppressed it with determination
and violence. The triumph of the British arms over the rebels contributed to the
consolidation of the Company’s power on a strong foundation.
The causes for the anti-British feeling were many. The English reduced the
hereditary rulers to the humiliating status of a ‘widow’, and treated the ‘sons of
the soil’ like “dogs”.
They showed no honour to the customs of the land and denied due share of the
crops to the peasants. The Company not only waged a series of wars against the
Poligars, but deposed and at times, executed them. This policy excited much
jealousies and created bitter hatred against the English.
The discontented people decided to liberatre the land from the British
domination and restore the old royal instruction to their former glory.
The British finally won after carrying out gruelling protracted jungle campaigns
against the Polygar armies. Many lives were lost on both sides and the victory
over the Polygars brought large parts of the territories of Tamil Nadu under
British control, enabling them to get a strong hold in Southern India.

218.) Pabna Agrarian Leagues (1870s-1880s) :-

During the 1870s and 1880s, large parts of Eastern Bengal witnessed
agrarian unrest caused by oppressive practices of the zamindars.
The zamindars resorted to enhanced rents beyond legal limits and prevented
the tenants from acquiring occupancy rights under Act of 1859.
To achieve their ends, the zamindars resorted to forcible evictions, seizure of
cattle and crops and prolonged, costly litigation in courts where the poor
peasant found himself at a disadvantage.
Having had enough of the oppressive regime, the peasants of Yusufshahi
Pargana in Patna district formed an agrarian league or combination to resist
the demands of the zamindars. The league organised a rent campaign where the
ryots refused to pay the enhanced rents.
 Challenging the zamindars in the courts funds were raised by ryots to fight the
court cases. The struggles spread throughout Patna and to other districts of
East Bengal. The main form of struggle was that of legal resistance; there was
very little violence.

219.) Rampa Rebellion of 1879 :-

Ban of toddy tapping was an important factor behind the rebellion.

It was an insurrection by the hill tribes in the Rampa region of the
Vizagapatam Hill Tracts Agency of Vizagapatam District against the
British government of the Madras Presidency and Zamindars.
The hill tracts of Vishagapatanam were inhabited by hill tribes who led a more
or less independent way of life for centuries.
These tribes paid a regular tribute to a zamindar or mansabdar who was a
subject of British India.
The then zamindar of the region was an oppressive tyrant. There were smaller
riots and uprisings before, but to make matters worse, the Madras government
introduced a law making toddy tapping illegal and introducing a
toddy tax, this wouldn't have been a great deal to the Hill tribes, but toddy
tapping was part of their culture.
This led to a full-scale rebellion in early 1879.

220.) Deccan Riots Commission :-

The Deccan peasants uprising 1875 was directed mainly against the excesses
of the Marwari and Gujarati money lenders.

Social boycott of moneylenders by the peasants was later transformed into

armed peasant revolt in the Poona and Alimadnagar districts of
Maharashtra.
By June 1875 nearly a thousand peasants were arrested and the uprising
completely suppressed.
The Government appointed the Deccan Riots Commission to investigate into
the causes of the uprising.
The ameliorative measure passed was the Agriculturists Relief Act of 1879
which put restrictions on the operations of the peasants land and prohibited
imprisonment of the peasants of the Deccan for failure to repay debts to the
moneylenders.

221.) Peasant movements happened after the 1857 Sepoy mutiny :-

1. Eka movement
2. Deccan riots
3. Indigo revolt

Indigo Revolt (1859-60), In Bengal, the indigo planters, exploited the local
peasants by forcing them to grow indigo on their lands instead of the more
paying crops like rice. The planters forced the peasants to take advance sums
and enter into fraudulent contracts which were then used against the peasants.
Deccan Riots have been covered in another question.
Eka Movement: Towards the end of 1921, peasant discontent resurfaced in
some northern districts of the United Provinces—Hardoi, Bahraich,
Sitapur.

222.) Kisan Sabha Movement :-

After the 1857 revolt, the Awadh taluqdars had got back their lands.
This strengthened the hold of the taluqdars or big landlords over the agrarian society
of the province. The majority of the cultivators were subjected to high rents,
summary evictions (bedakhali), illegal levies, renewal fees or nazrana. The
First World War had hiked the prices of food and other necessities. This worsened the
conditions of the UP peasants.

Mainly due to the efforts of the Home Rule activists, kisan sabhas were
organised in UP. The UP Kisan Sabha was Gauri Shankar Mishra and
Indra Dwivedi. Madan Mohan Malaviya supported their efforts. By June
1919, the UP Kisan Sabha had 450 branches.
Other prominent leaders included Jhinguri Singh, Durgapal Singh and
Baba Ramchandra. In June 1920, Baba Ramchandra urged Nehru to
visit these villages. During these visits, Nehru with the villagers.
In October 1920, the Awadh Kisan Sabha came into existence because of
differences in nationalist ranks. The Awadh Kisan Sabha asked the kisans to
refuse to till bedakhali land, not to offer hari and begar (forms of unpaid
labour), to boycott those who did not accept these conditions and to solve their
disputes through panchayats.
From the earlier forms of mass meetings and mobilisation, the patterns of
activity changed rapidly in January 1921 to the looting of bazaars, houses,
granaries and clashes with the police. The centres of activity were primarily the
districts of Rai Bareilly, Faizabad and Sultanpur. The movement declined
soon., partly due to government repression and partly because of the passing of
the Awadh Rent (Amendment) Act.

223.) Eka Movement :-

Towards the end of 1921, peasant discontent resurfaced in some northern districts of
the United Provinces—Hardoi, Bahraich, Sitapur.
The issues involved were:
(i) high rents -50 per cent higher than the recorded rates;
(ii) oppression of thikadars in charge of revenue collection; and
(ii) practice of share-rents.
The meetings of the Eka or the Unity Movement involved a symbolic religious ritual in
which the assembled peasants vowed that they would

pay only the recorded rent but would pay it on time;

not leave when evicted;
refuse to do forced labour;
give no help to criminals;
abide by panchayat decisions.

The grassroot leadership of the Eka Movement came from Madari Pasi and other
low-caste leaders, and many small zamindars.
By March 1922, severe repression by authorities brought the movement to an end.

224.) Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (1929) :-

Sahajanand Saraswati formed the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (BPKS)in

1929 in order to mobilise peasant grievances against the zamindari
attacks on their occupancy rights, and thus sparking the Farmers’ movement
in India.
After the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (1929) came in 1936 the All India
Kisan Sabha. The peasants organised by the Sabhas demanded freedom from
economic exploitation for peasants, workers and all other exploited classes.
Gradually the peasant movement intensified and spread across the rest of India.
The formation of Congress Socialist Party (CSP) in 1934 helped the
Communists to work together with the Indian National Congress, however
temporarily, then in April 1935, noted peasant leaders N. G. Ranga and E. M. S.
Namboodiripad, then secretary and joint secretary respectively of South Indian
Federation of Peasants and Agricultural Labour, suggested the formation of an
 all-India farmers body, and soon all these radical developments culminated in
the formation of the All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) at the Lucknow
session of the Indian National Congress in April 1936 with Saraswati
elected as its first President.

225.) "Telangana struggle" and "Tebhaga movement" :-

Telangana struggle and the Tebhaga movement were both peasant

movements.
At the time of Independence we had the two most classical cases of peasant
movements, namely the Tebhaga movement (1946-7) and the Telangana
movement (1946-51). The first was a struggle of sharecroppers in Bengal in
North Bihar for two thirds share of their produce instead of the
customary half.
It had the support of the Kisan Sabha and the Communist Party of India
(CPI). The second, directed against the feudal conditions in the princely
state of Hyderabad and was led by the CPI.

WORKING CLASS MOVEMENT

226.) Oldest Trade Union Federation :-

All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was founded in 1920 in

Bombay by Lala Lajpat Rai, Joseph Baptista, N. M. Joshi, Diwan
Chaman Lall and a few others.
Until 1945 when unions became organised on party lines, it was the primary
trade union organisation in India. Since then, it has been associated with the
Communist Party of India.
AITUC is a founder member of the World Federation of Trade Unions.
Accusing the Centre of running an “anti-worker government”, leading trade
union body AITUC is planning to launch a nationwide campaign against the
government.

227.) The Trade Union Act, 1926 :-

The Act recognised trade unions as legal associations;

laid down conditions for registration and regulation of trade union activities;
secured immunity, both civil and criminal, for trade unions from
prosecution for legitimate activities, but put some restrictions on their political
activities.
Alarmed at the increasing strength of the trade union movement under extremist
influence, the Government resorted to legislative restrictions. It passed the Public
Safety Ordinance (1929) and the Trade Disputes Act (TDA), 1929.

The TDA, 1929 made compulsory the appointment of Courts of Inquiry and
Consultation Boards for settling industrial disputes;
made illegal the strikes in public utility services like posts, railways, water and
electricity, unless each individual worker planning to go on strike gave an
advance notice of one month to the administration;
forbade trade union activity of coercive or purely political nature and
even sympathetic strikes.

228.)
 The first trade union was established in Madras by B.P. Wadia, a
social worker and member of the Theosophical Society.
This was established in 1918. Gandhi found the Textile Labour Association
(TLA) in the same year.
In 1920 the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was formed in Bombay.
The AITUC was a broad-based organisation involving diverse ideologies. The
main ideological groups were the communists led by S.A. Dange and
M.N. Roy, the moderates led by M. Joshi and V.V. Giri and the
nationalists which involved people like Lala Lajpat Rai and Jawaharlal
Nehru.
The AITUC made the colonial government more cautious in dealing with
labour. It attempted to grant workers some concessions in order to contain
unrest. In 1922 the government passed the fourth Factories Act which reduced
the working day to 10 hours. And in 1926, the Trade Unions Act was passed,
which provided for registration of trade unions and proposed some regulations.
During the last few years of British rule the communists gained considerable
control over the AITUC. The Indian National Congress chose to form another
union called the Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC) in May 1947.

Other Movements
229.)
The following gives an account of developments in colonial Madras.

Initially jobs with the Company were monopolised by the Vellalars, a rural
caste who took advantage of the new opportunities provided by British rule.
With the spread of English education in the nineteenth century, Brahmins
started competing for similar positions in the administration. Telugu
Komatis were a powerful commercial group that controlled the grain
trade in the city. Gujarati bankers had also been present since the eighteenth
century.
Paraiyars and Vanniyars formed the labouring poor. The Nawab of Arcot
settled in nearby Triplicane which became the nucleus of a substantial Muslim
settlement.
Mylapore and Triplicane were earlier Hindu religious centres that
supported a large group of Brahmins. San Thome with its cathedral was
the centre for Roman Catholics.
All these settlements became part of Madras city. Thus the incorporation of
many villages made Madras a city of wide expanse and low density. This was
noticed by European travellers and commented on by officials.

230.) Sannyasi revolt :-

It is also known as the Sannyasi rebellion which took place around

Murshidabad and Baikunthupur forests of Jalpaiguri (now in West
Bengal).
Historians have not only debated what events constitute the rebellion, but have
also varied on the significance of the rebellion in Indian history.
While some refer to it as an early war for India's independence from foreign
rule, since the right to collect tax had been given to the British East
India Company after the Battle of Buxar in 1764, others categorize it as
acts of violent banditry following the depopulation of the province in the
Bengal famine of 1770.
Another Chuar Rebellion occurred in 1798-99 in Bankura / Midnapore
districts of modern West Bengal.
The Famine, enhanced taxes, oppressive demands and economic distress due to
famines were common reasons of revolts of that period. The term Char or
 Chuar was used for local tribals in Bengal and it was a derogatory word
{meaning pig}. Leader of this revolt was Durjan Singh, a displaced Zamindar
who along with his 1500 followers created havoc.
He established his rule over 30 villages and attacked the East India Company
establishments. The British was able to suppress the rebellion with utmost
cruelty and deceit with the help of local landlords. Around 200 rebels were
executed in the process.
The uprising lasted from 1766 to 1772 and then, again surfaced between 1795
and 1816.

PERSONALITIES

231.) Subhash Chandra Bose :-

As per his Presidential Address to the Student’s Conference held at Lahore on 19
October 1929
“If we are to bring about a revolution of ideas we have first to hold up before us an
ideal which will galvanise our whole life. That ideal is freedom.
But freedom is a word which has varied connotations and, even in our country, the
conception of freedom has undergone a process of evolution. By freedom I mean all
round freedom, i.e., freedom for the individual as well as for society; freedom for the
rich as well as for the poor; freedom for men as well as for women; freedom for all
individuals and for all classes.
This freedom implies not only emancipation from political bondage but also equal
distribution of wealth, abolition of caste barriers and social iniquities and
destruction of communalism and religious intolerance. This is an ideal
which may appear Utopian to hard-headed men and women, but this ideal alone can
appease the hunger in the soul.”

232.) Rabindranath Tagore's objections to ‘Nationalism’ and ‘Patriotism’ :-

Below is a brief account of his views on nationalism.
Tagore's foremost objection to nationalism lies in its very nature and purpose as
an institution. The fact that it is a social construction, a mechanical organisation,
modelled with certain utilitarian objectives in mind, makes it unpalatable to Tagore,
who was a champion of creation over construction, imagination over reason and the
natural over the artificial and the man-made:
''Construction is for a purpose, it expresses our wants; but creation is for itself, it
expresses our very beings''.
As a formation, based on needs and wants rather than truth and love, it could not,
Tagore suggests, contribute much to the moral/spiritual fulfilment of mankind. To
him, race was a more natural, and therefore acceptable, social unit than the nation,
and he envisioned a ''rainbow'' world in which races would live together in amity,
keeping their ''distinct characteristics but all attached to the stem of humanity by the
bond of love.”
He took the view that since nationalism emerged in the post-religious laboratory of
industrial-capitalism, it was only an ''organisation of politics and commerce'' that
brings ''harvests of wealth,'' or ''a carnival of materialism,'' by spreading tentacles of
greed, selfishness, power and prosperity, or churning up the baser instincts of
mankind, and sacrificing in the process ''the moral man, the complete man… to make
room for the political and the commercial man, the man of limited purpose.''
Nationalism, according to Tagore, is not expressive of the living bonds in society; it is
not a voluntary self-expression of individuals as social beings, where human
relationships are naturally regulated, ''so that men can develop ideals of life in
cooperation with one another,'' but a political and commercial union of a group of
people, in which they come together to maximize their profit, progress and power; it is
''the organised self-interest of a people, where it is least human and least
spiritual.''

233.) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar resign :-

There are several reasons behind Dr. Ambedkar’s resignation from the cabinet as are
evident from his resignation speech.

Hindu code bill disagreement was the trigger.

During the debates in the Constituent Assembly, Ambedkar demonstrated his will to
reform Indian society by recommending the adoption of a Uniform Civil
Code. Ambedkar resigned from the cabinet in 1951, when parliament stalled his
draft of the Hindu Code Bill, which sought to enshrine gender equality in the laws of
inheritance and marriage.
Some of the other reasons can be:

He was never a congressmen and was always treated like an outcast in the
Congress Party and was never included in any substantial Cabinet Committee
except the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs and that too on Dr.
Ambedkar’s own protest. Also, there was little freedom in the Law Ministry
where he was working.
Most of the tenure of Dr. Ambedkar passed by while making and drafting the
constitution till 26 January 1950. When the constitution was enacted he wanted
to leave the cabinet but he stayed for several reasons. One of the major reason
was the upliftment of the Scheduled Classes, Backward Classes and
Women.

234.)
Rajkumari Amrit Kaur :-

A Gandhian and Freedom fighter;

she belonged to the royal family of Kapurthala;
inherited Christian religion from her mother;
served as a member of Constituent Assembly and Minister for Health in
independent India’s first ministry;
she continued as Health Minister till 1957.

Acharya Narendra Dev :-

A Freedom fighter and founding President of the Congress Socialist

Party;
he was jailed several times during the freedom movement;
and was active in peasants’ movement.
A scholar of Buddhism;
after independence he led the Socialist Party and later the Praja Socialist
Party.

235.) Jayaprakash Narayan :-

A marxist in his youth; JP was the founder general secretary of the Congress
Socialist party and the Socialist Party.
A hero of the 1942 Quit India movement; he declined to join Nehru’s
cabinet; and after 1955 quit active politics.
He became a Gandhian and was involved in the Bhoodan movement,
negotiations with the Naga rebels, peace initiative in Kashmir and ensured
the surrender of decoits in Chambal.
He was also the leader of Bihar movement, he became the symbol of opposition
to Emergency and was the moving force behind the formation of Janata
Party.

236.) C. Rajagopalachari :-
 C. Rajagopalachari (1878-1972) was a senior leader of Congress and literary writer.
He was a close associate of Mahatma Gandhi and a member of Constituent Assembly.
He was also the first Indian to be the Governor General of India (1948-1950) and a
minister in Union Cabinet.
He later became Chief Minister of Madras state.
He was first recipient of the Bharat Ratna Award and
He founded Swatantra Party in 1959.

237.) Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel :-

He (1875-1950) was a leader of the freedom movement; Congress leader; and

a follower of Mahatma Gandhi.
He was also the Deputy Prime Minister and first Home Minister of
independent India and played an important role in the integration of Princely
States with India.
He was a member of important committees of the Constituent Assembly on
Fundamental Rights, Minorities and Provincial Constitution.

238.) Dadabhai Naoroji :-

Dadabhai was a member of the Legislative Council of Bombay.

In 1886, Naoroji was elected as President of the Indian National Congress.
In England Dadabhai coined the Liberal Party and in 1892 he was elected to
the Parliament.
He was the first Indian to be elected in the British Parliament.
Dadabhai felt that the British misrule in India was mainly because of the
illiteracy of the people. Thus, as a solution to this problem he started educating
the masses regarding their rights and privileges. Dadabhai began free literacy
classes for girls in Marathi and Gujarati.
He set up the Gyan Prasarak Mandali (Society for Promotion of Knowledge)
for adult education.
Naoroji wrote the Poverty and Unbritish Rule.

239.) Indian Civil Service (ICS) :-

The first Indian to join the Indian Civil Service (ICS) in the British Era
was Satyendranath Tagore.
He is known for his contribution towards the emancipation of women in Indian
society during the British Raj.
He was the second son of Debendranath Tagore and the elder brother of
Rabindranath Tagore.
The ICS were appointed under Government of India Act 1858.
The ICS was headed by the Secretary of State for India, a member of the British
cabinet.

240.) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar :-

He was the law minister in the first cabinet of post- independence India.
He also served as the Chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Constitution.
It was Shyama Prasad Mukherjee who was Active in Hindu Mahasabha and later
became the founder President of Bharatiya Jansangh (now BJP).
Swantantra party was founded by C.Rajagopalachari. Ambedkar founded the
Republican Party of India.
241.) Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain :-

Commonly known as Begum Rokeya, she was a Bengali writer, thinker,

educationist, social activist, advocate of women's rights.
She wrote novels, poems, short stories, science fiction, satires, treatises, and
essays.
In her writings, she advocated that both men and women should be
treated equally as rational beings, and the lack of education is the main
reason of women's lagging behind.
Her major works include Abarodhbasini, a spirited attack on the extreme
forms of purdah that endangered women's lives and thoughts; Sultana's
Dream, a science fiction novella set in a place called Ladyland in nisah, a world
ruled by women; Padmarag ("Essence of the Lotus", 1924), another feminist
utopian novel; Matichur, collection of essays in two volumes.
Rokeya suggested that education of women is the foremost requisite of women's
liberation; hence she established the first school aimed primarily at
Bengali Muslim girls in Kolkata.

242.) James Prinsep :-

He was the founding editor of the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal and is
best remembered for deciphering the Kharosthi and Brahmi scripts of ancient
India.
As a result of Prinsep's work as an editor of the Asiatic Society's journal, coins and
copies of inscriptions were transmitted to him from all over India, to be deciphered,
translated, and published.

In a series of results that he published between 1836–38 he was able to

decipher the inscriptions on rock edicts found around India.
The edicts in Brahmi script mentioned a King Devanampriya Piyadasi
which Prinsep initially assumed was a Sri Lankan king.
He was then able to associate this title with Asoka on the basis of Pali script
from Sri Lanka communicated to him by George Turnour.

243.) Indian National Congress Leaders :-

The need for an all-India organisation of educated Indians had been felt since
1880, but the Ilbert Bill controversy deepened this desire. The Indian
National Congress was established when 72 delegates from all over the
country met at Bombay in December 1885.
The early leadership — Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta,
Badruddin Tyabji, W.C. Bonnerji, Surendranath Banerji, Romesh
Chandra Dutt, S. Subramania lyer, among others — was largely from
Bombay and Calcutta.
Naoroji, a businessman and publicist settled in London, and for a time member
of the British Parliament, guided the younger nationalists. A retired British
official, A.O. Hume, also played a part in bringing Indians from the various
regions together.

244.) Subhash Chandra Bose :-

1. Bose considered industrialization as a potent factor in making India strong and self-
sufficient
2. Bose did not share Gandhian ideal of “Ahmisa”.

Gandhi was hostile to industrialisation, while Bose advocated

industrialization, perhaps inspired by soviet progress.
He stated, "I am convinced that if we do desire freedom we must be prepared to
wade through blood", a statement at odds with Gandhi's philosophy of non-
 violence.
He thus raised the Azad Hind Fauj or the Indian National Army (INA), to free
India from British control.
Subhas Chandra Bose's political views were in support of complete freedom for
India at the earliest, whereas most of the Congress Committee wanted it in
phases, through a Dominion status
Even though Bose and Mohandas K. Gandhi had differing ideologies, the latter
called Bose the "Prince among the Patriots" in 1942. Bose admired
Gandhi, recognising his importance as a symbol of Indian nationalism; he
called him "The Father of Our Nation" in a radio broadcast.

245.) First Indian woman to become the president of the Congress? :-

Indian National Congress was founded in the year – 1885.

First Indian woman president of Indian National Congress: Mrs Sarojini
Naidu (1925)
Woman Presidents of Indian National Congress: Mrs Annie Besant (1917),
Mrs Sarojini Naidu (1925) and Mrs. Nellie Sengupta (1933)

246.) “Gandhi's conscience keeper” :-

Richard Casey, Governor of Bengal from 1944 to 1946, regarded

C.Rajagopalachari as the wisest man in India. The best possible tribute to
Rajagopalachari was from Mahatma Gandhi who referred to him as the
"keeper of my conscience".
Regarded as a pioneer of social reform, Rajagopalachari issued temple
entry proclamations in the Madras Presidency and worked towards the
upliftment of Dalits.
He played a pivotal role in the conclusion of the Poona Pact between
B. R. Ambedkar and the Indian National Congress and spearheaded
the Mahabal Temple Entry program in 1938.
Rajagopalachari was considered one of the most able statesmen in the national
arena. Critics opine that he completely failed to gauge the thoughts and feelings
of the masses – his introduction of Hindi and the Madras Scheme of
Elementary Education have both been extensively criticised while his
pacifist stance during the Quit India Movement and his "C. R. formula"
angered the majority of his colleagues in the Indian National Congress.

247.) Dr. B R Ambedkar :-

Ambedkar was elected (and not merely appointed) as the Chairman of the
Drafting Committee of the Constituent Assembly, and so He is called as the
father of the Indian Constitution.

Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha was the first organization formed by Dr.

Ambedkar in 1924. Ambedkar was appointed as the first Law Minister of
Independent India, but he resigned from the Cabinet in 1951 due to
differences with Nehru on the Hindu Code Bill.
Ambedkar got himself converted to Buddhism in 1956. After his death, his
political party Scheduled Caste Federation was renamed as Republican
Party of India in 1957 by his followers.
Some of his famous books are: ‘The Untouchable: Who are They and
Why They Have Become Untouchables’; ‘Buddha and His Dhamma’;
‘The Rise and Fall of Hindu Women‘, ‘Emancipation of
Untouchables’, ‘The Evolution of Provincial Finance in British
India’; ‘Pakistan or Partition of India‘, ‘Thoughts on Linguistic
States’, etc.
248.) Sardar Vallabhai Patel :-
Sardar Patel is credited with uniting all 562 princely states in pre-independent India
to build the Republic of India — hence the name of the statue. The date for the
inauguration of the statue (October 31, 2018) also marks the 143rd birth anniversary
of Sardar Patel.
Role in the Indian National Movement:

In 1917, Sardar Vallabhbhai was elected as the Secretary of the Gujarat

Sabha, the Gujarat wing of the Indian National Congress.
In 1918, he led a massive “No Tax Campaign” that urged the farmers not to
pay taxes after the British insisted on tax after the floods in Kaira. The
peaceful movement forced the British authorities to return the land taken
away from the farmers. His effort to bring together the farmers of his area
brought him the title of ‘Sardar’.
He actively supported the non-cooperation Movement launched by Gandhi.
Patel toured the nation with him, recruited 300,000 members and helped
collect over Rs. 1.5 million.
In 1928, the farmers of Bardoli again faced a problem of “tax-hike”.
After prolonged summons, when the farmers refused to pay the extra tax, the
government seized their lands in retaliation. The agitation took on for more
than six months. After several rounds of negotiations by Patel, the lands were
returned to farmers after a deal was struck between the government and
farmers’ representatives.
In 1930, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel was among the leaders imprisoned for
participating in the famous Salt Satyagraha movement initiated by Mahatma
Gandhi.
Sardar Patel was freed in 1931, following an agreement signed
between Mahatma Gandhi and Lord Irwin, the then Viceroy of India. The
treaty was popularly known as the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. The same year, Patel was
elected as the President of Indian National Congress in its Karachi session
where the party deliberated its future path.

249.) Indian Civil Service (ICS) :-

The first Indian to join the Indian Civil Service (ICS) in the British Era
was Satyendranath Tagore.
He is known for his contribution towards the emancipation of women in Indian
society during the British Raj.
He was the second son of Debendranath Tagore and the elder brother of
Rabindranath Tagore.
The ICS were appointed under Government of India Act 1858.
The ICS was headed by the Secretary of State for India, a member of the British
cabinet.

250.) Indian leaders and the titles given to them :-

1. Surendranath Banerjee - Indian Burke
2. Dadabhai Naoroji - Grand Old Man of India
3. E.V. Ramawamy Naicker - Socrates of South Asia
4. Gopinath Bordoloi - Lok Priya

Surendranath Banerjee was called the Indian Burke. He firmly opposed the
Partition of Bengal. He founded the Indian Association (1876) to agitate
for political reforms.
UNESCO had awarded Naicker this title for his contribution to the
untouchables movement.
 Gopinath Bordoloi was a Prime Minister of undivided Assam before
independence and later Chief Minister of the Indian state of Assam, and also a
leading Indian independence activist. He was a follower of the Gandhian
principle of non-violence.

251.) The Long Walk to Freedom :-

In this book, Nelson Mandela talks about his personal struggle against the
apartheid regime in South Africa, about the resistance of his people to the
segregationist policies of the white regime, about the humiliations, hardships
and police brutalities suffered by the black people of South Africa.
These ranged from being bundled into townships and being denied easy
movement about the country, to being denied a free choice of whom to marry.
Collectively, such measures constituted a body of constraints imposed by the
apartheid regime that discriminated between citizens based on their race.
For Mandela and his colleagues it was the struggle against such unjust
constraints, the struggle to remove the obstacles to the freedom of all the people
of South Africa (not just the black or the coloured but also the white people),
that was the Long Walk to Freedom.
For this freedom, Mandela spent twenty-eight years of his life in jail,
often in solitary confinement. Imagine what it meant to give up one’s youth for
an ideal,

252.) Three stamps :-

Three stamps were issued in 1950 to mark the first Republic Day on 26 January
1950. These stamps contain the images of "Trumpets" and "Indian flag"
and "The Charkha of Gandhi".
These three stamps basically indicate the history of the freedom struggle and
the forthcoming challenges for India. You need to keep an eye on such details in
the text that you read.

253.) Popular books published during the Colonial period and their
authors :-
Here are some of the famous books from which NCERTs often draw, and they are
quite famous in their own regard:

BADEN-POWELL, B.H. 1892. The Land Systems of British India, Vols I, II and
III. Oxford Clarendon Press, Oxford.
BUCHANAN, D.H. 1966. Development of Capitalist Enterprise in India. Frank
Cass and Co, London.
CHANDRA, BIPAN. 1993. ‘The Colonial Legacy’ in Bimal Jalan (ed.), The
Indian Economy: Problems and Prospects. Penguin Books, New Delhi.
DUTT, R.C. 1963. Economic History of India, Vols. I and II. Ministry of
Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, New Delhi.
KUMAR, D. AND MEGHNAD DESAI (Eds.). 1983. Cambridge Economic
History of India. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
MILL, JAMES.1972. History of British India. Associated Publishing House,
New Delhi.
 PRASAD, RAJENDRA. 1946. India Divided. Hind Kitabs, Bombay.
SEN, AMARTYA. 1999. Poverty and Famines. Oxford University Press, New
Delhi

254.) 'Silk Road' :-

The man who is often credited with founding the Silk Roads by opening up the
first route from China to the West in the 2nd century BC, General Zhang
Qian, was on a diplomatic mission rather than a trading expedition.
Sent to the West in 139 BC by the Han Emperor Wudi to ensure alliances
against the Xiongnu, the hereditary enemies of the Chinese, Zhang Qian was
captured and imprisoned by them. Thirteen years later he escaped and made
his way back to China.
Pleased with the wealth of detail and accuracy of his reports, the emperor sent
Zhang Qian on another mission in 119 BC to visit several neighbouring peoples,
establishing early routes from China to Central Asia.
Eurasia was criss-crossed with communication routes and paths of
trade, which gradually linked up to form what are known today as the Silk
Roads; routes across both land and sea, along which silk and many other
goods were exchanged between people from across the world. Maritime
routes were an important part of this network, linking East and West by
sea, and were used for the trade of spices in particular, thus becoming known as
the Spice Routes.
'Silk Road' is in fact a relatively recent term, and for the majority of their long
history, these ancient roads had no particular name. In the mid-nineteenth
century, the German geologist, Baron Ferdinand von Richthofen,
named the trade and communication network Die Seidenstrasse (the Silk
Road), and the term, also used in the plural, continues to stir imaginations with
its evocative mystery.
These vast networks carried more than just merchandise and precious
commodities however: the constant movement and mixing of populations also
brought about the transmission of knowledge, ideas, cultures and beliefs, which
had a profound impact on the history and civilizations of the Eurasian peoples.
Travellers along the Silk Roads were attracted not only by trade but also by the
intellectual and cultural exchange that was taking place in cities along the Silk
Roads, many of which developed into hubs of culture and learning.

255.) Foods introduced in India from outside during the Medieval age? :-

Food offers many examples of long-distance cultural exchange. Traders and

travellers introduced new crops to the lands they travelled.
Many of our common foods such as potatoes, soya, groundnuts, maize,
tomatoes, chillies, sweet potatoes, and so on were not known to our
ancestors until about five centuries ago.
These foods were only introduced in Europe and Asia after Christopher
Columbus accidentally discovered the vast continent that would later
become known as the North Americas. In fact, many of our common foods
came from America’s original inhabitants – the American Indians.
It is believed that noodles travelled west from China to become spaghetti.
Or, perhaps Arab traders took pasta to fifth-century Sicily, an island now in
Italy. Similar foods were also known in India and Japan, so the truth about
their origins may never be known.

256.) Cowry shells :-

As early as 3000 BCE an active coastal trade linked the Indus valley
civilisations with present-day West Asia. For more than a millennia, cowries
 (the Hindi cowdi or seashells, used as a form of currency) from the Maldives
found their way to China and East Africa.
The use of cowry shell money in India is well documented. The shells were
exchanged for rice and cloth from Maldivian traders, with early
historical records dating to the fifth century CE.
Not all cowries were resold but remained in India. Whilst Kovács (2008)
suggests that they were used only in Southern India, where they occupied
the lowest ‘niche’ of currency, Deyell (1999) reports that large cowry hoards
have been recovered in Northern India as well.
Heimann (1980) highlights that India was subdivided into local market
economies based on cowry exchange and trans market economies based on
metal currencies.
Cowry shell in India formed part of the state tax system and also acted as a
form of donation to monasteries, where the shells would form part of a ritual
function or as a component of a hoard (Yang 2011).
Owing to the long-standing connection between India and Southeast Asia,
Thailand began to similarly use cowry shell as a form of money, utilizing the
shells as small money and for religious dedications (Yang 2011).
The introduction of shell money occurred later than in India and in China, and
it appears that the cowry was sourced from multiple regions—either
from Borneo or the Maldives.

257.) Sevagram :-

It was the place of Gandhiji's ashram and his residence from 1936 to his
death in 1948.
Sevagram is a small village, located about 8 km from Wardha.
Mahatma Gandhi set up his ashram in the outskirts of the village when
barely 1,000 people lived there.
When Gandhi started his padayatra (foot march) in 1930 from Sabarmati
Ashram to Dandi for the Salt Satyagraha, he decided not to return to
Sabarmati till India achieved independence. Gandhi was imprisoned for more
than two years.
On his release he spent sometime travelling around India. He decided to make a
village in Central India his headquarters. He came to Wardha in 1934, at the
invitation of his follower and industrialist, Jamnalal Bajaj and stayed in one
of the rooms at Jamnalal's bungalow (Bajajwadi) at Wardha and in the
Prarthana mandir of Mahila Ashram for sometime.
In April 1936, Gandhiji established his residence in a village called Segaon at
the outskirts of Wardha, which he renamed as Sevagram, which means
'village of service'. Gandhiji was 67 years old when he came to Sevagram.

258.) Northwest Frontier Province :-

A Russian invasion of British India through the North-West Frontier was

considered real and thus the government kept watch on the region.
Recognizing its value to their empire, the British were tenacious in attempting
to control the province, and civil resistance there was met with severe
repression and multiple punitive military expeditions.
Fundamentally, the tribes of the North-West Frontier Province posed a
danger not so much through their military capability but their
potential, over time, to absorb scarce military and fiscal resources
for little perceptible return in terms of control or adjustment of
their behaviour.
The model of British colonial rule on the North-West Frontier was based upon a
strategic appreciation that allowed for a lighter administrative footprint and
greater tribal autonomy.
As time progressed therefore, particularly post 1900, there developed an
essentially laissez faire policy of administration. The government became
unwilling to expend resources on a barren and largely uninhabitable backwater
 - the reverse of today's strategic appreciation of the region - with the result that
development policies were curtailed and the Indian army's role in tribal affairs
was limited to coercion and little else.
Relations between the tribes and the GOI were managed almost exclusively by
combination of a small cadre of political agents, a system of Government
service through native militia and Khassadar units and the payment of
allowances to guarantee good behaviour

259.) Dubashes :-

Madras developed by incorporating innumerable surrounding villages and by

creating opportunities and spaces for a variety of communities. Several
different communities came and settled in Madras, performing a range of
economic functions.
The dubashes were Indians who could speak two languages – the local
language and English. They worked as agents and merchants, acting as
intermediaries between Indian society and the British. They used their
privileged position in government to acquire wealth.
Their powerful position in society was established by their charitable works
and patronage of temples in the Black Town.

260.) Curzon-Kitchener :-
In 1905 the Viceroy of India, Lord Curzon of Kedleston, was forced to resign
as a result of a disagreement with his Commander-in-Chief, Lord
Kitchener of Khartoum. Therefore, Kitchener’s tenure in India is of particular
importance.

Initially, it was Curzon who supported Kitchener’s move to reorganize the

Indian Army. It was the Viceroy who had lobbied for Kitchener’s appointment
as commander in chief.
Later, Curzon realized that Kitchener had plans to take away the controls of the
military from him. This Kitchener eventually managed to do and ensured that
all decisions regarding the military were taken in his own office.
Thanks to his clout, Kitchener received support from London and
Curzon decided to step down. Later, it came to be realized that the Viceroy
was right in having opposed Kitchener.
What began as a mild bureaucratic affair soon escalated into a major power
battle, and the scene of the struggle shifted in turn from the narrow confines of
Indian bureaucracy to the exalted chambers of Imperial decision-makers to the
public forum of two continents.

261.) National Anthem and National Song of India :-

The song Jana-gana-mana, composed originally in Bengali by Rabindra Nath

Tagore, was adopted in its Hindi version by the Constituent Assembly as
the National Anthem of India on January 24, 1950. It was first sung on
December 27, 1911 at the Calcutta Session of the Indian National
Congress. The complete song consists of five stanzas. The first stanza contains
the full version of the National Anthem.
The song Vande Mataram, composed in Sanskrit by Bankimchandra Chatteii,
was a source of inspiration to the people in their struggle for freedom. It has an
equal status with Jana-gana-mana. The first political occasion when it
was sung was the 1896 session of the Indian National Congress.

262.) First Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) :-

As early as 1875, Alexander Cunningham, the first Director-General of the

Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), often called the father of Indian
archaeology, noted that the amount of brick taken from the ancient site was
enough to lay bricks for “about 100 miles” of the railway line between
Lahore and Multan.
 When Cunningham, the first Director-General of the ASI, began archaeological
excavations in the mid-nineteenth century, archaeologists preferred to use the
written word (texts and inscriptions) as a guide to investigations.
In fact, Cunningham’s main interest was in the archaeology of the Early
Historic (c. sixth century BCE-fourth century CE) and later periods. He used
the accounts left by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims who had visited the
subcontinent between the fourth and seventh centuries CE to locate
early settlements. Cunningham also collected, documented and translated
inscriptions found during his surveys. When he excavated sites he tended to
recover artefacts that he thought had cultural value.
Subsequently, seals were discovered at Harappa by archaeologists such as
Daya Ram Sahni in the early decades of the twentieth century, in layers that
were definitely much older than Early Historic levels. It was then that their
significance began to be realised.
Another archaeologist, Rakhal Das Banerji found similar seals at
Mohenjodaro, leading to the conjecture that these sites were part of a single
archaeological culture.
Based on these finds, in 1924, John Marshall, Director -General of the
ASI, announced the discovery of a new civilisation in the Indus
valley to the world. As S.N. Roy noted in The Story of Indian Archaeology,
“Marshall left India three thousand years older than he had found
her.”
This was because similar, till-then-unidentified seals were found at excavations
at Mesopotamian sites. It was then that the world knew not only of a new
civilisation, but also of one contemporaneous with Mesopotamia.

Post-Independence
263.) Tashkent Agreement :-

The Tashkent Declaration was a peace agreement between India and

Pakistan signed on 10 January 1966 that resolved the Indo-Pakistani
War of 1965.
The declaration stated that Indian and Pakistani forces would pull back to their
pre-conflict positions, pre-August lines, no later than 25 February 1966, the
nations would not interfere in each other's internal affairs, economic
and diplomatic relations would be restored, there would be an orderly transfer
of prisoners of war, and the two leaders would work towards improving
bilateral relations.
The agreement was criticized in India because it did not contain a no-war
pact or any renunciation of guerrilla warfare in Kashmir. After signing
the agreement, Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri died mysteriously in
Tashkent.

264.)

Throughout the 1940s and 1950s, Nehru had been an ardent advocate of
Asian unity.
Under his leadership, India convened the Asian Relations Conference
in March 1947, five months ahead of attaining its independence.
India made earnest efforts for the early realisation of freedom of Indonesia
from the Dutch colonial regime by convening an international conference in
1949 to support its freedom struggle.
India was a staunch supporter of the decolonisation process and firmly opposed
racism, especially apartheid in South Africa.
The Afro-Asian conference held in the Indonesian city of Bandung in
1955, commonly known as the Bandung Conference, marked the zenith
of India’s engagement with the newly independent Asian and African nations.
The Bandung Conference later led to the establishment of the NAM.
The First Summit of the NAM was held in Belgrade in September
 1961.
265.)

Although the British Empire in India came to an end in 1947, Portugal refused
to withdraw from the territories of Goa, Diu and Daman which were under its
colonial rule since the sixteenth century.
During their long rule, the Portuguese suppressed the people of Goa, denied
them civil rights, and carried out forced religious conversions. After India’s
Independence, the Indian government tried very patiently to persuade the
Portuguese government to withdraw.
There was also a strong popular movement within Goa for freedom. They were
strengthened by socialist satyagrahis from Maharashtra. Finally, in
December 1961, the Government of India sent the army which liberated these
territories after barely two days of action. Goa, Diu and Daman became Union
Territory.
At the time of Independence, Sikkim was a ‘protectorate’ of India. It
meant that while it was not a part of India, it was also not a fully
sovereign country. Sikkim’s defence and foreign relations were
looked after by India, while the power of internal administration
was with the Chogyal, Sikkim’s monarch.
This arrangement ran into difficulty as the Chogyal was unable to deal with the
democratic aspirations of the people. An overwhelming majority of Sikkim’s
population was Nepali. But the Chogyal was seen as perpetuating the rule of a
small elite from the minority Lepcha-Bhutia community. The anti-Chogyal
leaders of both the communities sought and got support from the Government
of India.
The first democratic elections to Sikkim assembly in 1974 were swept by
Sikkim Congress which stood for greater integration with India. The assembly
first sought the status of ‘associate state’ and then in April 1975 passed a
resolution asking for full integration with India.
The Indian Parliament accepted this request immediately and Sikkim became
the 22nd State of the Indian union.

266.) Anandpur Sahib Resolution :-

After the reorganisation, the Akalis came to power in 1967 and then in
1977 the Sikh community, like all other religious communities, was
internally differentiated on caste and class lines. The Congress got more
support among the Dalits, whether Hindu or Sikh, than the Akalis.
It was in this context that during the 1970s a section of Akalis began to demand
political autonomy for the region. This was reflected in a resolution passed
at their conference at Anandpur Sahib in 1973.
Learning: The resolution asserted regional autonomy and wanted to redefine
centre-state relationship in the country.
The resolution also spoke of the aspirations of the Sikh qaum (community or
nation) and declared its goal as attaining the bolbala (dominance or
hegemony) of the Sikhs.
The Resolution was a plea for strengthening federalism, but it could also be
interpreted as a plea for a separate Sikh nation.
The Resolution had a limited appeal among the Sikh masses

267.)
V.K.R.V. Rao :-

In 1971 Professor V.K.R.V. Rao, the then Minister of Education/Ministry

of Human Resource Development (Government of India) and Chairman
of the Central Sanskrit Board, planned the First International
Sanskrit Conference.
 The two themes he suggested for the proposed Sanskrit Conference were the
contribution of the various regions of the world to Sanskrit Studies
and the contribution of Sanskrit to the advancement of knowledge in
different regions of the world. This first Conference had to be postponed to
1972.
At the 29th International Congress of Orientalists, held in Paris in 1973,
Sanskritists from various countries endorsed the formation of the International
Association of Sanskrit Studies and drafted its constitution.
The main task of the IASS was agreed to be the organizing of a World Sanskrit
Conference at different venues around the world.
Members of the IASS are registered on an individual basis by paying a
membership fee, either directly to the IASS (see "Download Membership Form"
below), or through their membership of a national association that is a affiliated
to the IASS.
The 1972 International Sanskrit Conference in New Delhi was recognised
retrospectively as the First World Sanskrit Conference.

A. L. Basham and A. K. Narain :-

By the middle of the 1970s workers in the field of Buddhist studies were
experiencing more and more urgently the acute need for an international
academic organisation wholly dedicated to the pursuit and furtherance of the
study of Buddhism in one or several of its many aspects.
IABS With this end in view, a small meeting was convenced in 1976 by two
scholars who were leading historians of ancient India, professor A. L. Basham
and A. K. Narain, and it was agreed by those present that a learned society
having this purpose should be founded.
The first organised conference of the International Association of
Buddhist Studies (IABS) was then held on 15-17 September 1978 under the
auspices of Columbia University (New York).

268.) People's Union for Civil Liberties (PUCL) :-

When Indira Gandhi was found guilty of violating electoral laws by the
Allahabad High Court, Narayan called for Indira to resign, and advocated
a program of social transformation. He asked the military and police to
disregard unconstitutional and immoral orders.
However, Janata Party opposition leaders and dissenting members of her party,
Congress were arrested, beginning The Emergency. Narayan was detained at
Chandigarh, and when released in 1976, formed the PUCL to oppose the
suppression of civil and political rights during the emergency.
The organization was thrown into disarray by his death and the election of the
Janata party to power, which promised to enact the PUCL platform.
Narayan originally intended PUCL to be an organisation free from political
ideologies, bringing those concerned about defending civil liberties
and human rights from different backgrounds onto a common
platform.
After the return of Indira Gandhi to power in the 1980 elections in India, the
organisation regained momentum and was renamed as the People's Union
for Civil Liberties (PUCL). Its founding conference was held in November
1980.

269.) Jay Prakash Narayan :-

In 1975, Allahabad High Court passed a judgment declaring Indira Gandhi’s

election to the Lok Sabha invalid.
The judgment of the High Court meant that legally she was no more an MP and
therefore, could not remain the Prime Minister unless she was once again
elected as an MP within six months.
 The stage was now set for a big political confrontation. The opposition political
parties led by Jayaprakash Narayan pressed for Indira Gandhi’s resignation and
organised a massive demonstration in Delhi’s Ramlila grounds on 25 June 1975.
Jayaprakash announced a nationwide satyagraha for her
resignation and asked the army, the police and government employees not to
obey “illegal and immoral orders”. This too threatened to bring the activities of
the government to a standstill. The political mood of the country had turned
against the Congress, more than ever before.
Indira Gandhi responded with proclaiming the national emergency, the details
of which are well covered in the NCERT.

270.) ‘Kamraj plan’ :-

In 1963 he proposed that all senior Congressmen should resign from office to
make way for younger party workers—this proposal is famous as the
‘Kamraj plan.’
K. Kamraj (1903-1975): was a freedom fighter and Congress President;
Chief Minister of Madras (Tamil Nadu); having suffered educational
deprivation, made efforts to spread education in Madras province; introduced
mid-day meal scheme for schoolchildren;

271.) Privy Purse :-

The integration of the Princely States was preceded by an assurance that after
the dissolution of princely rule, the then rulers’ families would be
allowed to retain certain private property, and given a grant in
heredity or government allowance, measured on the basis of the extent,
revenue and potential of the merging state.
This grant was called the privy purse. At the time of accession, there was
little criticism of these privileges since integration and consolidation was
the primary aim.
Yet, hereditary privileges were not consonant with the principles of
equality and social and economic justice laid down in the
Constitution of India.
Nehru had expressed his dissatisfaction over the matter time and again.
Following the 1967 elections, Indira Gandhi supported the demand that
the government should abolish privy purses. Morarji Desai, however,
called the move morally wrong and amounting to a ‘breach of faith with the
princes’.
The government tried to bring a Constitutional amendment in 1970, but it was
not passed in Rajya Sabha.
It then issued an ordinance which was struck down by the Supreme Court.
Indira Gandhi made this into a major election issue in 1971 and got a lot of
public support. Following its massive victory in the 1971 election, the
Constitution was amended to remove legal obstacles for abolition of
‘privy purse’.

272.) Swatantra Party :-

Swatantra Party was formed in August 1959 after the Nagpur resolution
of the Congress which called for land ceilings, take-over of food grain
trade by the state and adoption of cooperative farming.
The party was led by old Congressmen like C. Rajagopalachari,
K.M.Munshi, N.G.Ranga and Minoo Masani. The party stood out from
the others in terms of its position on economic issues.
The Swatantra Party wanted the government to be less and less
involved in controlling the economy.
It believed that prosperity could come only through individual freedom.
It was not critical of the policy of non-alignment and maintaining friendly
relations with the United States and advocated closer ties with the Soviet
Union.
273.) Indo-China conflict in 1962 :-

It took more than a decade for India and China to resume normal relations. It
was in 1976 that full diplomatic relations were restored between the
two countries.
Atal Behari Vajpayee was the first top level leader (he was then External
Affairs Minister) to visit China in 1979. Later, Rajiv Gandhi became the
first Prime Minister after Nehru to visit China. Since then, the emphasis is
more on trade relations between the two countries.
The cause of the war was a dispute over the sovereignty of the widely separated
Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh border regions. Aksai Chin, claimed
by India to belong to Kashmir and by China to be part of Xinjiang, contains an
important road link that connects the Chinese regions of Tibet and Xinjiang.
China's construction of this road was one of the triggers of the conflict. There
were other related issues as well such as annexation of Tibet.

274.) ‘Three Language Formula’ :-

The three-language formula for language learning was formulated in 1968 by the
Ministry of Education of the Government of India in consultation with the states.

It provides for the study of "Hindi, English and modern Indian

language (preferably one of the southern languages) in the Hindi
speaking states and Hindi, English and the Regional language in the non-
Hindi speaking States".
The formula was formulated in response to demands from non-Hindi speaking
states of the South, such as Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and mainly Tamil
Nadu.
However, Tamil Nadu Government opposed the three language formula
and continued to teach only two languages, that is, English and Tamil in the
educational institutions of the state.

275.) Communist Party (Marxist-Leninist) (CPI-ML) :-

In 1967 a peasant uprising took place in the Naxalbari police station area of
Darjeeling hills district in West Bengal under the leadership of the local
cadres of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) [not CPI – ML].
Beginning from the Naxalbari police station, the peasant movement spread to
several states of India and came to be referred broadly as the Naxalite
movement.
In 1969, they broke off from the CPI (M) and a new party, Communist
Party (Marxist-Leninist) (CPI-ML), was formed under the leadership of
Charu Majumdar.
It argued that democracy in India was a sham and decided to adopt a strategy of
protracted guerrilla warfare in order to lead to a revolution.
The Naxalite movement has used force to snatch land from the rich landowners
and give it to the poor and the landless. Its supporters advocated the use of
violent means to achieve their political goals. In spite of the use of preventive
detention and other strong measures adopted by the West Bengal government
run by the Congress party, the Naxalite movement did not come to an end. In
later years, it spread to many other parts of the country.
The Naxalite movement has by now splintered into various parties and
organisations. Some of these parties, like the CPI – ML (Liberation) participate
in open, democratic politics.
Currently about 75 districts in nine States are affected by Naxalite violence.

276.) Bihar Movement / ‘Total Revolution’ movement :-

The movement was launched against misrule and corruption in the

government of Bihar. It later turned against Prime Minister Indira
Gandhi's government in the central government
 The Bihar Movement turned into a Satyagraha and volunteers kept protesting
at the Bihar Legislative Assembly, inviting arrest.
Indira Gandhi imposed a nationwide Emergency to safeguard her position in
1975.
Immediately after proclamation of emergency, prominent opposition political
leaders Jayaprakash Narayan & Satyendra Narayan Sinha were arrested
without any prior notice, so were dissenting members of her own party.
JP was kept as detenu at Chandigarh even after he had asked for a
month's parole for mobilising relief in areas of Bihar gravely affected by
flooding.
After Indira Gandhi revoked the Emergency on 21 March 1977 and
announced elections, it was under JP's guidance that the Janata Party (a vehicle
for the broad spectrum of the anti-Indira Gandhi opposition) was formed.
Considered to be an election of newcomers, a huge crowd of
youth activists and leaders used to gather before the residence of the Bihar
Janta party president Satyendra Narayan Sinha.
The Janata Party was voted into power, and became the first non-Congress
party to form a government at the Centre in India.

277.) The categorization of Indian states in Parts A, B, C :-

Initially these (category based) states acceded with respect to defence,

communication, external affairs to India; but later they felt that a closer
association with Indian politics was necessary.
The five unions and Mysore accepted Indian jurisdiction in Union,
concurrent subjects except taxation and subject to differences as under
Article 238 and the supervisory power of Union for ten years.
The Seventh Constituent Amendment (1956) abolished Part-B states as
a class, and formed one class out of Parts A and B; thus special provisions
relating to Part B states were deleted.
The Indian states thus lost their identity and became part of one uniform
political set-up.

278.)
Annexation of Goa by India :-

The Annexation of Goa happened in 1961. India annexed the former

Portuguese Indian territories of Goa, Daman and Diu, starting with the
"armed action" carried out by the Indian Armed Forces.

Integration of Hyderabad (princely state) in India :-

After the Partition of India, Hyderabad tried to be a part of Pakistan but signed
a standstill agreement with the new dominion of India, continuing all
previous arrangements except for the stationing of Indian troops in
the state. Hyderabad's location in the middle of the Indian union, as well as its
diverse cultural heritage, was a driving force behind India's invasion and
annexation of the state in 1948. Subsequently, Mir Osman Ali Khan signed
an instrument of accession, joining India.
Therefore, the partition of India does not cover the incorporation of
the enclaves of French India into India during the period 1947–1954,
nor the annexation of Goa and other districts of Portuguese India by
India in 1961. Other contemporaneous political entities in the region in 1947,
Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal, and the Maldives were unaffected by the
partition.

World History
279.)
The date is mentioned first and then the event:
 August 1, 1914 - First World War begins.
Nov. 9, 1918 - Germany capitulates, ending the war.
November 9, 1918 - Proclamation of the Weimar Republic.
Jun 28, 1919 - Treaty of Versailles.
January 30, 1933 - Hitler becomes Chancellor of Germany.
September 1, 1939 - Germany invades Poland. Beginning of the Second
World War.
June 22, 1941 - Germany invades the USSR.
June 23,1941 - Mass murder of the Jews begins.
December 8 1941 - The United States joins Second World War.
Jan 27,1945 - Allied victory in Europe.
280.) Which of these European nations did NOT have a colony in the African
Continent?
Ans = Greece
In 1885 the big European powers met in Berlin to complete the carving up of Africa
between them. Britain and France made vast additions to their overseas territories
in the late nineteenth century. Belgium and Germany became new colonial
powers. The US also became a colonial power in the late 1890s by taking over some
colonies earlier held by Spain.

281.) Cold War Period :-

The cold war period was marked by the political, economic, and military
confrontation at the global level between the two blocs led by the superpowers,
the US and the USSR.
 The same period also witnessed developments like the establishment of the
UN in 1945, the creation of nuclear weapons, the emergence of
Communist China, and the beginning of decolonisation.
The Communist Party of China was formed in 1921. It was under Mao
Zedong's control in 1927. Eventually, Mao led a revolution, and the
communist party obtained control in 1947.
So India’s leadership had to pursue its national interests within the prevailing
international context.

282.)

Russian Revolution - 1917

Soviet invasion of Afghanistan - December 1979 to February 1989
Fall of the Berlin Wall - 9 November 1989
Disintegration of the Soviet Union - December 26, 1991
The Soviet–Afghan War lasted over nine years, from December 1979 to February
1989. Insurgent groups known collectively as the mujahideen, as well as smaller
Maoist groups, fought a guerrilla war against the Soviet Army and the Democratic
Republic of Afghanistan government, mostly in the rural countryside.
After several weeks of civil unrest, the East German government announced on 9
November 1989 that all East Germany citizens could visit West Germany and West
Berlin. Crowds of East Germans crossed and climbed onto the Wall, joined by West
Germans on the other side in a celebratory atmosphere
The dissolution of the Soviet Union occurred on December 26, 1991, officially granting
self-governing independence to the Republics of the Soviet Union.
The Russian Revolution was a pair of revolutions in Russia in 1917 which dismantled
the Tsarist autocracy and led to the rise of the Soviet Union.
283.)

India had signed the treaty of Versailles. It did so largely as a result of

having contributed more than a million soldiers to that war.
In the 1920s, it was a founding member of the League of Nations, the
International Labour Organisation, and the International Court of
Justice. It participated in the Washington Conference on Naval
Armaments in 1921-22.
From 1920 there was an Indian high commissioner in London. Even
before the First World War, Indian nationals were staffing a few diplomatic
posts. It was no accident that Indians formed the largest and most influential
non-Western contingent in the United Nations and allied agencies very soon
after independence.

284.) Truman Doctrine :-

The world order was bi-polar with soviet union and USA. The cold war was a rivalry
between them for domination.
Before the US began its expansionist policies during the cold war, its international
policy was isolationist.
It meant that the US would not intervene in the internal affairs of a country normally
unless USA is threatened or destabilised. However, with Soviet adventurism,
Truman pledged to:

Support Free people who are resisting subjugation by armed minorities or

by outside pressures
Commitment to a policy of containing communism not just in Europe
but throughout the world.

ART AND CULTURE

LITERATURE
285.) Sanskrit language :-
 Sanskrit, though not necessarily Classical Sanskrit, is the root language of
many Prakrit languages. Examples include numerous modern daughter
Northern Indian subcontinental languages such as Hindi, Nepali, Bengali,
Punjabi and Marathi.
Brahmi evolved into a multiplicity of Brahmic scripts, many of which were used
to write Sanskrit. Roughly contemporary with the Brahmi, Kharosthi was
used in the northwest of the subcontinent.
Sometime between the fourth and eighth centuries, the Gupta script, derived
from Brahmi, became prevalent.
Around the eighth century, the Śāradā script evolved out of the Gupta script.
The latter was displaced in its turn by Devanagari in the 11th or 12th century,
with intermediary stages such as the Siddhaṃ script. In East India, the Odia
alphabet, and the Bengali alphabet, were used.
In the south, where Dravidian languages predominate, scripts used for Sanskrit
include the Kannada, Telugu, the Malayalam and Grantha alphabets.

286.) Mahavamsa :-
Translated as the Great Chronicle, it is a 5th century CE epic poem written in the Pali
language. It relates the history of Sri Lanka from its legendary beginnings up to
the reign of Mahasena of Anuradhapura (A.D. 302) covering the period between
the arrival of Prince Vijaya from India in 543 BCE to his reign (277–304 CE).
It was composed by a Buddhist monk at the Mahavihara temple in
Anuradhapura about the sixth century A.D.
The contents of the Mahavamsa can be broadly divided into four categories:

The Buddha's Visits to Ceylon: This material recounts three legendary

visits by the Buddha to the island of Ceylon.
Chronicles of Kings of Ceylon: This material consists of genealogies and
lineages of kings of Ceylon, sometimes with stories about their succession or
notable incidents in their reigns.
History of the Buddhist Sangha: This section of the Mahavamsa deals with
the mission sent by Emperor Ashoka to Ceylon, the transplantation of the bodhi
tree, and the founding of the Mahavihara.
Chronicles of Ceylon: This material begins with the immigration of King
Vijaya from India with his retinue and continues until the reign of King
Mahasena, recounting wars, succession disputes, building of stupas and
reliquaries, and other notable incidents.

287.) ‘Three Bhangas’ :-

The Sanskrit term Tribhanga means Three Bhanga and according to K. M.

Varma the term Tribhanga is not the name of a particular standing position
but is used in the Silpasastra literature to describe the group of the
“Three Bhangas”, namely Abhanga, Samabhanga, and Atibhanga.
The Indian classical dance of Odissi is characterized by various Bhangas or
stance, which involves stamping of the foot and striking various
postures as seen in Indian sculptures, they are four in number, namely
Bhanga, Abanga, Atibhanga and Tribhanga being the most common of
all. Like many other poses used in traditional Indian dance, including Odissi,
Bharata Natyam and Kathak, Tribhangi or Tribhanga can be found in
Indian sculpture as well.
Traditionally the Yakshi is shown with her hand touching a tree branch, and a
sinuous pose, tribhanga pose, as is Salabhanjika, whose examples dating to
the 12th century can be found in the Hoysala temples of Belur, in south-
central Karnataka and the Khajuraho temples built around 9th century CE,
where Vishnu is depicted at various places in this position which commonly
reserved for Krishna, playing the flute
288.) Major textual traditions in chronological order :-
1. Ashtadhyayi of Panini
2. Manusmriti in Sanskrit
3. Natyashashtra of Bharata
4. Works on Astronomy and Mathematics by Aryabhata and Varahamihira

289.) James Prinsep :-

Some of the most momentous developments in Indian epigraphy took place in

the 1830s. This was when James Prinsep, an officer in the mint of the East
India Company, deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi, two scripts used in
the earliest inscriptions and coins.
He found that most of these mentioned a king referred to as Piyadassi –
meaning “pleasant to behold”; there were a few inscriptions which also
referred to the king as Asoka, one of the most famous rulers known from
Buddhist texts.
This gave a new direction to investigations into early Indian political history as
European and Indian scholars used inscriptions and texts composed in a variety
of languages to reconstruct the lineages of major dynasties that had ruled the
subcontinent. As a result, the broad contours of political history were in place
by the early decades of the twentieth century.

SCULPTURES
290.) "Ardhaparyanka asana" and "Achamana Mudra" :-

The bronze casting technique and making of bronze images of traditional

icons reached a high stage of development in south India during the medieval
period.
Among the Pallava period bronze of the 8th century, the best one is the
icon of Shiva seated in Ardhaparyanka asana (one leg kept dangling).
The right hand is in the Achamana Mudra gesture, suggesting that he is
about to drink poison.
Although bronze images were modeled and cast during the Pallava period in the
8th and 9th centuries, some of the most beautiful and exquisite statues were
 produced during the Chola period in Tamil Nadu from 10th to 12th
century AD.
The well known dancing figure of Shiva as Nataraja was evolved and fully
developed during the Chola period and since then many variations of this
complex bronze image have been modeled.
A wide range of Shiva iconography was evolved in the Tanjore region of
Tamil Nadu.

291.) ‘Dancing Girl’ in tribhanga posture :-

Bronze is Copper mixed with Tin.

The ‘Cire-Perdu’ or ‘Lost Wax’ technique for casting was learnt as long ago
as the Indus Valley Civilization.
The ‘Dancing Girl’ in tribhanga posture found from Mohenjo-Daro is the
earliest bronze sculpture datable to 2500 BCE.
Sculptors discovered the process of making alloys of metals by mixing
copper, zinc and tin which called Bronze.
Bronze sculptures and statuettes of Buddhist, Hindu and Jain icons have
been discovered from many regions of India dating from the 2nd century AD
until the 16th century AD.
Most of these were required for ritual worship and are characterized by
exquisite beauty and aesthetic appeal.
The metal casting process was also used for making articles for various
purposes of daily use, such as utensils for cooking, eating, drinking, etc.
Interesting images of Jain Thirthankaras have been discovered from
Chausa, Bihar, belonging to the Kushana period during the 2nd century
CE.
These shows how the Indian sculptors had mastered the modelling of masculine
human physique and simplified muscles.
Remarkable is the depiction of Adinath or Vrishabhanath, who is identified
with long hair locks dropping to his shoulders. Otherwise the thirthankaras are
noted by their short curly hair.
The additional importance of the Gupta and Vakataka bronze is that they
were portable and monks carried them from place to place for the purpose of
individual worship or to be installed in Buddhist Viharas.
In the manner, the refined classical style spread to different parts of India and
to Asian countries overseas.
Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir regions also produced bronze images
of Buddhist deities as well as Hindu gods and goddesses.

ARCHITECTURE
292.)
Kangra Fort :-

Kangra Fort is one of the oldest forts in India. The war records of Alexander
the Great mention this 4th Century BC temple of Himachal Pradesh. The fort
was devastated by a disastrous earthquake in 1905, but it stands as
testimony to the architectural skills of the times. The fort includes richly
carved temples with idols embossed in their walls.

Dilwara Temples :-

The Dilwara Temples are located about 2½ kilometres from Mount Abu,
Rajasthan's only hill station.
These Jain temples were built by Vimal Shah and designed by Vastupal-
Tejpal, Jain laymen, between the 11th and 13th centuries AD and are famous
for their use of marble and intricate marble carvings.
 The five marble temples of Dilwara are a sacred pilgrimage place of the Jains.
Some consider them to be one of the most beautiful Jain pilgrimage sites in the
world.
The temples have an opulent entranceway, the simplicity in architecture
reflecting Jain values like honesty and frugality. The temples are in the midst of
a range of forested hills. A high wall shrouds the temple complex.

293.) Vijayanagara architecture :-

The chief characteristics of the Vijayanagara architecture were the construction

of tall Raya Gopurams or gateways and the Kalyanamandapam with
carved pillars in the temple premises. The sculptures on the pillars were carved
with distinctive features.
Large mandapams contain one hundred pillars as well as one thousand
pillars in some big temples.
The horse was the most common animal found in these pillars.
These mandapams were used for seating the deity on festival occasions.
Also, many Amman shrines were added to the already existing temples
during this period.

294.) Rock Art Sites - UNESCO World Heritage Site :-

The Bhimbetka rock shelters are an archaeological site in central India that
spans the prehistoric paleolithic and mesolithic periods, as well as the historic
period. It exhibits the earliest traces of human life on the Indian subcontinent
and evidence of Stone Age starting at the site in Acheulian times.
Some of the Bhimbetka rock shelters feature prehistoric cave paintings and the
earliest are about 30,000 years old. These cave paintings show themes such
as animals, early evidence of dance and hunting. The Bhimbetka site has the
oldest known rock art in the Indian subcontinent, as well as is one of the
largest prehistoric complexes.
The rock shelters and caves provide evidence of, according to Encyclopaedia
Britannica, and a "rare glimpse" into human settlement and cultural evolution
from hunter-gatherers, to agriculture, and expressions of spirituality.

295.) Brihadeswara Temple at Thanjavur :-

The tradition of building temples and embellishing them with carvings and
paintings continued during the reign of the Chola kings who ruled over the
region from the ninth to the thirteenth century. But it was in the eleventh
century, when the Cholas reached their zenith of power, that masterpieces of
Chola art and architecture began to appear.
The temples of Brihadeswara at Thanjavur, Gangaikonda
Cholapuram and Darasuram were built during the reigns of Rajaraja
Chola and his son, Rajendra Chola.
Though Chola paintings are seen in Nartamalai, the most important are those
in Brihadeswara temple. The paintings were executed on the walls of the narrow
passage surrounding the shrine. Two layers of paint were found when they were
discovered. The upper layer was painted during the Nayak period, in the
sixteenth century.
Thanks to the cleaning of the surface painting, examples of the great tradition of
painting during the Chola Period were unveiled.
The paintings show narrations and aspects related to Lord Shiva, Shiva in
Kailash, Shiva as Tripurantaka, Shiva as Nataraja, a portrait of the patron
Rajaraja and his mentor Kuruvar, dancing figures, etc.

296.) Dasara Dibba :-

The Dasara Dibba attracts attention as one of the tallest structures in the Royal
Enclosure of Hampi. The stone platform has a height of about 12 metres.
 The grand platform was used as a stage by the kings to watch the
celebration of the nine-day long splendid Mahanavami festival, also known
as the Dasara festival. Due to this reason the platform came to be known as
Mahanavami Dibba.
The ornamental platform is a high structure on which the king used to sit and
watch the army march-past, the war games and the royal procession
that were held during the festival.
Dasara was the annual state festival and it was celebrated in style by the
Vijayanagara kings.

297.) Lomus Rishi caves :-

Lomas Rishi Cave is carved into the hard monolithic granite rock face of
Barabar hills, flanked to its left by the smaller Sudama cave.
The ornamentation on the "curved architrave" of the cave consists of
carvings of elephants on their way to the stupas.
This rock-cut cave was carved out as a sanctuary. It was built during the
Ashokan period of the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century BC, as part of the
sacred architecture of the Ajivikas.
The hut-style facade at the entrance to the cave, which was meant as a milk
shed, had an impact on South Asian rock-cut architecture.
It became a model for all such arched entrance portals built at many other
Buddhist and Jain caves in India, such as the much bigger Buddhist Chaitya
halls of Ajanta or Karli in Maharashtra.

298.) Pitalkhora, Ellora, Nashik and Junnar caves :-

The stupas in the fourth and fifth centuries CE have Buddha images attached.
Junnar has the largest cave excavations— more than two hundred caves around the
hills of the town—whereas Kanheri in Mumbai has a hundred and eight excavated
caves.
The most important sites are Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Ellora, Nashik, Bhaja,
Junnar, Karla, Kanheri.
Ajanta, Ellora, and Kanheri continue to flourish.
Earlier it was presumed that because of the absence of the Buddha image, the
, i.e., the Thervadins, but with the discovery of the Konkan Maurya inscription
mentioning the Saka era 322, i.e., 400 CE, it is now satisfactorily proved that the cave
activity in western Deccan was an ongoing process.

299.)
1. Gadag architecture - Kasivisvesvara Temple
2. Maru-Gurjara architecture - Chennakesava Temple
3. Kalinga architecture - Konark Sun Temple
Use elimination. Sun temple Konark is a famous example of Kalinga architecture,
located in Odisha. There is only one option where 3-B is mentioned, which is C.

The Gadag style of architecture is also called Western Chalukya

architecture.
The style flourished for 150 years (1050 to 1200 CE). Some examples are the
Saraswati temple in the Trikuteshwara temple complex at Gadag, the
Doddabasappa Temple at Dambal, the Kasivisvesvara Temple at
Lakkundi, and the Amriteshwara temple at Annigeri.
 Maru-Gurjara architecture - It originated somewhere in the 6th century in and
around areas of Rajasthan. It shows the deep understanding of structures and
refined skills of Rajasthani craftmen of bygone era.
The design which flourished in eastern Indian state of Odisha and Northern
Andhra Pradesh are called Kalinga style of architecture.
The prominent examples of Rekha Deula are Lingaraj Temple of Bhubaneswar
and Jagannath Temple of Puri. One of the prominent example of Khakhara
Deula is Vaital Deula.

300.) Jantar Mantar :-

Between 1727 and 1734 Jai Singh II built five observatories, all similar, in five
different parts of west-central India. All were known by the name Jantar
Mantar. They are located at Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Mathura and Varanasi.

He was given the task of revising the calendar and astronomical tables by
Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah.
While the purpose of the Jantar Mantars was astronomy and astrology
(Jyotish), they are also a major tourist attraction and a significant monument
of the history of astronomy.
The primary purpose of the observatory was to compile astronomical
tables, and to predict the times and movements of the sun, moon and planets.

Music
301.) Daskathia :-
Daskathia is a form of Ballad singing prevalent in Odisha.
It art form that’s exclusive to Orissa, Daskathia is performed usually by two men,
the singer and his assistant and is simpler than a "Pala".

Daskathia is a name derived from a unique musical instrument called “Kathi”

or “Ram Tali”, wooden clappers used during the presentation.
The performance is a form of worship and offering on behalf of the “Das”, the
devotee.
The performers - the Gayak (singer) and his accomplice (Palia) generally
narrate a poem of mythological or religious intent.

302.) Nayaka paintings and Vijayanagar style of paintings :-

Both the Nayaka and Vijayanagara paintings depict episodes from the Mahabharata
and Nayaka paintings also depicts scenes from Ramayana and Krishna-leela.
Vijayanagara paintings: The Vijayanagar Empire ruled in South India from 1336
until 1646 and left a lasting legacy of architecture, sculpture, and painting.
Vijayanagar architecture is a vibrant combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala,
Pandya, and Chola styles , which evolved from prior empires in earlier centuries. It
is also influenced by later Deccan and Dravidian styles.
Preferred for its durability, local hard granite was the building material of choice, as
it had been for the Badami Chalukyas.
Vijayanagar temples are characterized by ornate pillared halls and
rayagopurams, or monumental towers adorned with life-sized figures of gods
and goddesses that stand at the entrance of the temple.

In Hampi (Karnataka), the Virupaksha temple has paintings on the ceiling of

its mandapa narrating vents from dynastic history and episodes from the
Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Among the important panels are the one which shows Vidyaranya, the
spiritual teacher of Bukkaraya Harsha.
In Lepakshi, near Hindupur, in present Andhra Pradesh, there are glorious
examples of Vijayanagara paintings on the walls of the Shiva temple.
Nayaka paintings: Nayaka paintings of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
are seen in Thiruparakunram, Sreerangam and Tiruvarur. In
Thiruparakunram, paintings are found of two different periods—of the fourteenth
and the seventeenth century. Early paintings depict scenes from the life of
Vardhaman Mahavira.

The Nayaka paintings depict episodes from the Mahabharata and the
Ramayana and also scenes from Krishna-leela.
In Tiruvarur, there is a panel narrating the story of Muchukunda. In
Chidambaram there are panels of paintings narrating stories related to Shiva
and Vishnu— Shiva as bhikshatana murti, Vishnu as Mohini, etc.
In the Sri Krishna temple at Chengam in Arcot District there are sixty panels
narrating the story of the Ramayana which represent the late phase of Nayaka
paintings.
The examples cited above suggest that Nayaka paintings were more or less an
extension of the Vijayanagara style with minor regional
modifications and incorporations.

303.) Deccani School of Painting :-

In the Deccan, painting continued to develop independently of the Mughal
style in the beginning. However, later in the 17th and 18th centuries it was
increasingly influenced by the Mughal style.

Later it made a significant contribution to the development of the Mughal style

in North India.
Early centres of painting in the Deccan, during the 16th and 17th centuries were
Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda.
Painting in Hyderabad started with the foundation of the Asafjhi dynasty by
Mir Qamruddin Khan Nizam-ul-Mulk in 1724 A.D.
Influence of the Mughal style of painting on the already existing early styles of
Deccani paintings, introduced by several Mughal painters who migrated
to the Deccan during the period of Aurangzeb and sought patronage
there, was responsible for the development of various styles of painting in the
Deccan at Hyderabad and other centres.

304.) Central Indian paintings :-

Unlike Mughal painting which is primarily secular, the art of painting

in Central India, Rajasthani and the Pahari region etc. is deeply
rooted in the Indian traditions, taking inspiration from Indian epics,
religious texts like the Puranas, love poems in Sanskrit and other Indian
languages, Indian folk-lore and works on musical themes.
The cults of Vaishnavism, Saivism and Sakti exercised tremendous influence on
the pictorial art of these places. Among these the cult of Krishna was the most
popular one which inspired the patrons and artists. It did not develop as
anti-Sanskrit movement.

Dance
305.) Kutiyattam :-
Koodiyattam, also transliterated as Kutiyattam, is a traditional performing artform in
Kerala. It is a combination of ancient Sanskrit theatre with elements of Koothu,
a Tamil performing art which is as old as Sangam era.

It is officially recognised by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of the Oral

and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.
Koodiyattam, meaning "combined acting" as it combines dramas in Sanskrit
theatre with elements of traditional Koothu.
 It is traditionally performed in temple theatres known as Koothambalams of
Kerala. It is the only surviving artform that uses dramas from ancient Sanskrit
theatre. It has an attested history of a thousand years in Kerala

306.) Chhau dance :-

Chhau is a style performed exclusively by men from the triangular area where
Bihar, Bengal and Orissa meet. This is the tribal belt of India home to the tribal
groups of Bhulya, Santhals, Mundas, Hos and Oraons.
Being a type of martial art, women were initially strictly forbidden to practice
Chhau. However, the trend has changed recently, and women dancers could be
seen performing chhau. The dance itself has synthesised modern elements these
days. The traditional drums and flute are today accompanied by guitars
and pianos.

In the olden days the powerful Ganga and Gajapati rulers of Orissa
extended their territory from the river Ganges in the north to the Godavari in
the south with the help of a vast army of valiant Paikas.
They were not in the regular payroll of the army, but received huge land grants
from the kings and the chieftains. They formed the rank of a peasant-militia.
Though agriculture was their main occupation they used to keep themselves
prepared by regular practice and training in war techniques.

307.) Sankirtana :-

It is the only dance form from North-Eastern India that has been inscribed in
the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of
Humanity of UNESCO. Performed in temples where performers narrate the
lives and deeds of Krishna through song and dance.
Sankirtana, a ritual singing, drumming and dancing of Manipur
encompasses an array of arts performed to mark religious occasions and
various stages in the life of the Vaishnava people of the Manipur plains.
Sankirtana practices centre on the temple, where performers narrate the lives
and deeds of Krishna through song and dance.
Inscription of Sankirtana on the Representative List will contribute to the
visibility of Intangible Cultural Heritage of India to the World while
encouraging intercultural dialogue and subsequently will promote respect for
cultural diversity at all pervasive levels.

Martial art forms

308.) Huyen langlon :-

THANG TA is popular term for the ancient Manipuri Martial Art known as
HUYEN LALLONG.
Huyen langlon consists of two main components: thang-ta (armed combat)
and sarit sarak (unarmed fighting). The primary weapons of huyen langlon
are the thang (sword) and ta (spear). The spear can be used in its non-
missile form while in close or thrown from afar. Other weapons include the
shield and the axe.
Thang Ta developed from the war environment of the tiny state of Manipur in
North-east India, which was an independent kingdom since the early Christian
era.
It played an important role in the geopolitical environment of medieval times in
between India and China with many independent states at war with each other.
Constant life and death struggles between clans, tribes and states resulted in the
devising of ways and means of safeguarding the lives of the citizen soldiery and
 at the same time developing an inward attitude to problems of life, death and
afterlife.
The art of the battle simultaneously envisioned a deep value system or world
view ensconced within the culture of the small ethnic communities struggling
for survival from constant attack from hostile neighbours and also to sustain a
social order based on rank, status and kin affiliations of a collective kind.

Festivals and Fairs

309.) Behdienkhlam :-
Behdienkhlam is one of the most colourful festivals of Jaintia Hills, Meghalaya.

It is celebrated to invoke the gods for a bumper harvest and drive away
plague.
It is the ritualistic expression of the relentless struggle of mankind to overcome
the destructive forces of nature, including diseases, since the dawn of
civilization.
During the festival, decorated and colourful raths are immersed in ‘Wah Ainar,’
a muddy pool.
The non-Christian ‘Pnar’ people who believe either in the traditional faith of
‘Niamtre’ or Hinduism observe this festival.

310.) Ambubachi Mela :-

Ambubachi Mela, a four-day fair to mark the annual menstruation of the

goddess is being held at Kamakhya temple in Guwahati.
There is no idol in the temple, the goddess is worshipped in the form of a yoni-
like stone over which a natural spring flows.
Also known as Siddha Kubjika, the goddess is a Hindu tantric goddess of
desire who evolved in the Himalayan hills. She is also identified as Kali and
Maha Tripura.
The festival is also known as ‘Mahakumbh of the East’ as it draws lakhs of
devotees from all over the world.

311.) “Thuni” :-
It is one of the major festivals celebrated by the Chakhesang tribe, predominantly
by the Poumai Chakhesang from the Razeba area.

For the Poumai community in Manipur, Thuni is a premier festival of

new harvest.
It is celebrated from January 5th every year and continues for several days.
Most importantly, Thuni is a festival of equity when both the rich and
the poor; the old and the young share from the same barrel of rice beer and
eat the same food.

312.) ‘Dree’ :-
‘Dree’ is an agricultural rite and a fertility festival of the Apatanis .

The word ‘Dree’ is derived from ‘Diiri’, which means purchasing or

borrowing of food items when in scarcity or add to the existing stock
in anticipation of lean days.
Dree is named after Diiri Piilo, a month in Apatani calendar.
It involves the sacrifice of fowls, eggs and animals to the gods – Tamu, Metii
and Danyi Pilo(Sun and Moon God). The purpose of the festival is to appease
these gods so that famine could be avoided.

313.) Indian festivals in the UNESCO Intangible Heritage List :-

UNESCO’s List of Intangible Cultural Heritage is made up of those intangible heritage
elements that help demonstrate diversity of cultural heritage and raise awareness
about its importance.
 The list was established in 2008 when Convention for Safeguarding of the
Intangible Cultural Heritage came into effect.
It has two parts viz. Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage
of Humanity and List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of
urgent safeguarding.
From India the Intangible Cultural Heritages added into this list include:

Tradition of Vedic chanting

Ramlila, the traditional performance of the Ramayana
Kutiyattam, Sanskrit theatre from Kerala
Ramman, religious festival and ritual theatre of the Garhwal Himalayas.
Mudiyettu, ritual theatre and dance drama of Kerala
Kalbelia folk songs and dances of Rajasthan
Chhau dance
Buddhist chanting of Ladakh: recitation of sacred Buddhist texts in the
trans-Himalayan Ladakh region, Jammu and Kashmir.
Sankirtana, ritual singing, drumming and dancing of Manipur
Traditional brass and copper craft of utensil making among the Thatheras of
Jandiala Guru, Punjab
Yoga
Nawrouz
Kumbh Mela

314.) Kumbh Mela :-

Kumbh Mela is a religious pilgrimage that is celebrated four times over a course of 12
years. The geographical location of Kumbh Mela spans over four locations in India
and the Mela site keeps rotating between one of the four pilgrimage places on four
sacred rivers as listed below:

Haridwar on the Ganges in Uttarakhand.

Ujjain on the Shipra in Madhya Pradesh.
Nashik on the Godavari in Maharashtra.
Prayagraj at the confluence of the Ganges, the Yamuna, and the
mythical Sarasvati in Uttar Pradesh.

Learning: The KumbhMela (the festival of the sacred pitcher) is anchored in Hindu
mythology. It is the largest public gathering and collective act of faith, anywhere in the
world. The Mela draws tens of millions of pilgrims over the course of approximately
55 auspicious days to bathe at the sacred confluence of the Ganga, the Yamuna,
and the mystical Sarasvati. Primarily, this congregation includes Ascetics, Saints,
Sadhus, Sadhvis, Kalpvasis, and Pilgrims from all walks of life.
Each site’s celebration is based on a distinct set of astrological positions of the
Sun, the Moon, and the Jupiter. The celebrations occur at the exact moment
when these positions are fully occupied, as it is considered to be the holiest time in
Hinduism
Institution
315.) Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR) :-

It was founded in 1950 by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, independent

India’s first Education Minister.
Its objectives are to actively participate in the formulation and implementation
of policies and programmes pertaining to India’s external cultural
relations; to foster and strengthen cultural relations and mutual
understanding between India and other countries; to promote cultural
exchanges with other countries and people; and to develop relations
with nations.
 It does not provide funds research in premier cultural institutions of
India.

316.) Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR) :-

It was founded in 1950 by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, independent India’s

first Education Minister.
Its objectives are to actively participate in the formulation and implementation
of policies and programmes pertaining to India’s external cultural relations; to
foster and strengthen cultural relations and mutual understanding between
India and other countries; to promote cultural exchanges with other countries
and people; and to develop relations with nations.
Foreign Secretary is ex-officio Vice-President. Prime Minister is not a
part of the Governing body. You can find members of Governing board here

317.) Jews :-

The Jews of India waited centuries to build their first synagogues, praying in
temporary structures or private houses. The buildings that were eventually built
vary greatly in their scale, style, and visual orientation.
Some, particularly those belonging to the Baghdadi Jews based in Mumbai,
Kolkata, and Pune, are grand and built in various Western styles using fine
materials and elaborate detail.
Constructed by the Baghdadi Jewish community who first came from Iraq, Iran,
and a handful of other Near Eastern countries and settled in India permanently
beginning in the 18th century is a Neo-Baroque synagogue in the Fort section of
Mumbai, a Renaissance revival one in central Kolkata and, in English tradition,
a neo-Gothic structure in fine condition sitting within an open site in the Camp
area of Pune.
The largest synagogue in Asia outside Israel is considered to be in Pune (Ohel
David Synagogue)

318.) Rani-ki-Vav :-

Located in Gujarat’s Patan, the 900-year-old structure, Rani-ki-Vav, is a

major tourist attraction, a UNESCO World Heritage site, and was awarded
as the cleanest iconic place in India in 2016. It is located on the banks of the
mythical Saraswati River .
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) will soon be releasing a new lavender Rs 100
currency note. The banknote highlights the rich and diverse cultural heritage of
India as it prominently displays a photograph of ‘Rani-ki-vav’ (The Queen’s
Stepwell), an 11th century architectural wonder.
It was built by the Solanki dynasty’s queen Udayamati in the 11th century
as a memorial to her deceased husband Bhimdev I.
Architectural significance: Rani-ki-Vav was built in the complex Maru-
Gurjara architectural style. It highlights the sanctity of water as it is designed
as an inverted temple under the earth’s surface. The central theme is the
Dasavataras, or ten incarnations of Vishnu, including Buddha. The avatars
are accompanied by sadhus, brahmins, and apsaras (celestial dancers).

319.) Homeopathy :-
Homeopathy is a medical system based on the belief that the body can cure itself.
Those who practice it use tiny amounts of natural substances, like plants and
minerals. They believe these stimulate the healing process.

A basic belief behind homeopathy is “like cures like.” In other words,

something that brings on symptoms in a healthy person can -- in a very
small dose -- treat an illness with similar symptoms. This is meant to
trigger the body’s natural defenses.
For example, red onion makes your eyes water. That’s why it’s used in
homeopathic remedies for allergies. Treatments for other ailments are made
 from poison ivy, white arsenic, crushed whole bees, and an herb called arnica.
Homeopathic doctors (who also are called “homeopaths”) weaken these
ingredients by adding water or alcohol. Then they shake the mixture as part of a
process called “potentization.” They believe this step transfers the healing
essence.
Homeopaths also believe that the lower the dose, the more powerful the
medicine. In fact, many of these remedies no longer contain any molecules of
the original substance. They come in a variety of forms, like sugar pellets, liquid
drops, creams, gels, and tablets.
It was developed in the late 1700s in Germany. It’s common in many
European countries, but it’s not quite as popular in the United States.

320.)

Production of Kashmiri willow Cricket Bats : Anantnag, Baramula, and

Pahalgam are some of the districts where Kasmir willow bats are made. The
willow used in making these bats was brought in by the British. These willows
are lighter and more powerful than ordinary wood, making them more effective
as a hitting bat.
Cave paintings of Sonbhadra and Chitrakoot : The cave paintings of
Sonbhadra and Chitrakoot depict scenes of hunting, war, festivals, dances,
romantic life and animals and belong to UP.
Fabrics like chiffon, muslin and organza : One of the important crafts of
Uttar Pradesh is Chikankari, which entails delicate and traditional hand
embroidery. This form of handicrafts is mainly practiced in Lucknow. It is done
on fabrics like chiffon, muslin, organza, organdie and silk.
Metalwork of Badohi and decorated terracotta horse : Gorakhpur has
villages where clay figures of animals are done and It is famous for its ornately
decorated terracotta horse. The potter creates the basic form by throwing
separate pieces on the wheel and then joining them. Moradabad in U P is
famous for art metalwork and known for its coloured enamelling and intricate
engravings.

321.) Logo of ‘International Yoga Day’ :-

Yoga aims to transform both body and mind.
In 2014, the United Nations General Assembly declared June 21st as the International
Day of Yoga.

Folding of both hands in the logo Symbolise Yoga, the union, which reflects the
union of individual Consciousness with that of universal Consciousness, a
perfect harmony between mind & body, man & nature; a holistic approach to
health & well being.
The brown leaves symbolise the Earth element, the green leaves
symbolise the Nature, blue symbolises the Water element,
brightness symbolises the Fire element and the Sun symbolise the
source of energy and inspiration.
The logo reflects harmony and peace for humanity, which is the essence of
Yoga.
It is further important to know why the date June 21 was suggested. It is the
Summer Solstice; the date is the longest day of the year in the Northern
Hemisphere and has special significance in many parts of the world.
322.) Historical inscriptions in India :-
This is with reference to Epigraphical Studies in India - Sanskrit and Dravidian –
Language of the inscriptions.

We are quoting verbatim from ASI’s website, “The language of the earliest
written records, viz., the Asokan edicts, is Prakrit. Besides Prakrit, Asokan
edicts are written in Greek and Aramaic languages also. All the edicts of
Asoka engraved in the Kharoshthi and Brahmi scripts are in the
Prakrit language.
Thus, originally the language employed in the inscriptions was Prakrit and
Sanskrit was adopted in the inscriptions only at a later period.”
After the period of Asoka, the use of the Prakrit language continued in inscriptions for
a few more centuries.

In north India, Prakrit was replaced by Sanskrit about the end of 3rd
century A.D. while this change took place about a century later in south India.
From the 4th century onwards, with the rise of the Guptas, Sanskrit
became the predominant language of Indian epigraphs.
This is because Guptas were great patrons of Brahmanism and Sanskrit
language.

Learning: The contemporary rulers of the Guptas, in central India and parts of the
Deccan, like the Vakatakas, the Kadambas and later Gangas of Karnataka
and the Pallavas in south India also employed Sanskrit in their
inscriptions.

The copper-plate charters of the Pallavas, the Cholas and the Pandyas are
written in both Sanskrit and Tamil languages.

323.) Two-monthly seasons :-

In the Indian tradition, a year is divided into six two-monthly seasons.

Margashirsha to Phalguna would correspond to the Winter season
(Hemanta and Shishira).
While Northern India mostly conforms to this marked change of seasons, it is
less so in Southern India, which lies close to the equator.
324.) “Tirukkural” :-

The Tamil “Tirukkural” written by Thiruvalluvar mainly deals with Ethics and
way of life.
Thiruvalluvar is renowned Tamil poet and philosopher-saint believed to have
lived between 3rd Century BC and 1st Century BC.
He is the author of the book ‘Tirukkural (also known as the Kural), a work on
ethics. It is one of the most revered ancient literally work in Tamil Language.
Tirukkural is a classic Tamil sangam literature consisting of thousands of
couplets or Kurals. The book is also called as the fifth Veda or ‘Bible of the
Tamil Land’.
Recently a 12-foot-tall stone statue of Thiruvalluvar was inaugurated in
Haridwar, Uttarakhand by the CM.
His statue can also be found outside the School of Oriental and African studies
in Russell Square, London (United Kingdom) and Kanyakumari, TN.

325.) Kaniyan koothu :-

Kaniyan koothu is a Ritual art form practised during temple festivals in
Tamil Nadu.
Kaniyan Koothu is at least 300 years old and can be traced back to 17th century.

It is practised only by men. Kaniyan Koothu gets its name from the
community that the artists come from. Kaniyans are a Scheduled Tribe.
Instrument: Magudam, or frame drum is the main instrument. It is made by
fixing the new hide on the frame with a paste made from tamarind seed.
The lead singer is called annavi and he leads this troupe.
It also has an important religious significance, and not only about
entertainment.
Kaniyan Koothu tells Puranic stories such as Markandeya and Harischandra
Puranam and tales from Ramayana and Mahabarata, besides local dieties.
There is a passing reference to the art in Mukkoodarpallu (Tamil poem from the
Nayak period).

326.) Kalam (Kalamezhuthu) :-

It is a ritualistic art practiced in temples and sacred groves of Kerala

where the representation of deities like Kali and Lord Ayyappa, are made on
the floor.
Various factors need to be considered when deciding the nature or figure on the
'Kalam', which include the presiding deity of the temple or sacred grove, the
religious purpose that calls for the ritual of Kalamezhuthu and the particular
caste that does it. In each case the patterns, minute details, dimensions and
 colour choice are decided in observance with strict rules. The patterns vary
considerably depending on the occasion, but rarely by the choice of the artist.
Kalamezhuthu is practiced using natural pigments and powders, usually in five
colours. The drawing is done with bare hands without the use of tools. The
pictures are developed from the centre, growing outwards, patch by patch. The
powder is spread in the floor, letting it in a thin stream between the thumb and
the index finger. The figures drawn usually have an expression of anger or other
emotions. The powders and pigments are all extracted from plants - rice powder
for white, burnt husk for black etc.

327.) Inscriptions found at Aihole, Karnataka :-

The inscription written in Sanskrit and it is in Kannada script.

Many inscriptions found at Aihole, but the inscription which found at Meguti
Temple popularly known as Aihole inscription, which has the significance in
the history of India, witnessed for the many historical events of Chalukyas.
There is a mention about the defeat of Harshavardhana by Pulikeshi II.
And there is a mention about the victory of Chalukyas on Pallavas, also
mentioned about the shifting of the capital from Aihole to Badami by
Pulikeshi. There is mention about the poet Kalidasa.

328.) Wahhabism :-
Wahabism It is an austere form of Islam that insists on a literal interpretation of the
Koran. Strict Wahhabis believe that all those who don't practice their form of Islam
are heathens and enemies.

For over two centuries, Wahhabism has been Saudi Arabia's dominant
faith.
The religious curriculum in Saudi Arabia teaches you that people are basically
two sides: Salafis (Wahhabis), who are the winners, the chosen ones, who
will go to heaven, and the rest.
Wahhabism's explosive growth began in the 1970s from Saudi.
A Huffington post says that, “you Can’t Understand ISIS If You Don’t
Know the History of Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia.”

329.) Iconic Saree Weaving Clusters of India :-

These are some of the famous centres in the UNESCO list:
Chanderi, Ashok nagar District, Madhya Pradesh :

Known to have been a major urban centre since the 11th century AD, the town
of Chanderi has a rich history that was shared between Pratihara kings, Delhi
sultans, Mandu sultans, Bundela kings and Scindias of Gwalior. Located on the
borders of the cultural regions of Malwa and Bundelkhand, Chanderi was on an
important arterial route to the ancient ports of Gujarat as well as to Malwa,
Mewar, Central India and Deccan.
Banaras, Uttar Pradesh :

Banaras is home to the iconic brocade saree. Designs and motifs are sourced
from architecture. Weavers comprise almost 25 percent of Banaras city's
population (about 110,000), who trace their presence in the city between three
hundred and a thousand years. European and Indian royalty patronised the
craft of Banarasi saree, and it flourished, absorbing influences from Islamic
traditions and Hindu lore.
Feeder town Mubarakpur, Uttar Pradesh :

Cotton weaving started in Mubarakpur during 14th century. During Sultan

Muhammad Bin Tughlak's era there were 4000 silk saree weavers in
Mubarakpur. Mubarakpur is known for making pure silk Banarsi sarees with
zari work. Ninety percent of the working population is stated to be engaged in
 the task of weaving sarees of pure silk and zari, working on handlooms.
Presently there are about 20,000 families of weavers in Mubarakpur. Thus, this
village is known as weavers’ village.
Paithan, Maharashtra :

Paithanis comprise pure gold threads and yarns of silk spun in the 2000-year
old traditional method. This form of weaving was developed in Paithan
(Aurangabad district), historically called Pratishthana. The city was the capital
of the Satavahanas of ancient India that ruled from 2nd century BC to 2nd
century AD. Paithan, at one time, was visited by Greek traders, between 400
and 200 BC, during the Satavahana era, for the Paithani weaves.
Yeola, Maharashtra :

This art form soon spread to the other places in Maharashtra namely Yeola,
Pune, Malegaon and Nashik. One can even see motifs from Ajanta cave
paintings. The art of Paithani survived under changing rulers. In fact it
flourished under Aurangzeb.
Pochampalli, Telangana :

Pochampally Saree or Pochampalli Ikat is a saree made in Bhoodan

Pochampally, Nalgonda district, AP. They are popular for their traditional
geometric patterns in Ikat style of dyeing. The city is popularily known as the
silk city of India.
Sualkuchi, Assam :

Sualkuchi has a glorious history in production of muga and mulberry silk since
at least fourth century BC and finds a mention in Kautilya's Arthashastra
(referred to as Suvarnakunda of ancient Kamrupa). Of a naturally rich, golden
colour, muga is the finest of India’s wild silks. The loom is a prized possession
in every Assamese home. Weaving has been a way of life in the state since time
immemorial.

330.) Moidam :-

The Tai-Ahom clan upon their migration from China established their capital in
different parts of the Brahmaputra River Valley between 12th to 18th CE.
Usurping the Barahi tribe, Chau-lung Siu-ka-pha established the first capital of
the Ahoms at the foothill of Patkai hills and named it Che-rai-doi or Che-tam-
doi, meaning “a dazzling city above the mountain” in their language and
consecrated site with a ritual.
While the clan moved from city to city, the landscape of Che-Rai-Doi or
Choraideo continued to retain its position as most sacred where the departed
soul of the Royals could transcend into the after-life.
Their unique system of vaulted mounds continued for 600 years, till many Tai-
Ahoms converted to Buddhism while others adopted the Hindu system of
cremation in Moidam, Assam.
1. It was the Mound-Burial system of the Ahom Dynasty.
2. The structural construction and the process of royal burials are explained in
historical documents called Chang-Rung Phukanor Buranji.
3. The property and Buffer zones are jointly protected and managed jointly by the
Archaeological Survey of India and the State Department of Archaeology.