PHYS 104

Physics II: Electricity and Magnetism

Dr. Yazid Delenda
Department of Physics, Faculty of Sciences and Arts,
Applied Colleges at Yanbu - Taibah University, KSA.
yazid.delenda@yahoo.com

Contents
1 Introduction 1

2 Gauss’s law 3

3 Electric potentials 5

4 Capacitors and capacity 7

5 Current and resistance 9

6 Magnetic fields and magnetic sources 9

1 Introduction
The fundamental entity in electrostatics is the electric charge. There are two kinds of
charge: positive and negative. Charges of the same sign repel each other and those
with opposite signs attract each other. Charge is a conserved quantity; the net charge
in an isolated system is constant.
Matter consists of neutrons, protons and electrons. The positive protons and elec-
trically neutral neutrons in a nucleus are held by nuclear forces. The negative electrons
surround it at a (average) distance much greater than the nucleus size. Electric inter-
actions are responsible for the structure of atoms.

Conductors are materials that permit electric charge to move easily within them.
Insulators permit charges to move much less readily.
Induced charge When a charge is near a neutral conducting system, a separation
of charges occurs. This is polarisation. If you connect this system to another,
charges move to the new system such that opposite charges always attract, then
disconnect to get oppositely charged systems.

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Figure 1: An example of charging two spheres by polarisation

Coulomb’s law The force on a point charge q due to another point charge Q, which
~ respectively, is:
are situated at ~r, R
qQ ~r − R ~
F~ = ¯ ¯3
4π²0 ¯ ~ ¯¯
¯~r − R

where ²0 is the primitivity of free space, ²0 = 8.854 × 10−12 C2 N−1 m−2 .

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Principle of superposition of forces states that when two or more charges, each
exerts a force on another charge q, the total force on the charge q is the vector
sum of the forces exerted by the individual charges.
Note that in electrostatic studies, charges have no net motion.

Electric field is a vector quantity that presents the force per unit charge exerted on
a test charge at any point, provided that the test charge is small enough that
it does not disturb the charges that cause this force. Thus the electric field at
~ is given by:
position ~r produced by a single point charge Q at position R,
~
~ = Q ¯ ~r − R¯ ,
E 3
4π²0 ¯ ~ ¯¯
¯~r − R

such that the force exerted on a test charge q placed at ~r is given by

F~ = q E.
~

The electric field points away from a positive charge and

points towards a negative one.

Principle of superposition for electric fields The electric field at a given point in
space due to any combination of point charges is the vector sum of the fields
caused by the individual charges.
To compute the electric field at a given point in space due to a continuous dis-
tribution of charges we divide the distribution into infinitesimal elements and
calculate the field caused by each element, and then carry out the vector sum (or
component sum), usually by integration. Charge distributions are described by
linear charge density λ, surface charge density σ or volume charge density ρ.

Electric field lines Field lines provide a graphical representation of the electric fields.
At any point on a field line, the tangent to the field line gives the direction of the
electric field at that point. Points where field lines are closer together E is larger,
and where field lines are far apart E is smaller.

Electric dipole is a pair of electric charges equal in magnitude (q) but opposite in
sign, separated by a distance d

Electric dipole moment is defined to be p = qd in magnitude and has direction from

negative to positive. The torque experienced by a dipole in a uniform external
~ is given by:
electric field E
~
~τ = p~ × E
and thus the work done by the external electric field if the dipole rotates by and
angle dφ, is
~ = −pE sin φdφ,
dW = ~τ .dφ

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 ~ Thus we write (after integration) the
where φ is the angle between p~ and E.
potential energy:
~
U = −~p.E

Note: The electric field produced by a dipole falls like 1/r3 when r À d.

2 Gauss’s law
Electric flux is a measure of the “flow ” of electric field through a given closed surface.
It is equal to the product of an element area dA and the perpendicular component
~ integrated over a closed surface:
of E,
Z Z Z
Φ = E cos φdA = E⊥ dA = E. ~
~ dA.

Gauss’s law The total electric flux through a closed surface equals
the total net charge enclosed by the surface divided by the
permittivity of free space ²0 .

Qecn
ΦE~ =
²0
Note

When excess charge is placed on a conductor (at rest), it

resides on the surface, and the electric field equals zero inside
the conductor (E ~ = 0).

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Charge distribution Region Electric field

1 q
Single point charge q distance r from q E=
4π²20 r2

1 q
Charge q on surface of a outside sphere, r > R E=
4π²20 r2
conducting sphere of radius
R
inside sphere, r < R E=0

1 λ
Infinite wire of linear charge den- distance r from wire E=
sity λ 2π²0 r

1 λ
Infinite conducting cylinder Outside cylinder, a E=
of radius R and linear distance r > R from 2π²0 r
charge density λ axis
Inside cylinder, a dis- E=0
tance r < R from axis

1 Q
Solid insulating sphere of outside sphere, r > R E=
4π²20 r2
radius R and charge Q
uniformly distributed
throughout the volume
1 Q
inside sphere, r < R E= r
4π²20 R3

σ
Infinite conducting plate of sur- Any point E=
2²0
face charge density σ

σ
Two oppositely charged conduct- Any point between E=
²0
ing plates with surface charge plates 1
densities +σ and −σ

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3 Electric potentials
Uniform electric field This is similar as gravity on earth. Hence we simply have the
potential energy for uniform electric field:

U = qEh

Electric potential energy The electric force caused by any collection of charges is a
conservative force. In analogy to the gravitational potential energy it is easy to
show that the potential energy for a charged particle q0 due to another charge q
a distance r away (that is the negative of the work required to bring the particle
from ∞ to r) is given by:
1 qq0
U= ,
4π²0 r
which is negative if charges repel (i.e. qq0 < 0) and positive otherwise.
A collection of charges qi produce a potential energy for particle q0 :
q0 X qi
U= ,
4π²0 i ri

where ri is the distance of the ith particle from q0 .

However these charges do themselves have potential energy themselves. The total
potential energy for such a system is
1 X qi qj
U= 2
4π²0 i,j rij

where the sum runs over all pairs of particles (i, j), with i 6= j.

Electric potential (a.k.a. voltage) is defined by the electric potential energy per unit
test charge q0 , produced by a charge q. Thus for a single charged particle q, the
electric potential produced a distance r from it is:
U 1 q
V = =
q0 4π²0 r
and that produced by a collection of charges qi is:
1 X qi
V =
4π²0 i ri

where ri are the distances from the point charges to the point where V is measured.
Hence for a continuous charge distribution the electric potential (voltage) is:
Z
1 dq
V =
4π²0 r

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 The potential difference between two points a and b (the potential of a with
respect to b), is in general given by:
Z a
Vab = Va − Vb = − E. ~
~ dl
b

which can easily be seen by considering the work-energy theorem or the definition
of the potential energy. Thus for a uniform electric field the potential is

V = Ed

(e.g. between the plates of a capacitor).

Equipotential surfaces are surfaces in space where the potential energy is the same
at every point. The electric field is always perpendicular to equipotential surfaces
~ = −∇V
since E ~ (In the same way F~ = −∇U ~ ).
For example the surface of a conducting material is an equipotential surface when
~ is tangent to the surface at any
all charges are at rest (equilibrium) and thus E
point in the surface.

Potential gradient
~ = −∇V
E ~

which means the radial component of E is

dV
Er = −
dr
(if E is independent of θ and φ).

Cathode ray tube is a device used to accelerate electrons and eject them into a uni-
form electric field to experience a motion similar to projectile motion.
Electrons are scattered off a heated element with zero kinetic energy and get
accelerated through a potential difference V1 . Then they enter a uniform magnetic
field perpendicular to the initial velocity of the electrons which have kinetic energy
KE = qV1
Along the x−axis the position of the electron is
r
2qV1
x = v0 t = t
m
Along the y−axis the position of the electron is
1 qV2 2
y = at2 = t
2 2mD
where we used the fact that the kinetic energy is 12 mv 2 = KE = qV1 and the con-
stant acceleration of the electron is equal to a = F/m = qE/m = qV2 /(mD), with

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 + + + + + + + + y
+
+ D Θ
+
+
+ - - - - - - - -

l
Electron
generator

Figure 2: Cathode ray tube apparatus

V1 the potential between energy generator and cathode, and V2 is the potential
between the plates.
Thus the time of leaving the uniform electric field is
r
m
t = l/v0 = l
2qV1
and here the velocity of the particle has the components
r
2qV1
vx = v0 =
m r
qV2 m
vy = at = al/v0 = l
mD 2qV1
Thus angle of deflection satisfies:
vy qV2 m V2 l
tan θ = = l =
vx mD 2qV1 V1 2D
which gives us the position on the screen (provided d À l, D)
V2 l
y= d
V1 2D

4 Capacitors and capacity

A capacitor is any pair of conductors separated by an insulating material. When the
capacitor is charged there are charges of equal magnitude Q and opposite signs on the

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two conductors, and the potential difference Vab of the positively charged plate with
respect to the negatively charged one is proportional to Q (see later). The capacitance
C of a capacitor is defined by:
Q
C=
Vab
A parallel-plates capacitor is made
√ of two parallel conducting plates each with area
A, separated by a distance d (d ¿ A). If these plates are separated by vacuum, we
know that the electric field between the plates is:
σ Q
E= =
²0 A²0
and the potential difference is
d
V = E.d = Q
A²0
Thus the capacitance is:
Q A
C= = ²0
V d
which has units of farads.
If capacitors are attached in series, then the all have the same charge Q, which
implies that the equivalent capacitance satisfies:
1 X 1
=
Ceq Ci
and if they are attached in parallel, they all have the same voltage V , which implies
theta the equivalent capacitance satisfies:
X
Ceq = Ci

The energy stored in a charged capacitor: Consider the force acting on one
plate due to the other plate. This force is NOT F = QE. In fact each individual
charged particle in a given plate does not feel a net electric field due to the charged
particles in the same plate (equilibrium by symmetry). It only feels the net electric field
due to the charged particles in the other plate which is 1/2 σ/²0 = E/2, where E is
the actual electric field between the two plates. Hence we deduce that the net force on
one plate due to the other is F = QE/2, which is constant meaning that the potential
energy (analogously to gravity) is simply U = QdE/2. Thus
1 1 Q2
U = QV = CV 2 =
2 2 2C
The energy can be thought of as residing in the electric field between the plates
of the capacitor. Then the energy density (energy per unit volume) can simply be
expressed as:
1
u = U/(Ad) = ²0 E 2
2

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5 Current and resistance
Current is defined by the rate of flow of charge through a given area
dQ
I=
dt
For a cylindrical wire of cross-section area A with electrons moving with drift
velocity vd and with a number density n, this can easily be casted into:
I = nqvd A
where we used the fact that the amount of charge dQ = nqdV , and dV = A.dx =
A.vd dt.
Current density is the current per unit area. From before we cast this into:
~j = nq~vd

hence the current density vector is always in the opposite direction of flow of
electrons.
Ohm’s law The potential difference between the sides of a resistor is proportional to
the current flowing into it:
V = RI,
where R is the resistance.
Electromotive force denoted by emf, and is given by:
Vab = ε − IR
where R is the internal resistance of the source of the potential.
power the rate of flow of energy is:
P = IVab
For a resistor this is given by:
P = IV = RI 2 = V 2 /R

6 Magnetic fields and magnetic sources

Magnetic interactions are fundamentally interactions between moving charged particles.
These interactions are caused by the vector magnetic field, denoted B. ~ A charged
particle q moving with velocity ~v in a magnetic field will experience a force F~ , given
by:
F~ = q~v × B
~
Magnetic fields can also be represented in terms of field lines that are tangent to it at
each point.

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 Field lines and current enter a magnetic coil from the same side

The magnetic flux through an area is defined by

Z Z
ΦB = B⊥ dA = B. ~
~ dA

The SI unit for magnetic flux is the Weber (Wb). 1Wb=1Tm2

The magnetic flux through any closed surface is always zero side

This is Gauss’s law for magnetism. As a result, magnetic field lines always form a closed
loop (curling field lines).
The magnetic force is always perpendicular to the velocity vector. A particle moving
under the action of a magnetic field alone always moves with constant speed.
In a uniform magnetic field a particle with initial velocity perpendicular to the field
moves in a circle with radius given by
mv
R=
|q|B

and angular frequency

v m 2πm
ω= = ⇒f =
R |q|B |q|B

Velocity selector

e/m experiment

Mass spectrometry

Magnetic force on current carrying conductor

Dipole moment

DC motor

Hall effect

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