2015-Meta Emotion PDF

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EARCHI 799 1–11 ARTICLE IN PRESS

Early Childhood Research Quarterly xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Early Childhood Research Quarterly
1 Meta-emotion philosophy in early childhood teachers: Psychometric

2 properties of the Crèche Educator Emotional Styles Questionnaire
3 Q1 Enrica Ciucci a,∗ , Andrea Baroncelli b , Monica Toselli a
a
4 Department of Education and Psychology, University of Florence, Via di San Salvi 12, Complesso di San Salvi, Padiglione 26, 50135 Florence, Italy
b
5 Department of Health Sciences, University of Florence, Via di San Salvi 12, Complesso di San Salvi, Padiglione 26, 50135 Florence, Italy
6
7
22 a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
8
9 Article history: Meta-emotion philosophy has been theoretically conceptualized as an emotional connection between
10 Received 10 January 2014 parents and children which reflects parents’ awareness, acceptance, and regulation of their own emotions
11 Received in revised form 17 April 2015 and their awareness, acceptance, and regulation of their children’s emotions. The main aim of the current
12 Accepted 26 April 2015
study was to develop and test the psychometric properties of a self-report questionnaire assessing meta-
13 Available online xxx
emotion philosophy in early childhood teachers (the Crèche Educator Emotional Style Questionnaire
14
– CEESQ). CEESQ consisted of two sections: the first referred to children’s emotions (CEESQ-Children’s
15 Keywords:
Emotions) and the second to early childhood educators’ emotions (CEESQ-Individual Emotions). Partic-
16 Meta-emotion philosophy
17 Early childhood teacher
ipants were 306 early childhood teachers, recruited from 58 day care centers in the center and south of
18 Emotional self-efficacy Italy. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses for the first section identified three dimensions: two
19 Emotional styles styles used by early childhood teachers to deal with children’s emotions (i.e., Coaching and Dismissing),
20 Teachers’ emotional competence and teachers’ Self-efficacy as Emotional Socializers. Similar analyses for the second section identified
21 Individual teachers’ characteristics two dimensions: Emotional Self-efficacy (i.e., teachers’ awareness and ability to deal with their own
emotions), and Denial of Emotion (i.e., teachers’ lack of acceptance of their own emotions). Both CEESQ
sections demonstrated an equivalence in structure considering having/not having own children, years
of working experience, academic education level. No main or interaction effects pertaining to teachers’
individual characteristics emerged in any of the CEESQ dimensions. Lastly, both Emotional Self-efficacy
and Self-efficacy as an Emotional Socializer were positively associated with a Coaching style, with Self-
efficacy as an Emotional Socializer playing a partial mediation role. Administering CEESQ and discussing
its scores with teachers could work as a prompt in order to discuss and mentalize teachers’ emotional
work as emotional socializers.
© 2015 Published by Elsevier Inc.
23 Introduction To date, the construct of meta-emotion philosophy has only 34
Q2 been studied in parents and not in other meaningful socializing 35
24Q3 In this paper, we tested the psychometric properties of a new agents, for instance, early childhood teachers. Research recently 36
25 instrument being developed to measure early childhood teachers’ evidenced that early childhood teachers offer important socializa- 37
26 meta-emotion philosophy. The concept of parents’ meta-emotion tion opportunities for children (Denham, Bassett, & Zinsser, 2012), 38
27 philosophy (Gottman, Katz, & Hooven, 1996, 1997) encompasses an and they perform many emotion-laden caregiving tasks (Ahn, 39
28 organized set of feelings and thoughts (a philosophy of emotional 2005; Ahn & Stifter, 2006; Hyson, 2002; Mill & Romano-White, 40
29 expression and regulation) about their own and their children’s 1999). Considering that like parents, caregivers also play a role as 41
30 emotions, and an approach to their own and their children’s emo- socializers of emotional competence in children, we think that it is 42
31 tions. Meta-emotion philosophy relates to parenting behaviors, to important to further understand teachers’ perceptions about their 43
32 children’s ability to regulate emotions, and to children’s emotional own philosophy regarding how they socialize children to express 44
33 and social competence (Gottman et al., 1996, 1997). and control their emotional responses, as well as how the teachers 45
recognize, accept, and regulate their own individual emotions. 46
Meta-emotion philosophy in caregivers and its measurement 47
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 055 2755012; fax: +39 055 6236047.
E-mail addresses: enrica.ciucci@unifi.it (E. Ciucci), a.baroncelli@unifi.it The meta-emotion philosophy construct (Gottman et al., 48
(A. Baroncelli), monica.toselli@unifi.it (M. Toselli). 1996, 1997) provides an interesting conceptual framework for 49
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2015.04.006
0885-2006/© 2015 Published by Elsevier Inc.
Please cite this article in press as: Ciucci, E., et al. Meta-emotion philosophy in early childhood teachers: Psycho-
metric properties of the Crèche Educator Emotional Styles Questionnaire. Early Childhood Research Quarterly (2015),
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2 E. Ciucci et al. / Early Childhood Research Quarterly xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
50 representing the way through which parents’ thoughts and feelings the impact of their behaviors on children’s emotional development. 116
51 about emotions in themselves and in their children are connected We were driven by the parenting literature in which parental self- 117
52 to how they socialize emotions in their children. That is to say, efficacy and perceived impact emerge as important variables in 118
53 the meta-emotion model assumes that adults’ beliefs and feel- explaining parental functioning across various domains (e.g., emo- 119
54 ings about emotions are expressed through their behaviors toward tional availability, nurturance, physical childcare behaviors, play, 120
55 children’s emotions. The two main parenting styles concerning discipline), as well as parental satisfaction (Bandura, 1986, 1997; 121
56 children’s emotional socialization are emotion coaching and emo- Boivin et al., 2005; Bornstein, 2002; Coleman & Karraker, 1997, 122
57 tion dismissing (Gottman et al., 1996, 1997; Hooven, Gottman, & 2003; Teti & Gelfand, 1991). Moreover, our interest in teachers’ 123
58 Katz, 1995; Lagacé-Séguin & Coplan, 2005; Lunkenheimer, Shields, beliefs about children’s emotions was justified by a previous study 124
59 & Cortina, 2007; Ramsden & Hubbard, 2002). Coaching children’s by Hyson and Lee (1996) who developed a tool (the Caregiver’s 125
60 emotions is a style in which parents are aware of both their own Beliefs About Feelings Survey – CBAF) for preschool educators, 126
61 and their children’s feelings, accept them empathically, and effec- focused on dimensions like “Beliefs about adult labeling and talking 127
62 tively help children to process and regulate emotions. Dismissing about emotions with children” and “Beliefs about affectionate bond 128
63 children’s emotions is a parenting style characterized by a lack of with children”. Their model, specifically concerning beliefs, does 129
64 awareness of both their own and their children’s emotions, and not identify coherent behavioral styles among educators toward 130
65 by a deficiency in effectively solving emotional problems which children’s emotions, nor does it evaluate teachers’ self-efficacy or 131
66 results in devaluating, minimizing, and ignoring children’s negative perceived impact. 132
67 emotions. To summarize, in the present study, we tested the psychometric 133
68 According to this approach, parental meta-emotion philosophy properties of a new tool developed in order to measure early child- 134
69 is conceptualized as an emotional connection between parents and hood teachers’ meta-emotion philosophy. The tool comprised two 135
70 children which reflects parents’ awareness, acceptance, and regu- sections: the first referred to children’s emotions and the second to 136
71 lation of their own emotions and their awareness, acceptance, and early childhood educators’ emotions. The first section was created 137
72 regulation of their children’s emotions. Gottman et al. (1996, 1997) in order to identify the styles used by early childhood teachers to 138
73 developed a meta-emotion interview specifically focused on par- deal with children’s emotions, self-efficacy as emotional socializ- 139
74 ents’ awareness, acceptance, and regulation of their own, as well ers, and their perceived impact in this task. The second section was 140
75 as their children’s emotions. High levels of these three processes created in order to identify the individual attitude of early child- 141
76 define a coaching style, whereas low levels define a dismissing style. hood teachers toward their own emotions. In so doing, we were 142
77 In order to overcome some limits of this interview (e.g., 90 min inspired by instruments addressing parental meta-emotion philos- 143
78 required to administer it, specialized training to conduct it), Lagacé- ophy (Gottman et al., 1996, 1997; Katz & Windecker-Nelson, 2004; 144
79 Séguin and Coplan (2005) and Hakim-Larson, Parker, Lee, Goodwin, Lagacé-Séguin & Coplan, 2005), and parental beliefs about their role 145
80 and Voelker (2006) created and validated two self-report question- as parents (Boivin et al., 2005; Coleman & Karraker, 2003; Teti & 146
81 naires specifically focused on emotional parenting styles, referring Gelfand, 1991). 147
82 exclusively to the parental socializing of children’s emotions.

83 The aim of the current study was twofold. First, we aimed The impact of teachers’ emotions in teaching 148
84 to develop a self-report questionnaire based on Gottman and

85 colleagues’ (1996, 1997) original interview in which the three pro- A further rationale for this study derived from a review of 149
86 cesses of meta-emotion philosophy (i.e., awareness, acceptance, the extant research, mainly focusing on primary school teachers, 150
87 and regulation of emotions) were referred to children’s emotions about the impact of emotions in teaching. Several studies have 151
88 in terms of emotional styles as well as to the emotions of the care- provided evidence that teachers’ emotional competence (i.e., being 152
89 givers. Second, in order to fill a sizeable gap in the literature, we aware of their own emotions, accurately perceiving others’ emo- 153
90 focused on early childhood teachers, considering the important role tions, managing emotions and using them to facilitate thought and 154
91 they play as emotional socializers of children’s emotions. action; Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, & Sitarenios, 2001) is related to 155
92 As stated, the construct of meta-emotion philosophy had only their perception of effectiveness in their role and in their prac- 156
93 been referred to parents and not to other meaningful socializ- tices (Day & Leitch, 2001; Penrose, Perry, & Ball, 2007; Perry & Ball, 157
94 ing agents, for instance, early childhood teachers. Even though 2008; Sutton & Wheatley, 2003; Winograd, 2003; Zembylas, 2007). 158
95 the role of early childhood teachers as socializers of emotions According to Bandura’s postulation (1997), experiences of efficacy 159
96 has to a large extent been neglected, recent research has stressed as well as emotional states enhance or impair beliefs about the 160
97 that they offer important socialization opportunities for children self, because they are a source of information on individual self- 161
98 (Denham et al., 2012), they spend a significant amount of time with efficacy. Moreover, teachers’ efficacy is affected by the variance 162
99 the children (Innocenti Research Centre, 2008; Phillips & Adams, in their emotionality and emotion regulation (Sutton & Wheatley, 163
100 2001), and perform many emotion-laden care-giving tasks (Ahn, 2003). Research about teachers’ emotions recently recognized that 164
101 2005; Ahn & Stifter, 2006; Hyson, 2002; Mill & Romano-White, the emotional labor teachers are required to perform when they 165
102 1999). As Denham et al. (2012) asserted, early childhood teachers regulate their own feelings in teaching has an impact on the emo- 166
103 work as socializers of children’s emotional competence as much as tional quality of the interactions between teachers and students, 167
104 parents do, mainly by modeling or scaffolding, or by reacting to chil- parents and colleagues, on the sense of the teachers’ personal and 168
105 dren’s emotions. Furthermore, early childhood teachers can react professional identities, and finally on the caring ethics of teaching 169
106 to children’s emotions by showing empathy or physical comfort, or (Schutz & Zembylas, 2009; Sutton, 2004; Yin & Lee, 2012). In other 170
107 distract and help children to cope with feelings by problem-solving, words, teachers can be seen as emotional workers, who intention- 171
108 or ignore and give negative responses to the children’s emotions ally use their emotional experience to fit professional and ethical 172
109 (Ahn, 2005; Ahn & Stifter, 2006; Hyson, 2002; Meyer & Turner, norms in teaching. 173
110 2007). To date, few studies have investigated the impact of teachers’ 174
111 In fulfilling the aim of the current study, we considered it cru- emotions on the quality of the caregiver-child relationship and on 175
112 cial to identify the nature of early childhood educators’ beliefs the socialization of emotions in preschool children (de Schipper, 176
113 about children’s emotions, in terms of which practices they con- Riksen-Walraven, Geurts, & Derksen, 2008; Ersay, 2007). In partic- 177
114 sider pertinent to their professional role, how they feel to be able to ular, Ersay (2007) found that preschool teachers who were more 178
115 implement them (i.e., self-efficacy), and finally, how they perceive aware of their own emotions were also less likely to ignore or 179
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180 minimize their students’ emotions, and more likely to accept and self-efficacy as emotional socializers and to an adaptive emotion 242
181 encourage all their students’ emotions, including the negative ones. coaching style. No specific hypotheses were put forward about the 243
182 A key advance made by the present study was to analyze the associ- link between teachers’ individual experience of bringing up their 244
183 ations between individual differences in early childhood teachers’ own children and the dimensions measured by the CEESQ. 245
184 emotional competence (i.e., awareness, acceptance, and regulation

185 of own emotions), their emotional styles with the children’s emo-
Method 246
186 tions (i.e., coaching and dismissing styles), and their self-efficacy as
187 emotional socializers.
Participants and procedure 247
188 The role of teachers’ individual characteristics

Participants were 306 early childhood teachers from 58 day 248
care centers in the center and south of Italy. In Italy, early edu- 249
189 A further question worthy of exploration is how teachers’
cation teachers interact with infants aged 0–3 years old. Children 250
190 individual experience with their own children and professional
can attend day centers for 4–8 h, 5 days a week, depending on 251
191 characteristics (i.e., academic education level, years of teaching)
parental needs. Day centers are regulated or strictly controlled by 252
192 affect their attitudes and responses to the children’s emotions,
the municipalities/local councils. 253
193 their self-efficacy as emotional socializers, and their emotional pro-
Teachers were recruited on refresher courses held at their 254
194 cesses. As far as we know, there is no research about the role of
place of work. The centers were chosen through convenience sam- 255
195 individual experience with own children in teachers’ practices, so
pling, when they approached the research team to follow refresher 256
196 this issue was investigated in an exploratory manner.
courses. All the course participants spontaneously accepted to take 257
197 The link between caregivers’ academic education and/or pro-
part in the research and no economic incentives were given. All of 258
198 fessional training and children’s outcomes (e.g., emotional, social
the teachers were female and Italian. This exclusively female sam- 259
199 and academic functioning) is perhaps the area most considered in
ple gives a good representation of early childhood educators in Italy, 260
200 the research about quality in childcare (for a review, see Huntsman,
who are almost exclusively women. Their ages ranged between 25 261
201 2008). Generally, the weight of evidence favors the idea of a positive
and 61 (mean age = 43.40 years, SD = 9.20 years); 203 out of the 262
202 link between teachers’ level of academic education, qualifications
302 (67.22%) teachers declared that they had at least one child. The 263
203 and training, and childcare quality, which, in turn, positively affects
number of years that the answering participants had been teaching 264
204 children’s development (Blau, 2000; Burchinal, Howes, & Kontos,
(244 out of 306) ranged from 1 to 35 (mean length = 14.77 years, 265
205 2002; Hyson & Lee, 1996; Layzer & Goodson, 2006; Manlove,
SD = 9.63 years). The high rate of missing data for this item (n = 62) 266
206 Vazquez, & Vernon-Feagans, 2008; NICHD, 1996, 2000). Similarly,
may be attributed to difficulties in calculating their length of ser- 267
207 the amount of professional experience (i.e., years of teaching) may
vice as they may have worked for on and off as supply teachers. As 268
208 be a key ingredient in teachers’ sense of efficacy as well as in
the highest level of education, 190 out of 301 (63.12%) reported 269
209 their emotional competence as socializers of children’s emotions
a high school degree, and 111 out of 301 (36.88%) a university 270
210 (Penrose et al., 2007; Sutton, 2004). Specifically, the longer the
degree. 271
211 period spent in a position at work, the greater the likelihood that
The study took place in each day care center, in a group for- 272
212 teachers will demonstrate positive efficacy and the ability to regu-
mat, within a single session. The early childhood teachers were 273
213 late their own emotions.
requested to fill out the questionnaire anonymously, on individual 274
214 In Italy, as well as in other countries, early childhood teach-
sheets, without any time limitation. The CEESQ was administered 275
215 ers hold various levels of academic qualifications. Educators can
by trained assistants. 276
216 work after obtaining a specific high school degree for teaching
217 in preschools, but they may also have obtained an university
218 degree in Educational Sciences, which requires four more years Measure 277
219 of study. Moreover, in Italy, early childhood educators regularly

220 follow compulsory refresher courses, organized by the institu- Preliminary instrument development and final version of the 278
221 tions where they work. A range of different courses is offered by CEESQ 279
222 the schools themselves, while it is compulsory to attend a spe- The Crèche Educator Emotional Style Questionnaire – CEESQ – 280
223 cific number of hours. More work experience could mean more was developed to assess meta-emotion philosophy in early child- 281
224 attending training courses. However, this link is in need of in- hood teachers. It consisted of two scales with items assessing the 282
225 depth exploration, as it was not confirmed by Hyson and Lee frequency of teachers’ behaviors and beliefs with regard to both 283
226 (1996). the children’s and their own emotions. Each item is rated on a 5- 284
point Likert scale ranging from 1 (rarely or never) to 5 (very often). 285
227 The current study The first scale – CEESQ-Children’s Emotions – comprised items rep- 286
resenting coaching and dismissing emotional styles, self-efficacy 287
228 On the basis of the above-reported literature, the main aim of as emotional socializers and teachers’ perceived impact about the 288
229 the current study was to develop a multidimensional self-report effect of their behavior on the children’s emotional development. 289
230 questionnaire to assess meta-emotion philosophy in early child- An original pool of 26 items was adopted. Coaching and Dismissing 290
231 hood teachers (the Crèche Educator Emotional Style Questionnaire reflected adult behavioral tendencies toward the regulation of chil- 291
232 – CEESQ) and test its psychometric properties. A further aim was dren’s emotions. Two other theorized emotional styles described 292
233 to explore the influence of teachers’ individual experience with by parenting literature (i.e., Laissez-faire and Disapproving) were 293
234 their own children as well as their professional characteristics (i.e., not included in our scale, owing to their lack of social desirabil- 294
235 academic education level, years of teaching) on the CEESQ scales. ity in this context, as resulting from teachers’ specific training and 295
236 Consistently with Ersay’s results (2007), we hypothesized that early knowledge about this issue. Early childhood teachers’ self-efficacy 296
237 childhood teachers who were aware of their own emotions and refers to teachers’ perceived ability to carry out tasks associated 297
238 more prone to accept and regulate their own emotions were also with the role of emotional socializer, specifically within the context 298
239 more likely to recognize, accept, and regulate the children’s emo- of day care. Early childhood teachers’ perceived impact relates to 299
240 tions. We also hypothesized that a high level of academic education teachers’ evaluation of the effect of their behavior on the children’s 300
241 and more years of teaching were positively related to teachers’ emotional development. 301
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302 These domains were selected because they reflected significant Data analyses 368
303 bodies of theory or research on early childhood emotional socializa-

304 tion (for parental meta-emotion philosophy: Gottman et al., 1996, The data analysis strategy used in the current study refers to var- 369
305 1997; Katz & Windecker-Nelson, 2004; for parents’ and teachers’ ious steps; in order to make our paper easier to read, we grouped all 370
306 beliefs on children’s development: Boivin et al., 2005; Coleman the analyses performed into five main steps which will be described 371
307 & Karraker, 2003; Teti & Gelfand, 1991). The items on emotional below. 372
308 styles were inspired by the Maternal Emotional Style Questionnaire

309 (MESQ, by Lagacé-Séguin & Coplan, 2005) which mainly focused Step 1: Adequacy of observed items and exploratory factor 373
310 on parents’ behaviors in dealing with the emotions of sadness and analyses 374
311 anger in their own child. Thus, some items were modified to refer to First of all, we performed an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) 375
312 children in general (i.e., When my child is angry. . . was transformed on the 21 items from the CEESQ-Children’s Emotions scale. Before 376
313 into When a child is angry. . .), or to vary the emotions, in order performing the EFA, several methods were employed to check the 377
314 to have a more balanced distribution of the four basic emotions adequacy of our data. We initially inspected the skewness and kur- 378
315 (i.e., fear, happiness, sadness and anger) across the two emotional tosis scores for each observed variable, and scores ranging between 379
316 styles. Only three items were strictly derived from the MESQ: When −1.00 and +1.00 were considered to indicate a normal distribution. 380
317 my child is angry, my goal is to make him/her stop; I help my child get Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin’s sampling adequacy criteria (KMO) with indi- 381
318 over sadness quickly so that he/she can move on; When my child is vidual measures of sampling adequacy for each item (MSA) tested 382
319 angry, it’s an opportunity for getting close. Items on early childhood whether there was a significant number of factors in the data: the 383
320 teachers’ self-efficacy as emotional socializers and early childhood range of KMO is from .00 to 1.00; values lower than .50 were con- 384
321 teachers’ perceived impact were inspired by the same parental sidered unacceptable, .50 to .60 miserable, .60 to .70 mediocre, .70 385
322 dimensions as the Parental Cognitions and Conduct Toward the to .80 middling, .80 to .90 meritorious, and greater than .90 mar- 386
323 Infant Scale (PACOTIS, Boivin et al., 2005) which measures parents’ velous; items with an MSA below .50 do not belong to a latent 387
324 belief about their role as parents. Teachers’ self-efficacy referred to group and they can be removed from the factor analysis (Kaiser, 388
325 their perceived capability to manage the children’s emotional lives, 1974). Bartlett’s sphericity test (1950) was used to test the hypoth- 389
326 specifically within the context of the day care center. This included esis that correlations between variables were greater than expected 390
327 perceived efficacy in discerning children’s emotional states, helping by chance; in this, the p-value should be significant. To determine 391
328 children to comprehend their own emotions, managing the expres- how many factors should be extracted, we computed eigenvalues 392
329 sion of positive and negative emotion, and coping with them (e.g., and inspected the relative scree diagram (Cattel, 1966). 393
330 I feel that I am very good at. . .). After that we ran an EFA; to avoid any possible distortion due 394
331 Coaching style was expressed by items such as Children’s sadness to data distributions, we followed Costello and Osborne’s (2005) 395
332 is an emotion worth exploring; When a child is angry, it’s an opportu- suggestion of using the principal axis method, and we allowed 396
333 nity for getting close; dismissing was expressed by items such as I for correlations between latent factors by performing a promax 397
334 try to change the negative mood of a child into a cheerful one; When rotation. Only items with a factor loading greater than |.30| were 398
335 a child is afraid, I try to distract him/her. Perceived impact of early considered. For each factor that emerged, internal consistency was 399
336 childhood teachers was expressed by items such as The contribu- inspected using Cronbach’s alpha; values lower than .60 were con- 400
337 tion of early childhood teachers to the emotional development of young sidered insufficient, .60 to .69 marginal, .70 to .79 acceptable, .80 to 401
338 children is fundamental at the care center; teachers’ self-efficacy as .89 good, and ≥.90 excellent (Barker, Pistrang, & Elliott, 1994). 402
339 emotional socializers was expressed by items such as I am able to

340 stay close to an angry child; I feel able to help children cope with their Step 2: Confirmatory factor analyses 403
341 fears and their anger. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) approach was used to test 404
342 The second CEESQ scale – Individual Emotions – comprised the CEESQ-Children’s Emotions structure more closely. Two models 405
343 items on self-evaluation in the three components of the meta- were tested: Model 1 was a single general factor fitting the covari- 406
344 emotion philosophy (Gottman et al., 1996, 1997): awareness, ance matrix for all the CEESQ-Children’s Emotions items emerging 407
345 acceptance and regulation of own emotions. Awareness of own from the EFA; Model 2 was a factor model in which the latent 408
346 emotions was expressed by the ability to talk regarding and to dif- variables emerging in the EFA were tested. CFA was carried out 409
347 ferentiate emotions; acceptance of own emotions referred to the using the robust maximum likelihood method, which is preferable 410
348 meaning and value attributed to the emotions. Regulation of own to avoid distortions due to data distribution (Schermelleh-Engel, 411
349 emotions referred to the ability to control the strength and quality Moosbrugger, & Müller, 2003). To compare the fit of each model, 412
350 of emotions. An original pool of 15 items was adopted. The items several fit indices were used to overcome the limitations of each 413
351 on these three emotional processes were inspired by the focus of index (Hooper, Coughlan, & Mullen, 2008; Marsh, Balla, & Hau, 414
352 the Maternal Emotional Interview (MEI, Gottman et al., 1996, 1997). 1996). From the family of absolute fit indices (which determine how 415
353 Awareness was expressed by items such as When my mood changes, well an a priori model reproduces the sample data), we chose the 416
354 I easily recognize my emotions. Acceptance was expressed by items relative chi-square (2 /df), the root mean square error of approx- 417
355 such as I don’t like the emotions I experience (reversed score). Regu- imation (RMSEA; Steiger & Lind, 1980), and the standardized root 418
356 lation of one’s own emotions was expressed by items such as When mean square residual (SRMR; Bentler, 1995). From the compara- 419
357 I’m angry, I have some control over my emotions. tive (or incremental) fit indices family (which compares the tested 420
358 To assess the face validity of the CEESQ, three early childhood model to a baseline one) we chose the comparative fit index (CFI; 421
359 teachers following a post-graduate course were requested to eval- Bentler, 1990). From the family of parsimony fit indices (which indi- 422
360 uate whether the items reflected the early childhood teachers’ cates which one is the most parsimonious when different models 423
361 beliefs and behaviors regarding children’s emotions as well as their are compared) we adopted the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC; 424
362 own emotional processes. According to their feedback, 5 out of Akaike, 1987). A good model fit is indicated by a relative chi-square 425
363 the 26 original items in the first scale were discarded because value between 0 and 2 (between 2 and 3 is acceptable), an RMSEA 426
364 they were judged too vague or ambiguous. The final version of the and SRMR of .08 or lower, and a CFI exceeding .90; moreover, the 427
365 CEESQ-Children’s Emotions consisted of 21 items, while the CEESQ- model with the minimum AIC values is regarded as the best fitting 428
366 Individual Emotions consisted of 15 items. The full scale is available (Byrne, 1994; Hooper et al., 2008). Finally, the list of possible modi- Q4 429
367 as online supplementary material. fication indices for Model 2 was inspected and covariance between 430
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431 error variables was allowed for greater modification indices within Results 476
432 each factor.1

Step 1A. Adequacy of observed items and exploratory factor 477
analyses for CEESQ-Children’s Emotions 478
433 Step 3: Invariance of factor structure

Considering the 21 items of the CEESQ-Children’s Emotions, 479
434 In order to examine the invariance of the CEESQ-Children’s
skewness scores ranged between |.015| and |.914| and kurtosis 480
435 Emotions factor structure among different sub-samples, we tested
scores ranged between |.022| and |1.000|, with the exception of 481
436 three multi-group procedures. In particular, we aimed to explore
two items (4 and 21) that had kurtosis values of 1.434 and 1.899 482
437 whether factor structure was different for early childhood teach-
respectively. The results from our dataset indicated that the MSA 483
438 ers with/without at least one child of their own, for teachers with
values of all the indicators ranged between .63 and .80, and the 484
439 different amounts of teaching experience (divided at the median,
KMO index was middling (.80). The result of Bartlett’s sphericity 485
440 with fewer than or equal to 12 years of teaching and over 12 years),
test was 2 = 1591.92, df = 210; p < .001. Six eigenvalues greater than 486
441 and for early childhood teachers with a high school versus univer-
1.00 were found, but the scree diagram suggested that three factors 487
442 sity level of education. To investigate this, we compared a baseline
(eigenvalues = 4.40, 2.63 and 1.73) could be an adequate number 488
443 model which allowed the factor coefficients and the correlations
to overcome deleterious results due to either over- or underex- 489
444 between latent factors to differ across groups (Model B) to a model
traction. Table 1 includes rotated factor loadings: items 13 and 15 490
445 in which factor loadings were fixed so as to be equal across groups
failed to reach factor loading >|.30|, moreover item 5 was consid- 491
446 (Model L), and to a model in which factor loadings and correlations
ered ambiguous because it had a factor loading on factor 3 of |.33| 492
447 between latent factors were fixed so as to be equal across groups
and a factor loading on factor 1 of |.23|; for these reasons, items 5, 493
448 (Model L + C).
13, and 15 were excluded from subsequent analyses. 494
449 Steps 1–3 were re-performed for the 15 items in the second
To summarize, factor 1 included 7 items reflecting teachers’ 495
450 section of the CEESQ (i.e., CEESQ-Individual Emotions).
awareness, acceptance, and ability to deal with children’s emo- 496
tions, and beliefs about the impact of early childhood teachers’ 497
role in children’s emotional development (i.e., Children’s sadness 498
451 Step 4: The influence of early childhood teachers’ individual is an emotion worth exploring; I accept children’s fear even if it seems 499
452 characteristics on the CEESQ scales unmotivated; When a child is feeling a negative emotion, it’s an oppor- 500
453 After presenting the descriptive statistics for the CEESQ scales, tunity to use my educational skills; The contribution of early childhood 501
454 a subsequent set of analyses aimed to explore the differences in teachers to the emotional development of young children is funda- 502
455 the CEESQ dimensions that considered having/not having children, mental at the care center), and it was labeled “Coaching Style.” It 503
456 years of teaching, and academic education level through a 2 × 2 × 2 accounted for 12% of variance and its factor loadings ranged from 504
457 MANOVA for the CEESQ-Children’s Emotions factors and through a |.38| to |.82|. The Cronbach’s alpha for this subscale was acceptable 505
458 2 × 2 × 2 MANOVA for the CEESQ-Individual Emotions factors. (.75). Factor 2 comprised 6 items relating to teachers’ self-efficacy 506
as emotional socializers (i.e., I feel able to help children cope with 507
their fears and their anger; I easily recognize the emotions that a child 508
is experiencing) and it was labeled “Self-efficacy as an Emotional 509

459 Step 5: Correlation and mediation analyses Socializer.” It accounted for 9% of variance and its factor loadings 510
460 Moreover, correlations (Spearman’s r) were employed in order ranged from |.44| to |.77|. The Cronbach’s alpha for this subscale 511
461 to analyze bivariate associations between emerging factors, and a was acceptable (.78). Factor 3 consisted of 5 items reflecting a dis- 512
462 suggested mediation effect was tested. A mediator is a third vari- missing emotional style (i.e., I try to change the negative mood of 513
463 able (e.g., C) that explains how (or why) two other variables (e.g., a child into a cheerful one; When a child is afraid, I try to distract 514
464 A and B) are related, and, in our sample, in order to investigate it,
465 we followed a linear regressions approach (Fairchild & McQuillin,
466 2010; Holmbeck, 1997): we tested the significance of the “A pre- Table 1
467 dicting C” path (regression 1); we tested the significance of the “A Factor loadings of EFA on CEESQ-Children’s emotions. Q5
468 predicting B” path (regression 2, step 1); and we tested the signif- Item Coaching Self-efficacy as Dismissing
469 icance of the “C predicting B” path, and the relative effect of A on emotional socializer
470 B (regression 2, step 2). In order to check whether the reduction 1 .03 .13 .63
471 in the beta value for the “A predicting B” path was significant after 2 .02 .11 .74
472 the introduction of the hypothesized mediator (i.e., C), a Sobel test 3 −.08 .05 .44
4 .09 −.44 .04
473 (Sobel, 1982; Soper, 2013) was performed.
5 −.23 −.11 .33
474 Steps 1–3 were conducted using Lavaan Package of R Software 6 .44 −.02 .15
475 (Rosseel, 2012), and steps 4–5 using IBM SPSS version 20. 7 .82 .25 −.01
8 .08 −.02 .57
9 .38 −.07 .09
10 .14 −.61 .06
11 .66 −.12 −.07
1
Note 1: The high correlation that emerged between Coaching and Self-efficacy 12 .61 −.11 −.03
as an Emotional Socializer led us to investigate whether they could be collapsed 13 .11 −.23 .03
into a single latent variable. To do this, we compared our factor structure (Model 14 .01 −.74 −.09
2-modified) with a model in which items of both Coaching and Self-efficacy as an 15 .07 −.07 .27
Emotional Socializer were considered as indicators of a single factor (Model 3). The 16 .55 −.04 .01
goodness-of-fit of Model 3 was far from sufficient (2 = 430.92, p < .001, df = 135, 17 −.19 −.06 .55
2 /df = 3.19, CFI = 74, RMSEA = 09 (95% CI .08-.09), SRMR = 09, AIC = 12,399.98), and 18 .14 −.51 .03
the chi-square difference test was significant (2 = 216.33, df = 18, p < .001); 19 .39 −.11 .05
moreover, the AIC value of Model 2-modified was lower than that of Model 3 (i.e. 20 −.09 −.75 −.12
12,189.07 versus 12,399.98). We concluded by rejecting the hypothesis that Model 21 −.16 −.59 −.04
3 had a better fit than Model 2-modified, and retained the three-factor structure for
Cronbach’s alpha .77 .78 .70
the CEESQ-Children’s Emotions.
G Model
515 him/her) and it was labeled “Dismissing Style.” It accounted for 12% sufficient. Table 3 includes the rotated factor loadings. Item 14 was 575
516 of variance and its factor loadings ranged from |.44| to |.74|. Once considered ambiguous because it presented high loadings on both 576
517 again, the Cronbach’s alpha for this subscale was acceptable (.70). factors, and it was excluded from subsequent analyses. The first 577
518 Together, these three factors accounted for 33% of the variance. The factor comprised 10 items relating to self-efficacy about appraisal, 578
519 correlations between latent factors were: Coaching–Self-efficacy as expression, regulation, and use of own emotions (i.e., When my 579
520 Emotional Socializer = .50; Coaching–Dismissing = .06; Self-efficacy mood changes, I easily recognize my emotions; I am able to express 580
521 as an Emotional Socializer–Dismissing = .30. what I feel; I am able to prevent my fears taking over; I can describe 581
the strategies I use in order to cope with negative emotions) and it 582
522 Step 2A. Confirmatory factor analyses for CEESQ-Children’s was labeled “Emotional self-efficacy.” It accounted for 9% of vari- 583
523 Emotions ance and its factor loadings ranged from |.50| to |.68|. The Cronbach’s 584
alpha for this subscale was good (.86). The second factor comprised 585
524 Initially, two models were tested: Model 1 was a single gen- 4 items relating to denying or being afraid of one’s own emotions 586
525 eral factor fitting the covariance matrix for all the CEESQ-Children’s (i.e., When I feel euphoric, I have the feeling of losing control; I don’t 587
526 Emotions items emerging from the EFA; Model 2 was a three- like the emotions I experience; I perceive my negative emotions as 588
527 factor model in which the three latent variables emerging in the something to defend myself against) and it was labeled “Denial of 589
528 EFA were tested (with the Self-efficacy as an Emotional Social- Emotion.” It accounted for 10% of variance and its factor loadings 590
529 izer factor correlated to the others). With regard to Model 1, the ranged from |.39| to |.56|. The Cronbach’s alpha for this subscale was 591
530 fit turned out to be not acceptable (2 = 636.88, p < .001, df = 135, near-marginal (.59). Together, these two factors accounted for 19% 592
531 2 /df = 4.72, CFI = .56, RMSEA = .11 (95% CI .10–.12), SRMR = .11, of the variance. The correlation between the two latent variables 593
532 AIC = 12,634.77). A significant chi-square difference test along with was −.28. 594
533 a lower AIC indicated that Model 2 showed a significantly improved

534 fit compared to Model 1 (2 = 34,549, df = 2, p < .001), but the Step 2B. Confirmatory factor analyses for CEESQ-Individual 595
535 CFI still did not reach a completely acceptable value (2 = 291.39, Emotions 596
536 p < .001, df = 133, 2 /df = 2.19, CFI = .86, RMSEA = .06 (95% CI .05–.07),
537 SRMR = .06, AIC = 12,246.03). To avoid this problem, the list of Model 1 was a single general factor model fitting the covari- 597
538 possible modification indices for Model 2 was inspected and covariance matrix for all the CEESQ-Individual Emotions items emerging 598
539 ance between error variables was allowed for greater modification from the EFA. Model 2 was a two-factor model in which the 599
540 indices within each factor. Model 2-modified showed a signifi- two correlated latent variables were tested. The goodness of-fit 600
541 cantly improved fit compared to Model 2 (2 = 76.80, df = 16, indices for Model 1 were not sufficient (2 = 231.53, p < .001, df = 77, 601
542 p < .001), and all fit indices achieved good values (2 = 214.59, 2 /df = 3.01, CFI = .83, RMSEA = .08 (95% CI .07–.09), SRMR = .07, 602
543 p < .001 df = 117, 2 /df = 1.83, CFI = .91, RMSEA = .05 (95% CI .04–.06), AIC = 9984.25). Model 2 showed a significantly improved fit com- 603
544 SRMR = .06, AIC = 12,189.07). Factor loadings ranged from .42 to .81 pared to Model 1 (2 = 80.47, df = 1, p < .001) and reached 604
545 for the Coaching dimension, from .39 to .74 for the Self-efficacy near-sufficient values (2 = 171.06, p < .001, df = 76, 2 /df = 2.25, 605
546 as an Emotional Socializer dimension, and from .33 to .72 for CFI = .90, RMSEA = .06 (95% CI .05–.08), SRMR = .06, AIC = 9915.29). 606
547 the Dismissing dimension (all p values were <.001). The correla- Model 2-modified (with the inclusion of modification indices) 607
548 tions between latent factors were: Coaching–Self-efficacy as an showed a significantly improved fit compared to Model 2 608
549 Emotional Socializer = .60, p < .001; Self-efficacy as an Emotional (2 = 38.56, df = 2, p < .001), and all the goodness-of-fit indices 609
550 Socializer–Dismissing = 14, p > .05. were good (2 = 132.50, p < .001, df = 74, 2 /df = 1.79, CFI = .94, 610
RMSEA = .05 (95% CI .04–.06), SRMR = .05, AIC = 9873.39). Factor 611
551 Step 3A. Invariance of factor structure for CEESQ-Children’s loadings ranged from .40 to .73 for the Emotional Self-efficacy 612
552 Emotions dimension, and from .41 to .56 for the Denial of Emotion dimension 613
(all p values were <.001). The correlation between latent factors was 614
553 The emerging factor structure proved to be invariant across −.45, p < .001. 615
554 subjects with/without children (Model B–Model L: 2 = 19.41,

555 df = 15, p > .05; Model B–Model L + C: 2 = 21.41, df = 17, Step 3B. Invariance of factor structure for CEESQ-Individual 616
556 p > .05), with/without teaching experience of more than 12 years Emotions 617
557 (Model B–Model L: 2 = 22.59, df = 15, p > .05; Model B–Model
558 L + C: 2 = 25.43, df = 17, p > .05), and with a high school versus Factor structure proved to be invariant across early childhood 618
559 university level of education (Model B–Model L: 2 = 12.39, teachers with/without children (Model B–Model L: 2 = 12.76, 619
560 df = 15, p > .05; Model B–Model L + C: 2 = 17.87, df = 17, df = 12, p > .05; Model B–Model L + C: 2 = 13.86, df = 13, 620
561 p > .05). p > .05), with/without more than 12 years of teaching experience 621
562 The means and standard deviation for the CEESQ-Children’s (Model B–Model L: 2 = 3.62, df = 12, p > .05; Model B–Model 622
563 Emotions are provided in Table 2. L + C: 2 = 3.85, df = 13, p > .05), and with a high school versus 623
university education (Model B–Model L: 2 = 9.23, df = 12, 624
564 Step 1B. Adequacy of observed items and exploratory factor p > .05; Model B–Model L + C: 2 = 10.66, df = 13, p > .05). 625
565 analyses for CEESQ-Individual Emotions The means and standard deviation for the CEESQ-Individual 626
Emotions are provided in Table 4. 627
566 As for the CEESQ-Individual Emotions, the skewness scores for

567 the observed items ranged between |.007| and |.816| and the kur- Step 4. The influence of early childhood teachers’ individual 628
568 tosis scores ranged between |.026| and |.919|, with the exception of characteristics on the CEESQ Scales 629
569 item 5 that had a skewness value of 1.437 and a kurtosis value
570 of 2.291. The MSA values of all the indicators ranged between The descriptive statistics of the five latent factors of the 630
571 .61 and .91, and the KMO index was middling (.87). The result CEESQ-Children’s Emotions and CEESQ-Individual Emotions are 631
572 of Bartlett’s sphericity test was 2 = 1303.38, df = 105; p < .001. summarized in Table 5. All the factors are normally distributed, 632
573 Three eigenvalues greater than 1 were found, but the scree dia- as suggested by the inspection of the skewness and kurtosis 633
574 gram suggested that two factors (eigenvalues = 4.86 and 1.79) were values. Two 2 × 2 × 2 (having own children × years of teaching 634
EARCHI 799 1–11
G Model
Table 2
Means and standard deviations for CEESQ-Children’s emotions by teachers’ individual characteristics.
Item Full Sample (n = 306) Without child/children With child/children Teaching experience Teaching experience With high school With university degree
(n = 99) (n = 203) up to 12 years (n = 135) greater than 12 years degree (n = 190) (n = 111)
E. Ciucci et al. / Early Childhood Research Quarterly xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

(n = 109)
ARTICLE IN PRESS
M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD
11 3.95 .81 3.91 .76 3.97 .83 3.93 .79 3.94 .83 3.95 .81 3.96 .81
12 3.85 .83 3.80 .88 3.85 .81 3.76 .87 3.91 .79 3.83 .83 3.90 .82
7 4.24 .76 4.28 .73 4.24 .80 4.24 .80 4.26 .75 4.21 .78 4.29 .74
16 3.78 .84 3.63 .92 3.86 .80 3.69 .87 3.87 .82 3.76 .86 3.79 .81
9 3.71 .81 3.80 .78 3.74 .79 3.77 .76 3.72 .82 3.65 .82 3.79 .80
6 4.05 .83 4.19 .81 4.01 .86 4.14 .79 3.99 .90 4.05 .86 4.03 .78
19 3.72 .98 3.53 1.04 3.79 .96 3.76 .93 3.64 1.07 3.66 .98 3.83 .99
Coaching 3.90 .54 3.88 .54 3.92 .53 3.90 .51 3.91 .57 3.87 .55 3.94 .51
10 3.48 .68 3.47 .70 3.46 .69 3.45 .70 3.49 .69 3.47 .65 3.51 .74
18 3.56 .69 3.51 .71 3.53 .69 3.53 .70 3.51 .69 3.55 .70 3.56 .66
14 3.27 .67 3.17 .72 3.28 .67 3.21 .69 3.28 .70 3.26 .70 3.27 .62
20 3.34 .64 3.28 .68 3.35 .63 3.29 .63 3.38 .66 3.36 .63 3.28 .65
4 2.98 .76 3.01 .83 2.94 .77 2.99 .75 2.94 .84 2.98 .83 2.96 .66
21 3.01 .63 2.88 .54 3.05 .67 2.95 .63 3.05 .63 3.06 .66 2.91 .57
Self-efficacy as 3.27 .47 3.22 .51 3.27 .46 3.23 .47 3.27 .48 3.28 .46 3.25 .47
emotional
socializer
2 2.45 1.02 2.36 1.08 2.53 1.03 2.48 1.09 2.44 1.00 2.44 1.07 2.48 .94
1 2.31 .96 2.38 .92 2.38 .99 2.37 1.00 2.39 .91 2.34 .97 2.24 .94
8 2.80 .94 2.94 .95 2.74 .91 2.83 .96 2.79 .88 2.84 .99 2.70 .84
17 2.54 1.06 2.67 1.03 2.42 1.05 2.50 1.03 2.52 1.08 2.71 1.06 2.22 1.00
3 2.32 .86 2.42 .83 2.31 .85 2.40 .86 2.28 .84 2.37 .91 2.25 .76
Dismissing 2.48 .66 2.56 .70 2.47 .65 2.52 .70 2.49 .63 2.54 .67 2.38 .62
7
G Model
Table 3
Factor loadings of EFA on CEESQ-Individual emotions.
.56
.59
.89
.79
.79
.94
.89
.77
.83
.75
.87
.93
.98
.81
.80
.80
SD
degree (n = 111)
With university
Item Emotional self-efficacy Denial of emotion
1 .52 .14
2 .54 −.24
3.37
2.23
3.31
3.17
3.22
3.24
3.32
3.47
3.47
3.58
3.49
3.57
1.93
1.63
3.35
2.03
3 −.07 .50
M
4 .61 −.21
5 −.04 .51
6 .68 .09
7 −.03 .56
With high school

−.12
.57
.67
.82
.79
.86
.81
.89
.85
.82
.91
.87
.96
.81
1.16
.70
1.01
8 .66
SD
degree (n = 190)
9 .65 .03
10 .50 −.21
11 .03 .39
12 .62 −.14
3.39
2.27
3.23
3.17
3.27
3.17
3.49
3.22
3.45
3.61
3.34
3.77
1.63
2.31
2.05
3.09
13 .66 .10
M
14 .46 .30
15 .51 −.24
greater than 12 years

Teaching experience
Cronbach’s alpha .86 .59
.56
.64
.78
.81
.76
.85
.93
.95
.86
.82
.86
.83
.98
.86
1.10
1.00
SD
635 experience × academic education level) MANOVAs were performed
(n = 109)
636 to explore differences in the CEESQ-Children’s Emotions and
3.32
2.31
3.19
3.17
3.17
3.36
3.27
3.42
3.58
3.28
3.66
3.23
2.25
3.06
2.07
1.70
637 CEESQ-Individual Emotions factors. As for the CEESQ-Children’s
M
638 Emotions factors, no main effects emerged: having children (Pil-
639 lai’s Trace = .02; F(3, 230) = 1.31; 2 = .02; p > .05), years of teaching
up to 12 years (n = 135)
640 experience (Pillai’s Trace = .02; F(3, 230) = 1.36; 2 = .02; p > .05),
Teaching experience
641 and academic education level (Pillai’s Trace = .01; F(3, 230) = 1.03;
.59
.63
.92
.82
.79
.94
.84
.83
.85
.85
.95
.95
.80
.90
.80
1.08
SD
642 2 = .01; p > .05). No interaction terms emerged. Considering the
643 CEESQ-Teacher’s Emotions, once again no main effects emerged
644 for having own children (Pillai’s Trace = .00; F(2, 231) = .16; 2 = .00;
p > .05), years of teaching experience (Pillai’s Trace = .01; F(2,
3.44
2.15
3.36
3.31
3.35
3.21
3.63
3.49
3.68
1.82
1.56
2.18
3.50
3.40
3.50
3.04
645
M
646 231) = .79; 2 = .01; p > .05), or academic education level (Pillai’s
647 Trace = .00; F(2, 231) = .51; 2 = .00; p > .05). No interaction terms
648 emerged.
With child/children
.54
.66
.83
.78
.72
.91
.82
.87
.88
.83
.85
.87
1.12
.98
1.01
.80
SD
649 Step 5. Correlation and mediation analyses

(n = 203)
Zero-order correlations (Pearson’s r) between factors are

Means and standard deviations for CEESQ-Individual emotions by teachers’ individual characteristics.
650
reported in Table 5. Coaching turned out to be positively related
3.38
2.26
3.23
3.13
3.23
3.19
3.43
3.32
3.49
3.62
3.41
1.62
3.22
2.15
3.70
2.05
651
M
652 to both Self-efficacy as Emotional Socializer (r = .46, p < .001) and

653 Emotional Self-efficacy (r = .36, p < .001), and two other positive
Without child/children
654 associations were found between Self-efficacy as Emotional Social-

655 izer and Emotional Self-efficacy (r = .54, p < .001), and between
.62
.59
.88
.81
.78
.87
.91
.84
.76
.81
.86
.87
.81
.81
.87
1.05
SD
656 Dismissing and Denial of Emotion (r = .17, p < .01); Emotional Self-
657 efficacy was negatively correlated with Denial of Emotion (r = −.30,
658 p < .001). The above-presented correlation coefficients suggested
(n = 99)
that we should make an in-depth exploration of the CEESQ fac-

3.40
2.23
3.32
3.24
3.31
3.23
3.45
3.31
3.36
3.66
1.88
1.65
3.40
3.60
3.09
2.30
659
M
660 tors by examining the multivariate associations between Coaching,

661 Self-efficacy as an Emotional Socializer and Emotional Self-efficacy.
662 In particular, we tested whether Self-efficacy as an Emotional
Full Sample (n = 306)
663 Socializer could be a mediator between Emotional Self-efficacy and

.56
.64
.85
.79
.74
.89
.85
.86
.84
.82
.85
.88
.95
.95
.80
1.10
SD
664 Coaching style. Following a linear regression procedure, we first

665 implemented a regression in which Self-efficacy as an Emotional
666 Socializer was predicted by Emotional Self-efficacy (regression 1);
667 we next implemented a regression in which Coaching was pre-
3.39
2.25
3.25
3.17
3.26
3.43
3.31
3.46
3.61
1.62
3.18
3.20
3.40
3.70
2.20
2.00
dicted by Emotional Self-efficacy (regression 2, step 1); finally

M
668
669 we added a second step to the previous regression by includ-

670 ing Self-efficacy as an Emotional Socializer in predicting Coaching
671 (regression 2, step 2). See Fig. 1. The results revealed that all the
considered paths were positive and significant (ˇs = .54,.36, .38,
Emotional self-efficacy
672
673 respectively, all p < .001); in particular, “Emotional Self-efficacy

Denial of emotion
674 predicting Coaching” decreased after the introduction of Self-

675 efficacy as an Emotional Socializer into the regression model, but it
676 still remained positive and significant (ˇ = .15, p < .05); the relative
677 Sobel test turned out to be significant (Sobel test = 5.49, p < .001),
Table 4
Item
678 indicating a partial mediation effect. To sum up, in early child-

12
15
13
11
10
8
4
9
2
3
5
7
679 hood teachers the level of Emotional Self-efficacy was directly
G Model
Table 5
Descriptive statistics and zero-order correlations (Pearson’s r) of CEESQ dimensions in the full sample (n = 306).
Latent factor Numbers of Cronbach’s M SD Skew. Kurt. Expected Observed 1 2 3 4 5

items alpha range range
1 – Coaching 7 .77 3.90 .54 −.122 −.325 1.00–5.00 2.43–5.00 1.00

2 – Self-efficacy 6 .78 3.27 .47 .449 .534 1.00–5.00 1.83–4.67 .46*** 1.00
as emotional
socializer
3 – Dismissing 5 .70 2.48 .66 .059 −.080 1.00–5.00 1.00–4.60 .02 .10 1.00
4 – Emotional 10 .86 3.39 .56 .581 .303 1.00–5.00 1.90–5.00 .36*** .54*** .11 1.00
self-efficacy
5 – Denial of 4 .59 2.25 .64 .390 .563 1.00–5.00 1.00–4.75 .10 −.03 .17**
−.30*** 1.00
emotion
Notes:
**
p < .01;
***
p < .001.
680 associated to the level of the adopted Coaching style; however, the two styles cannot be considered either totally positive or neg- 712
681 the level of Emotional Self-efficacy was indirectly and positively ative. However, Coaching style is related to Self-efficacy as an 713
682 associated to Coaching style through the level of Self-efficacy as an Emotional Socializer, and where this relationship is found, this 714
683 Emotional Socializer. identifies a more satisfied teacher. 715
The CEESQ-Individual Emotions revealed two distinct though 716
684 Discussion related dimensions: Emotional Self-efficacy, namely the aware- 717
ness and ability to deal with own emotions, and Denial of Emotion, 718
685 The main aim of the current study was to develop and test the namely a lack of acceptance of one’s own emotions. The relationship 719
686 psychometric properties of a self-reported rating scale for early between these two dimensions is quite obviously a negative one. 720
687 childhood teachers. This was designed first to assess their emotion- Importantly, both CEESQ sections demonstrated an equivalence in 721
688 related beliefs (i.e., Self-efficacy as an Emotional Socializer) and structure even when a number of individual characteristics were 722
689 emotional styles with regard to children’s emotions (i.e., Coaching considered (i.e., having/not having own children, years of working 723
690 and Dismissing styles), and second the attitude toward their own experience, academic education level). 724
691 emotions. As for our second aim, no effects emerged of teachers’ individual 725
692 The EFA and CFAs performed on the CEESQ-Children’s Emotions characteristics on the CEESQ dimensions. That is to say, having/not 726
693 scale revealed three factors: two emotional styles (i.e., Coach- having children, professional experience, and schooling are individ- 727
694 ing and Dismissing), and Self-efficacy as an Emotional Socializer. ual experiences which do not influence such a personal construct 728
695 Consistently with the literature about parents (Gottman et al., as meta-emotion philosophy. It may be a construct which is not 729
696 1996, 1997; Lagacé-Séguin & Coplan, 2005), we identified the two linked to the kind of experiences – parenthood, years of work, and 730
697 emotional styles in early childhood teachers. We ascertained that academic level – considered in our study. 731
698 teachers’ coaching style involves the awareness, acceptance, and Significant relationships emerged between the two parts of the 732
699 regulation of children’s emotions, particularly the negative ones. CEESQ (i.e., on children’s and on teachers’ emotions) and the rel- 733
700 Moreover, teachers’ dismissing emotions describes a style defined ative dimensions constituting the two scales. Specifically, early 734
701 by a low awareness of children’s emotions, a view of negative childhood teachers who were more aware of their own emotions 735
702 emotions as inappropriate, and an attitude of ignoring or dismiss- and more likely to accept and regulate their own emotions, were 736
703 ing children’s emotions, above all the negative ones. Teachers’ also more likely to recognize, accept, and regulate the emotions 737
704 self-efficacy referred to their perceived capability of managing of the children in the day care centers; on the other hand, a dis- 738
705 the children’s emotional lives within the context of the day care missing style was positively associated with denying one’s own 739
706 center, specifically of differentiating emotional states, helping emo- emotions. These results are in line with the findings obtained by 740
707 tional comprehension, and managing the expression of positive Ersay (2007) on preschool teachers, which, however, referred to 741
708 and negative emotions in children. Effectively, the present study teachers who teach older children. Our results are also consistent 742
709 demonstrates that Coaching and Dismissing are two discrete but with the emotional connection between children’s and parents’ 743
710 not antithetic styles. This evidence suggests that teachers can adopt emotions theorized by Gottman et al. (1996, 1997) through their 744
711 each of them depending on the specific situation. In other words, meta-emotion philosophy. Meta-emotion philosophy in parents 745
as well as early childhood or preschool teachers may be an indi- 746
vidual attitude that is not tied to relational variables like the age 747
Self-efficacy as of the children they take care of, but is more individually modu- 748
emotional lated. 749
socializer Moreover, the tested mediation model led us to make an in- 750
(1) .54*** .38*** (3) depth exploration of the connection between the professional 751
and individual emotional worlds. Coaching style was explained by 752
.36*** / .15* professional (i.e., Self-efficacy as an Emotional Socializer) as well 753

Emotional self-efficacy Coaching style
(2) / (3) as individual emotional self-efficacy (i.e., Emotional Self-efficacy). 754
In particular, our results suggested that a trait-like individual 755
emotional self-efficacy influences how teachers act within their 756

(1) Regression 1: R = .29, ΔF(1,304) = 124.22, p < .001.
2
professional context (i.e., coaching style toward children’s emo- 757
(2) Regression 2, Step 1: R2 = .13, ΔF(1,304) = 44.34, p < .001.
tions), but when we added a measure of professional self-efficacy 758
(3) Regression 2, Step 2: R2 = .23, ΔR2=.10, ΔF(1,303) = 45.09, p < .001.
it did not completely explain the professional behavior, because 759
Fig. 1. Mediation model between Emotional self-efficacy, Self-efficacy as emotional individual emotional self-efficacy continues to play a significant 760
socializer and Coaching style in early childhood teachers. role. To conclude, the current results are an advancement on 761
G Model
762 past work as they show that early childhood teachers’ emotional References 823
763 experience processes (i.e., awareness and regulation of own emo-

764 tions) may play an important role in teaching situations and Ahn, H. J. (2005). Teachers’ discussions of emotion in child care centers. Early 824
Childhood Education Journal, 32, 237–242. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10643- 825
765 professional lives. However the cross-sectional nature of our data 004-1424-6 826
766 prevents us to assume causal effects, and the above mentioned Ahn, H. J., & Stifter, C. (2006). Child care teachers’ response to children’s emotional 827
767 relationships should be tested in future longitudinal studies. expression. Early Education and Development, 17, 253–270. 828
Akaike, H. (1987). Factor analysis and AIC. Psychometrika, 52, 317–332. 829
768 We are aware that these results need to be interpreted in Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. 830
769 light of some limitations. First, exploratory and confirmatory fac- Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 831
770 tor analyses were both conducted on the same dataset and this Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: W.H. Freeman. 832
Barker, C., Pistrang, N., & Elliott, R. (1994). Research methods in clinical and counseling 833
771 may represent a potential limitation. Moreover, concurrent and psychology. Chichester, UK: Wiley. 834
772 discriminant validity were not tested, nor was temporal stability; Bartlett, M. S. (1950). Tests of significance in factor analysis. British Journal of Psy- 835
773 future studies could fill this gap. Further, all different constructs chology, 3, 77–85. 836
Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological 837
774 were assessed in one measurement moment, using the same self-
Bulletin, 107, 238–246. 838
775 report instrument, and as we specified above causation between Bentler, P. M. (1995). EQS structural equations program manual. Encino, CA: Multi- 839
776 CEESQ-scales cannot be tested. Finally, we are aware that beliefs variate Software. 840
777 and practices are “culturally loaded” (Hyson & Lee, 1996) and Blau, D. M. (2000). The production of quality in child-care centers: Another look. 841
Applied Developmental Science, 4, 136–148. 842
778 context-dependent, so our findings request further cross-cultural Boivin, M., Pérusse, D., Dionne, G., Saysset, V., Zoccolillo, M., Tarabulsy, G. M., et al. 843
779 inquiries. It may be that these beliefs and practices are also (2005). The genetic-environmental etiology of parents’ perceptions and self- 844
780 gender-loaded, hence future studies could add information on male assessed behaviours toward their 5-month-old infants in a large twin and 845
singleton sample. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 612–630. 846
781 teachers. Bornstein, M. H. (Ed.). (2002). Handbook of parenting (Vol. 1–4). Mahwah, NJ: Erl- 847
782 Nevertheless, this study forms a first step in investigating the baum. 848
783 meta-emotion philosophy of early childhood educators and a start- Burchinal, M., Howes, C., & Kontos, S. (2002). Structural predictors of child care 849
quality in child care homes. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 17, 87–105. 850
784 ing point for future research. For instance, the items in the CEESQ Byrne, B. M. (1994). Structural equation modeling with EQS and EQS/Windows. Thou- 851
785 were formulated using the broad terms “child” or “children,” with- sand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. 852
786 out reference to their gender or age; according to Ahn and Stifter Cattel, R. B. (1966). The scree test for the number of factors. Multivariate Behavior 853
Research, 1, 245–276. 854
787 (2006), both of these are important when considering beliefs and Coleman, P. K., & Karraker, K. H. (1997). Self-efficacy and parenting quality: Findings 855
788 behaviors about children, and future works could include them. and future applications. Developmental Review, 18, 47–85. 856
789 Moreover, it would be interesting to investigate the impact of early Coleman, P. K., & Karraker, K. H. (2003). Maternal self-efficacy beliefs, competence 857
in parenting, and toddlers’ behavior and developmental status. Infant Mental 858
790 childhood teachers’ meta-emotion philosophy on children’s out-
Health Journal, 24, 26–148. 859
791 comes (e.g., emotional, social and academic functioning) as well as Costello, A. B., & Osborne, J. (2005). Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: 860
792 on parents’ and colleagues’ behavior. Four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis. Practical Assess- 861
793 To conclude, we believe that a self-report instrument such as ment Research & Evaluation, 10. Retrieved from: http://pareonline.net/getvn. 862
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794 the CEESQ questionnaire may provide an in-depth set of informa- Day, C., & Leitch, R. (2001). Teachers’ and teacher educators’ lives: The role of emo- 864
795 tion about our own emotional worlds: even though self-reports are tion. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 403–415. 865
796 criticized for being subject to response biases, we agree with many Denham, S. A., Bassett, H. H., & Zinsser, K. (2012). Early childhood teachers as socializ- 866
ers of young children’s emotional competence. Early Childhood Education Journal, 867
797 theorists in stressing that self-perception about one’s own func- 40, 137–143. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10643-012-0504-2 868
798 tioning and limitations may exert a significant influence on both de Schipper, E. J., Riksen-Walraven, J. M., Geurts, S. A. E., & Derksen, J. J. L. (2008). 869
799 behavior and psychological health, and constitutes a critical com- General mood of professional caregivers in child care centers and the quality of 870
caregiver–child interactions. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 515–526. 871
800 ponent required in the motivation to change (Bandura, 1986, 1997; Emde, R. N. (2009). Facilitating reflective supervision in an early child develop- 872
801 Zimmerman, 2001). Administering the CEESQ could be useful to ment center. Infant Mental Health Journal, 30, 664–672. http://dx.doi.org/10. 873
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Ersay, E. (2007). Preschool teachers’ emotional experience traits, awareness of their own 875
803 sions aimed at early childhood teachers. CEESQ scores could work emotions and their emotional socialization practices. Pennsylvania State Univer- 876
804 as a prompt in order to discuss and mentalize teachers’ emotional sity. Retrieved from: https://etda.libraries.psu.edu/paper/7660/2957 877
805 work as emotional socializers. Fairchild, A., & McQuillin, S. (2010). Evaluating mediation and moderation effects in 878
school psychology: A presentation of methods and review of current practice. 879
806 We foster a kind of training specifically aimed at teachers’ emo-
Journal of School Psychology, 45, 54–84. 880
807 tional competence (e.g., reflective supervision, mindfulness, stress Gottman, J. M., Katz, L. F., & Hooven, C. (1996). Parental meta-emotion philosophy 881
808 reduction; Emde, 2009). Paying attention to the contribution of and the emotional life of families: Theoretical models and preliminary data. 882
809 the early childhood teacher as an emotional socializer could make Journal of Family Psychology, 10, 243–268. 883
Gottman, J. M., Katz, L. F., & Hooven, C. (1997). Meta-emotion: How families commu- 884
810 childcare settings more favorable to children’s emotional growth nicate emotionally. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. 885
811 (Denham et al., 2012). Hakim-Larson, J., Parker, A., Lee, C., Goodwin, J., & Voelker, S. (2006). Measuring 886
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812 Acknowledgments Holmbeck, G. N. (1997). Toward terminological, conceptual, and statistical clarity in 889
the study of mediators and moderators: Examples from the child–clinical and 890
pediatric psychology literatures. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 891
813 The authors would like to thank all early childhood teachers 599–610. 892
814 for their participation in this study. They also acknowledge the Hooper, D., Coughlan, J., & Mullen, M. R. (2008). Structural equation modeling: 893
Guidelines for determining model fit. The Electronic Journal of Business Research 894
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EARCHI 799 1–11 ARTICLE IN PRESS

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Early Childhood Research Quarterly

1 Meta-emotion philosophy in early childhood teachers: Psychometric

23 Introduction To date, the construct of meta-emotion philosophy has only 34

Q2 been studied in parents and not in other meaningful socializing 35

recognize, accept, and regulate their own individual emotions. 46

Meta-emotion philosophy in caregivers and its measurement 47

67 emotions. To summarize, in the present study, we tested the psychometric 133

82 exclusively to the parental socializing of children’s emotions.

84 to develop a self-report questionnaire based on Gottman and

184 emotional competence (i.e., awareness, acceptance, and regulation

188 The role of teachers’ individual characteristics

219 of study. Moreover, in Italy, early childhood educators regularly

resenting coaching and dismissing emotional styles, self-efﬁcacy 287

303 bodies of theory or research on early childhood emotional socializa-

308 styles were inspired by the Maternal Emotional Style Questionnaire

339 emotional socializers was expressed by items such as I am able to

432 each factor.1

analyses for CEESQ-Children’s Emotions 478

433 Step 3: Invariance of factor structure

role in children’s emotional development (i.e., Children’s sadness 498

is experiencing) and it was labeled “Self-efﬁcacy as an Emotional 509

533 a lower AIC indicated that Model 2 showed a signiﬁcantly improved

554 subjects with/without children (Model B–Model L: 2 = 19.41,

university education (Model B–Model L: 2 = 9.23, df = 12, 624

Emotions are provided in Table 4. 627

566 As for the CEESQ-Individual Emotions, the skewness scores for

E. Ciucci et al. / Early Childhood Research Quarterly xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

With high school

greater than 12 years

649 Step 5. Correlation and mediation analyses

Zero-order correlations (Pearson’s r) between factors are

reported in Table 5. Coaching turned out to be positively related

652 to both Self-efﬁcacy as Emotional Socializer (r = .46, p < .001) and

654 associations were found between Self-efﬁcacy as Emotional Social-

that we should make an in-depth exploration of the CEESQ fac-

660 tors by examining the multivariate associations between Coaching,

663 Socializer could be a mediator between Emotional Self-efﬁcacy and

664 Coaching style. Following a linear regression procedure, we ﬁrst

dicted by Emotional Self-efﬁcacy (regression 2, step 1); ﬁnally

669 we added a second step to the previous regression by includ-

673 respectively, all p < .001); in particular, “Emotional Self-efﬁcacy

674 predicting Coaching” decreased after the introduction of Self-

678 indicating a partial mediation effect. To sum up, in early child-

679 hood teachers the level of Emotional Self-efﬁcacy was directly

Latent factor Numbers of Cronbach’s M SD Skew. Kurt. Expected Observed 1 2 3 4 5

1 – Coaching 7 .77 3.90 .54 −.122 −.325 1.00–5.00 2.43–5.00 1.00

683 Emotional Socializer. identiﬁes a more satisﬁed teacher. 715

The CEESQ-Individual Emotions revealed two distinct though 716

as well as early childhood or preschool teachers may be an indi- 746

emotional lated. 749

and individual emotional worlds. Coaching style was explained by 752

.36*** / .15* professional (i.e., Self-efﬁcacy as an Emotional Socializer) as well 753

In particular, our results suggested that a trait-like individual 755

emotional self-efﬁcacy inﬂuences how teachers act within their 756

763 experience processes (i.e., awareness and regulation of own emo-

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