Unit 4

Topic 6 – Forensic Science

Determining the time of death

 Not an easy task, especially if the body has been dead for over 48 hours
 Forensic scientists look for the changes that take place in the body after death
 These include:
o Body temperature drops
o Muscles contract and they become rigid (Rigamortis)
o The body tissues decay

Drop in body temperature

 Why does the body temperature drop after death?

o Metabolic reactions stop
o Heat energy is transferred from the surface of the body by radiation,
conduction and water evaporation
o The body temperature starts to fall straight after death but plateaus for a
while before falling gradually to room temperature
 Factors affecting the rate of cooling
o Mode of death – bleeding causes the drop to be much sharper
o Clothing
o Size of the body and the level of fat
o Environment

Muscle contraction

 When a person dies the muscle cells (Unlike other tissues like the brain) do not
immediately die
 This is because the have large stores of ATP and glycogen and can continue to respire
anaerobically for a time
 As the muscle cells run out of ATP, the muscle fibres become permanently
contracted
 Rigor mortis starts about 2-4 hours after death and needs between 6 and 8 hours to
take full effect
 It begins in the muscles of the face and neck and then progresses down the body
o What can affect how quickly rigor mortis sets in?
o The amount of ATP stored in the muscles at the time of death
 o Different people have different levels of ATP depending on their genetics and
their level of fitness
o The levle of ATP also depends on the level of activity before death
 E.g Rigor mortis usually sets in very quickly in drowning victims,
because they have used up all their muscle ATP struggling to stay
afloat
o The temperature of the person when they die and the temperature of the
surroundings also affect how quickly rogor mortis sets in
 Rigor mortis is not permanent – it usually passes between 36 and 48 hours after
death
 This is because enzymes released from the lysosomes break down the muscle tissue
and so soften it
 Working backwards, it is possible to estimate the time of death by calculating when
the ATP store was full

The state of decay

 As cells die the digestive enzymes start to break down the walls of the gut and the
surrounding cells.
 Lysosomes within the cells rupture and release enzymes which break down the cells.
 The body is now an ideal habitat for decomposers.

Stages of succession in decay

Colonisers

 The first colonisers will be the anaerobic bacteria which are usually found in the gut
but now thrive in the lactic acid rich environment of the muscles after death
 As enzymes break down cells, the bacteria spread
 The next colonisers are flies
o Blowflies are extremely sensitive to the smell of dead organisms and can
appear on a body within minutes of death
o The flies lay eggs in the dead body
o The maggots hatch and immediately being feeding on the tissues breaking
them down
o The maggots burrow deep into the flesh, eventually pupate, turn into flies anf
then mate and the whole cycle starts over again
o As the soft tissues of the body liquefy, flies can feed on this too
  Next come the beetles that will lay their eggs on the body so that their larvae can
feed on the fly maggots
 Then parasytic wasps appear to lay their eggs in the fly and beetle larvae
 Different species such as cheese flies and coffin flies appear on the body
 As the body is digested it dries out
 Eventually the body is too dry for the maggots and a number of beetle species with
strong mouthparts arrives which feed on the remains of the muscles and the
connective tissues
 These include:
o Carcass beetles, ham beetles and hide bettles.
 At the very end, mites and moth larvae will feed on the hair until only dry bones are
left.

Why would a buried body decay more slowly than a body left in the open air?

 It is less available to decomposers

 The temperature is lower
 The warmer the body, the faster rate of decay as all the chemical reactions are
speeded up
 The greater the level of exposure to decomposers, the faster the rate of decay.

Forensic Entomology

 This is the study of insect life as it relates to crime

 The first recorded case of forensci entomolgy being used to solve a murder in the UK
was in 1935
 When a body is discovered, eggs, maggots and pupae are collected. They are grown
to adults to aid thier identification and this evidence is used to help estimate how
long a body has been in the place it is found
 Each species has a different length life cycle which makes calculating the time of
death even more accurate.
 E.G. If a body found outside had no evidence of blowfly activity, the forensic
scientists would know that the body had almost certainly been there for no more
than 24 hours.

Questions – Pg 67 Q1-3

1. 1
a. The body of a mammal cools after death because all metabolic
reactions in the body stop
b. The cooling rate is slower in the first hours after death because the
muscles are still using up their reserves of ATP so there are still
reactions going on causing heat to be given off still.
 c. External temperature will affect the rate of cooling as body
temperature changes through conduction and radiation so if the
temperature outside is cold, it will be transfered through the body.
Also if the body is outside but covered up, the rate of cooling will take
longer as the heat will radiate slower.
2. The temperature of a lizard or frog would not go down as they are cold
blooded and so there is no need for the temperature to drop.
3. Rigor mortis is of limited used in determining the time of death because it
only lasts a few days at the most and after that the body loosens.

Questions – Pg 71, Q 1-4

1. The first colonisers will be the anaerobic bacteria which are usually found in
the gut but now thrive in the lactic acid rich environment of the muscles after
death. As enzymes break down cells, the bacteria spread. The next colonisers
are flies. Blowflies are extremely sensitive to the smell of dead organisms and
can appear on a body within minutes of death The flies lay eggs in the dead
body The maggots hatch and immediately being feeding on the tissues
breaking them down The maggots burrow deep into the flesh, eventually
pupate, turn into flies anf then mate and the whole cycle starts over again As
the soft tissues of the body liquefy, flies can feed on this too Next come the
beetles that will lay their eggs on the body so that their larvae can feed on
the fly maggots Then parasytic wasps appear to lay their eggs in the fly and
beetle larvae Different species such as cheese flies and coffin flies appear on
the body As the body is digested it dries out Eventually the body is too dry for
the maggots and a number of beetle species with strong mouthparts arrives
which feed on the remains of the muscles and the connective tissues These
include:Carcass beetles, ham beetles and hide bettles.At the very end, mites
and moth larvae will feed on the hair until only dry bones are left.
2. Temperature affects decomposition rate as a warmer body experiences fast
chemical reactions increasing the decay speed. Exposure also affects
decomposition rate as a more exposed body is more available to
decomposers than a covered body.
3. The process of succesion is helpful to forensic scienctists to determine the
time of death as each bug has a different life cycle and each bug occurs at a
different time period of decay helping to pin point an exact time of death.
4. Question 4
a. In the first few days after death, all 3 of the temperatures drop
significantly. The bodies’ temperature’s drop rapidly because there
are no longer any chemical reactions producing energy happening in
 the body and so will not be able to maintain warmth. Also the air
temperature has dropped which will lead to a faster rate of decline.
The temperature of the buried body never drops below 10 degrees
centigrade and never rises above 17 degrees C after 5 days. I believe
this is because the body is insulated by the soil and so the fluctuating
temperature above ground will not affect it as much. The exposed
body temperature, however, changes much more because it is in the
open air. So at night, the body will be cooled down by the colder
temperatures and winds wheras during the day, the sun will warm it
up.
b. The advantages of using pigs is that it is a lot more ethical than using
humans. Plus the pigs are mammals, meaning they will decompose in
a similar way to humans. The disadvantage of using them is that pigs
are of course very different to humans in their physical appearance
and weight etc. So any results in experiments should be used as just
rough guidelines instead of any solid measurements.
c. The advantages of using humans is that the results will be far more
accurate and will therefore be a lot more useful. However despite the
very large up-side, the problem with using humans is that it is
frowned upon and is very unethical.

Protein synthesis – notes continued from paper copy in folder.

 Triplet code
o Three nucleotide bases (A codon) codes for one specific amino acid
 The code is degenerate
o A given amino acid may be coded for by more than one codon
 It is non-overlapping
o Each base is only part of one codon, and each codon codes for one amino
acid
 It is almost universal
o The same sequences of bases code for the same amino acids in all organisms

Transcription

 STAGE 1
o Firstly the enzyme helicase splits the hydrogen bonds between the bases in a
specific region of double stranded DNA in the nucleus. This causes the tw
strands to separate
 STAGE 2
 o RNA polymerase binds to a base sequence called the promoter region. This
determines which way the RNA polymerase faces and hence which region is
used as a template
 STAGE 3
o RNA polymerase moves along the DNA strand in the 5’ to 3’ direction. As it
passes over the DNA bases, it forms a complimentary Mrna strand from free
RNA molecules
 STAGE 4
o As the Mrna strand is produced the two strands of DNA start to recoil behind
it
 STAGE 5
o When a terminator region is reached the DNA is no longer copied. The mrna
is now ready for the next stage – translation
 The strand that the nucleotides attach to is called the template or antisense strand.
The other DNA strand is the sense strand (Same sequence as the Mrna)

Translation

 STAGE 1 (Happens all the time)

o Activation – The Trna molecule picks up a specific amino acid (Determined by
the anticodon) and carries it to the surface of the ribosomes
o Each trna has a unit of 3 bases at 1 end of the molecule called the anticodon
 STAGE 2 (Starts here)
o The mrna strand formed in the nucleus attaches to a ribosome in the
cytoplasm
o The mrna is attached at the start codon (AUG) , at the 3’ end of the strand
 STAGE 3
o Trna molecules contain a sequence of three bases called the anticodon
o The trna molecule will bond with the complimentary codon on the mrna
strand
 STAGE 4
o As the ribosome moves along the mrna another trna moves in carrying the
corresponding amino acid. The 2 amino acids are then joined together with a
peptide bond by an enzyme
 STAGE 5
o Another trna moves into the ribsome, adding another amino acid to the chain
 STAGE 6
o This process continues until a stop codon is reached on the mrna strand. As
there is not a corresponding trna for this sequence, the polypeptide chain is
released

Post transcriptional modifications

Processing of Mrna

 DNA contains some regions that do not code for proteins. There are known as
introns
 To produce functional proteins these introns need to be spliced out of the mrna,
leaving only the regions that code for proteins called exons
 A molecule called a spliceosome removes the introns, producing mature mrna that
contains only exons. Before splicing, mrna is known as pre-mrna

Post translational modifications

There are several ways in which the protein from the original gene may be modified

 The start codon methionine is often removed by enzymes

 Functional groups may be added
 There may be structural changes to the polypeptide chain

DNA Profiling

Why might DNA be analysed?

 Crimes/ Evidence
 Paternity testing
 Genetic screening – Cystic fibrosis in foetus’
 Linking animals/plants – Evolutionary links
 Identification of a body – Mutilation after natural disasters.

Often the quantity of DNA obtained is not enough for analysis, so it must be multiplied

This is achieved with the polymerase chain reaction.

What does the PCR reaction mixture contain

 The sample of DNA

 An excess of two primers
 DNA polymerase
 Nucleotides

The target length of DNA to be copied is selected using primers.

Primer = a single stranded length of 20 to 30 nucleotides which are artificially synthesised.

Its sequence complements the sequence at the end of the target DNA.
2 Primers are used, 1 complementary to each strand.

Process

 The mixture is heated to 95o C to separate the DNA strands (Breaking H bonds)
 The mixture is colled to 55oC to allow the primers to join to their strands
 The mixture is then heated to 72C to allow fresh DNA strands to be synthesised
 The mixture is further heated to separate these strands
 The cycle take 2 minutes and is repeated

DNA Profiling

 Introns are the regions of the chromosomes which are used in DNA profiling
 Within the introns there are micro-satellites and mini-satellites
 Mini-satellites = 20-50 base sequence repeated from 50 to several hundred times
 Micro-satellites = 2-4 bases repeated between 5 and 15 times
 The number of repeats of each satellite will vary between individuals as different
patterns may be inherited
 There are many different introns and a huge variation in the number of repeats so
the liklihood of any 2 individuals having the same pattern of DNA is extremely
remote, unless they are identical twins
 The more closely related 2 individuals are, the more similar are their DNA patterns

Preparing the DNA

 Strands of DNA from a sample are chopped up into fragments using enzymes called
restricted endonucleases
 These enzymes cut the DNA at particular points in the intron sequences called the
recognition sites
 Using restriction enzymes that cut either side of mini and micro satellite units leaves
the repeated sequences intact, giving a mixture of DNA fragments made up largely of
mini and micro satellite sequences

Gel Electrophoresis

 The DNA fragments are placed in wells in an agarose gel medium in a buffering
solution (To maintain a constant PH), with known DNA fragments to aid
identification
 The gel contains a dye (E.g. ethidium bromide) which binds to the DNA fragments in
the gel. The dye will fluoresce when placed under UV light .
 A dye is also added to the DNA samples. This moves through the gel slightly faster
than the DNA so that the current can be turned off before all the samples run off the
end.
  An electric current is passed through the gel and the DNA fragments move towards
the positive anode because od the negative charge on the phosphate groups in the
DNA
 The fragments move at different rates depending on the their mass
 Once the electrophoresis is completem the plate is placed under UV light. The DNA
fluoresces and shows up clearly so it can be identified
 This method shows up large DNA fragments, containing a minimum of 50 base pairs (
mini-satellites)

Southern blotting

 To identify specific sequences, southern blotting can be used.

 An alkaline buffer solution is added to the gel after elctrophoresis
 This separates the DNA strands so that the base sequences are exposed.
 A nylon filter or nitrocellulose paper is placed over the gel and the DNA is transferred
to the filter.
 Gene probes can then be used to identify specific base sequences on the filter.

Gene probes

 Gene probes are short DNA sequences that are complementary to the specific
sequences whice are being sought
 The probe is labeleld either radioactively or with a fluorescent molecule
 Large amounts of the gene probes are added to the filter and bind with
complementary DNA strands. They can then be identified by X-Ray or under UV light
 Gene probes are used for picking out micro satellites regions (Short tandem repeats)
Which are now widely used in DNA identification
 Statistically the chances of 2 people matching on 1 or more of these sites is so small
that it is counted as reliable evidence in court
Viruses

 Viruses are the smallest microorganism (0.02-0.3 micrometres)

 Viruses are not living cells
 They are arrangements of genetic material and protein that invade living cells and
take over their biochemistry to make more viruses.

Virus structure

 Viruses vary in their genetic material, structure of the protein coat and the presence
or absence of na envelope
 The protein coat or capsid is made up of simple repeating protein units called
capsomeres
 The repeating units minimises the amount of genetic material needed to code for
coat rpoduction and makes the protein coat simple to assemble
 In some viruses the capsid and genetic material are covered by a lipid envelope
produced from the host cell
 The envelope makes it easier for the virus to pass from cell to cell
 The genetic material can be RNA or DNA
 The nucleic acid can be single or double stranded
 DNA viruses contain DNA and replicate using DNA polymerase
 The DNA is also used to make the Mrna needed to induce protein synthesis of viral
proteins
 Examples of DNA viruses
 o Small pox virus
o Adenovirus
o Bacteriophage (Viruses that infect bacteria)
 RNA viruses contain RNA which uses the enzyme reverse transcriptase to make DNA
molecules
 The DNA is used as a template for new viral proteins and ultimately a new RNA
genome
 Examples of RNA viruses:
o HIV
o Tobacco Mosaic Virus

Virus ‘life cycles’

 Viruses reproduce only within the cells of the body

 They attack their host cells in several different ways:7
 E.g. Bacteriophages inject their genome into the host bacterial cell but the bulk of
the viral material remains on the outside of the bacterium
 Viruses that infect animal cells have diffrent methods of entering the cell
o Endocytosis – With or without the envelope – and the host cell digests the
capsid releasing the viral genetic material
o The envelope fuses with the host cell surface releasing the rest of the virus
inside the membrane
 Plant viruses get into plant cells typically using a vector (an insect) to pierce the
cellulose cell wall.

Lysogenic pathway

 Many viruses are non virulent when they first enter the host cell
 They insert their DNA inot the host DNA so it is replicated every time the host cell
divides. This inserted DNA is called a provirus
 Mrna is not produced from the viral DNA because the viral genes cause the
production of a repressor protein which makes it impossible to transcribe the rest of
the genetic material
 This period is called lysogeny. The virus is part of the reproducing host cells but is
dormant

Lytic Pathway

 Under certain conditions e.g. when the host cell is damaged, viruses in the lysogenic
state are activated
  The amount of repressor protein decreases and the viruses enterthe lytic pathway
and become virulent.
 The viral genetic material is replicated independantly of the host DNA after entering
the host cell
 Mature viruses are made and the host cell bursts releasing large numbers of the new
virus particles to invade other cells
 The virus is virulent

Retrovirus life cycles

 Retroviruses e.g. HIV have a more complex life cycle

 Their genetic material is viral RNA
 This can not be used as Mrna. It is translated into DNA by reverse trnascriptase in the
cytoplasm of the cell.
 The viral DNA passes into the nucleus of the host cell where it is Inserted into the
host DNA
 Host transcriptase enzymes make viral mrna and the new viral particles leave the cell
by exocytosis
 The host cell functions as a virus making factory whilst the new viruses move on to
infect more cells.

Viruses and disease

 Viruses cause disease in animals, plants and bacteria

 They cause the symptoms of disease by:
o The lysis of the host cell
o Causing the host cell to release their own lysosomes and digest themselves
from the inside out
o Production of toxins that inhibit cell metabolism
 Viral infections are often specific to particular tissues
 E.g. adenovirus which causes colds, affects the respiratory tract but does not cause
damage to brain cells
 The specificity is caused by cell markers on the surface of host cells. Each type of cell
has its own recognition markers and different viruses can only bind to particular
markers
 The presence or absence of these markers can make groups of organisms vulnerable
to attack by viruses.

BACTERIA!

 Bacteria are prokaryotic organisms and the most common form of life on earth.
 Some bacteria are pathogens but the majority are not harmful and may even be
beneficial to living organisms.
The structure of bacteria

 All bacteria have a cell wall

 The contents of bacterial cells are usually hypertonic to the medium around them.
This means that water moves into the cells by osmosis
 The cell wall prevents the cell from bursting, maintians the shape, gives support and
protection
 The cell surface membrane is similar in structure and function to eukaryotic cells
 Bacteria have no mitochondria
 The respiratory enzymes are located on the cell membrane.
 In some bacteria the cell membrane shows infoldings called mesosomes. The
function of these is still debated.
 Some have a capsule around their cells walls. This may be formed by starch, gelatin,
protein or glycolipid.
 It protects the bacteria from phagocytosis by white blood cells.
 The capsule also covers the cell markers on the cell membrane which identify the
cell. This make it easier for the bacterium to be pathogenic as it is not identified by
the hosts immune system.
 The capsule is also present
to help it survive dry
conditions.
 Some bacteria have one to
several hundred thead like
protein projections called
pili (Or fimbriae)
 They are used for
attachment to a host cell
and sexual reproduction.
 They can make bacteria
prone to viral infection as
bacteriophages can use the
pili as an entry point to the cell.
 Some bacteria can move themselves by flagella. Thye are made from a a many
stranded helix of the platein flagellin.
 The genetic material is a single length of circular DNA free in the cytoplasm
 Some bacteria conatain plasmids which code for a particular bacterial phenotype e.g.
production of toxins
Bacterial Cell Walls

 The bacterial cell wall consists of a layer of peptidoglycan

o Peptidoglycan is made up of many parallel polysaccharide chains with short
peptide cross linkages, creating a large net like structure
o There are two types of cell wall that are identified by gram staining
o Before the bacteria are stained they are colourless
 Gram positive bactera
o The cell walls of gram-positive bacteria e.g. MRSA have a thick layer of
peptidoglycan
o The peptidoglycan contains chemicals such as teichnoic acid within their net
like structure
o The crystal violet in the stains bind to the teichoic acid and resists
decolouring in the rest of the process, leaving the positive blue/purple colour
 Gram negative bacteria
o The cell walls of gram negative bacteria have a thinner layer of peptidoglycan
with no teichoic acid between the membrane layers
o The outher membrane like layer is made up of lipopolysaccharides.
o Any crystal violet which does not bind is readily de colourised and replaced
with red safranine in the gram stain, so the cells appear red.

Classifying Bacteria

 Bacteria can be classified according to shape:

o Spherical
o Rod shaped
o Twisted
o Comma Shaped
 They can also be grouped by respiratory requirments
o Obligate aerobes need oxygen for respiration
o Faculative anerobes use oxygen if available but can cope without (Most
pathogens)
o Obligate anaerobes can only respire without oxygen

Bacteria Reproduction

 Bacteria can reproduce in two main ways, the most common is asexual reproduction
by binary fission
 When the bacteria reaches a certain size, enzymes break open the circular DNA
letting the strands unwind and replicate
  New cross walls are laid down between the two new daughter cells. Mesosomes
appear to play a role in this .
 New cell membrane and cell wall material extends inwards, creating a septum which
divide the daughter cells in two, each containing a circular chromosome attached to
the cell membrane
 Plasmids divide at the same time and asre often present in the daughter cells
 The time between cell divisions is called the generation time.
 Bacteria can reproduce in an alternative way to asexual reproduction by thew
transfer of genes between bacteria (not always of the same species)
 There are three ways genetic material can be passed from one bacterium;
o TRANSFORMATION – A short piece of DNA is released by a donor and
actively taken up by a recipient where it replaces a similar piece of DNA
o TRANSDUCTION – A small amount of DNA is transferred from 1 bacterium to
another by a bacteriophage. They are incorporated into the host DNA
o CONJUGATION – Genetic material is transferred by direct contact. The donor
cell is analogous to a male cell and produces a sex pilus (a cytoplasmic bridge)
between the 2 cells through which DNA is transferred to the recipient cell.
The male cell contains the fertility factor which is a plasmid that codes for the
sex pilus

Questions page 89

1. Bacteria usually use asexual reproduction because it only requires one cell, and
so is therefore safer and more convenient. It is also very quick and reliable
2. Bacteria sometimes use a form of sexual reproduction because it allows genes
to be transferred into another cell and so therefore add to the genepool of the
bacteria. This also makes it harder for use to fight against bacterial disease.
3. It shows that genetic material can be taken up by bacteria in sufficient quantity
4. When the dead bacteria werwe attacked by enzymes that destroyed
carbohydrates and proteints it had no effect on FFS I NEED THE ANSWERS

Bacteria as Decomposers

Bacteria in the carbon cycle

 Organic compunds pasas to the decomposers when producers die, excrete,

decompose.

Infection by pathogens

How do bacteria make people unwell?

  Endotoxins
o Lipopolysaccharides which are part of the outer layer of gram-negative
bacteria
o Rarely fatal, cause symptoms usch as diarrhoea, fever, vomiting eg.g E-coli,
salmonella.
 Exotoxins
o Soluble proteins produced as the bacteria metabolise and reproduce
o Many different types that have differrent effects e.g. damage cell
membranes, inhibitors, poison cells
o Most dangerous and fatal bacteria diseases .

Spreading disease

Ways in which disease is spread

 Airborne – Inhalation
o Coughing and sneezing and talking expel droplets that can contain pathogens
if you have an infection
o Part of the water in the droplets evaporates leaving tiny droplets containing
the pathogen which remain suspended in the air
o When the droplets gain entrnace to a new respiratory tract they can initiate
an infection. E.g. Flu, TB, Measles
 Touch
o Very common in spreading disease in children and sexual disease. E.g.
Impertigo
 Food – Ingestion
o Transmitted through contaminated food
o Greatest risk through raw and uncooked food
o Only a small quantity required to cause disease
o E.g. Most forms of diarrhoea, hepatitis
 Vectors
o A living organism that transmits infection from one host to another. Many
insects are vectors. E.g. Malaria
 Inanimate objects – Fomites
o These are objects that carry pathogens from one host to another. E.g.
hospital towels, make up. E.g. MRSA
 Inoculation
o Pathogen enters through a break in the skin
o Transmission maybe through contaminated surgical equipment or shared
needles.
o E.g. HIV, Rabies, Hepatitis
Natural Defences

 The body has several non-specific defences

1. Epithelial defences (Skin)
 A physical barrier toughened by keratin.
 Produces sebum which contains chemical that inhibit the growth of
microorganisms.
 Natural skin flora prevents disease by competing for position on the
skin and produces chemicals that inhibit the growth of
microorganisms
 Natural skin flora is not affected by sebum (but can be affected by
washing too often with antibacterial soap)
 Surfaces of the internal tubes and ducts are more vulnerable as they
are thin and not toughened by keratin.
 Cilia carry mucas, germs and dust particles up to the gullet where they
are swallowed and pass out of the body in the faeces.
 The mucas contains lysozymes (Also found in tears)
 Lysozymes (Enzymes able to destroy bacterial cell walls) are very
effective against gram positive bacteria.
 They break down the cross linkages in the peptidoglycans in the cell
wall.
 Phagocytic white cells are found on the epitithelial surfaces.
 If the skin is cut, pathogens can then enter the bloodstream directly.
 Some biting insects can penetrate the skin themselves.
 The bodies first response to a break in the skin is to seal the wound
through a clotting mechanism.
 The digestive system helps to defend the body against pathogens
because some polypeptides produced in the salivary glads destroy
bacteria and others slow down growth. The hydrochloric acid in the
stomach destroys the majority of bacteria ingested. The gut flora also
competes successfully for nutrients and produces anti-micorbial
compunds. The stomach helps protect against disease and illness by
vomiting. It can be cuased by toxins, bad smells, tumours, pregnancy
and infection of the gut.
Non-Specific Responses to Infection

 When pathogens enter the body the are recognised and destroyed or inactivated.
 This response is a results of a number of different systmes in he body that depend on
cell recognition.

Cell Recognition

 On the outer surface of the cell membrave are many proteins eg. Glycoproteins.
 These can be varied and appear to p[lay a role in cell recognition and possibly in cell
adhesion.
 They act as antigens.
o An antigen is a substance that stimulates the production of an antibody when
pathogens enter the body (Specific immune responce)
 The body should only produce antiboddies in response to non self antigens.

Inflammation

 Common non-specific way the body responds to infection

 Occurs when infection is localised E.g. when bacteria colonises a cut.
 Mast cells (Specialised cells in the connective tissue below the skin) and white blood
cells release histamines
 Histamines cause the blood vessels in the local area to dilate causing heat and
redness
 The raised temperature reduces the effectiveness of pathogen reproduction.
 The dilation makes the capilliary cells leaky.
 The fluid including plasma, wbc and antibodies is forced out of the capilliaries
causeing oedema and pain.
 The WBC and antibodies disable and destroy the pathogen.
 A common symptom of widespread infection is a rash, which is inflammation or
tissue damage that particularly affects the skin, causin red spots or patches.

Fever

 When a pathogen infects the body the hypothalmus resets to a higher temperature.
 This helps the body combat infection in two ways
o Many pathogens reproduce effectively at 37oC. A higher temperature will
reduce the effectiveness of pathogens to reproduce and so they cause less
damage
o The specific response system is more effecvtive at a higher temperature. 4
 In a bacterial infection the temperature rises steadily and remains high until
treatment is succcessful
  A viral infection causes the temperature to spike, shooting up high every time the
viruses burst out of a cell and dropping back down to normals afterwards.
 Fevers can be beneficial but if they get too high they can be fatal
 If body temperature taises above 40 enzymes can denature and permanent tissue
damage can be caused
 Sweating is associated with fevers as a response to the high temeperature and chills
as the high temperature drops.
 If the fluid and electrolytes losr in the sweat ar not replaced, dangerous dehydration
and death can result

Phagocytosis

 Phagocytosis involves white blodd cells called phagocytes

 Phagotcyte describes a white blood cell which engulfs and digests pathogens and
any other foreign material in the blood and tissues.
 There are tow main types of phagocytes:
o Neutorphils – Granulocytes ( Have granules that can be stained in the
cytoplasm) Most abundant type of WBC
o Macrophage – Agranulocytes (Do not have granules)
 They accumulate at the site of infection to attack the pathogen
 They can often be seen as pus.

Interferons

 Effective only against viruses

 Cells produce interferon chemicals when invaded by viruses.
 They are proteins that inhibit viral replication within the cells.
 They bind to the receptors on the surface membrane of ininfected cells, stimulatin a
pathway which makes cells resistant to infection by preventing virus reproduction.

Antibodies

 An antibody is a protein which is relased into the circulation to bind to a specific

antigen on a praticular pathogen which will then lead to its destruction.
 Each plasma cell secretes antibodies which are identical to the immunogloblin of the
original parent b-cell
 Plasma cells only live for a few days but can produce 200 antibodies per second.
 Plasma cells have extensive endoplasmic reticulum and many ribosomes which are
adaptations for their role in producing large quantities of protein antibodies.

Antibodies play a role in the defence of the body in a range of ways:

 The ability of most pathogen to invade the host cells is rduced whrn theyare
combined with antibodies.
  When antigens on the pathogens are bound to antibodies, the microorganisms
agglutinate (clump together) and this prevents their spread throughout the body.
 The antigen-antibody complex is readily engulfed and digested by phagocytes.
 The antigen-antibody complex may stimulate other reactions wthin the body. E.g.
release of histamines by the invaded cells causing inflammation.

Cell mediated response

 T-Killer cells kill cells of the body that have been infected with a virus.
 When a body cell is infecred with a virus, the antigens are bound to a MHC and the
cell becomes an APC
o T-killer cells in the blood have complementary receptor proteins on the
surface
o T-Killer cells bind to antigen/MHC complex on the body cell
o T-Killer cells undergo rapid cell division to produce clones which can all bind
to infected body cells
o T-Killers cells release enzymes creating pores in the membrane of infected
cells
o Pores creates free movement of water and ions, leading to swlling and lysis
o Any pathogens are labelled with antibodies prouced by B effector cells and
then destroyed
o Some T-Killer cells becomes T-Killer memory cells. They remain in the blood
ready to respon to the same antigen.

Why do we feel ill?

 The specific immune response takes days or even weeks to become active against a
specific pathogen
 We get symptoms of disease, when the pathogen is reproducing freely inside the
body, before the immune system becomes fully operational isnside in the body
against the pathogen.

Gaining knowledge competition – bacterial antibiotics and Hosptial acquired disease

1. Asepsis is the absence of infectious organisms, and aseptic techniques are aimed at
minimising infection.
2. Ignaz semmelweis substancially reduced the number of childbed fever by
encouraging doctors to wash their hands between deliveries and examinations.
Jospeh Lister faught infection using pure phenol as an antiseptic. Fleming discovered
penicillin accidently and Florey and Chain developed it for mass production.
3. Differene between antiseptic and disinfectant is that disinfectants are chemicals
used to destroy bacteria in the environment, whereas antispetics are used directly
on people.
 4. Antibiotics reduced the number of deaths from infectious disease by being able to
treat patients already suffering a bacterial infection.
5. The principle of selctive toxicity is that the drugs interfere with the metabolism or
function of the pathogen with minmal damge to the human host
6. The difference between bacteriostatic and bacteriocidal is that bacteriostatic will
com[;etely inhibit the growth of the microorganism wheras bacteriocidal will destroy
almost all of the pathogens present. Bacteriostatic antibiotics are usually used to
treat normal everyday infections because, combined with the immune system it will
ensure the pathogen will be completely destroyed. Bacteriocidal antibiotics will be
used when the immune system has been supressed.
7. Broad spectrum antibiotics destroy a wide range of harmful bacteria pathogens,
neutral and good bacteria alike. A narrow spectrum antibiotic targets one or two
specific bacteria.
8. Pathogens are completely destroyed if they are sensitive if increased dose and
treatment more succesful pathogen is moderatly sensitive. Antibiotics do not affect
pathogen which means they wuill be resistant.
9. Only a few microorganisms are resistant . When non-resistant are killed, the
resistant strain multiply and create a resistant infection.
10. The spread of superbugs is accelerated by widespread use of antibiotics, increasing
their resistance.
11. Superbugs are usually found in hospitals because many people are ill and antibiotics
are widely used.
12. MRSA is found in hospitals, it stands for methicillin resistant staphilococcus aureus. It
is a healthcare acquired infection. A mutation arose to cause the bacteria to be able
to produce a penicillinase that breaks down the methicillin
13. C difficile is an anerobic bacteirum that is found in small numbers in the large
intestine. Not affected by many antibiotics.
14. The symptoms or MRSA are:

 septicaemia (blood poisoning),

 septic shock (widespread infection of the blood that leads to a fall in blood pressure and
organ failure),
 septic arthritis (severe joint problems),
 osteomyelitis (bone marrow infection),
 abscesses deep within the body,
 meningitis,
 pneumonia, or
 endocarditis (infection of the heart lining).

The symptoms of C.Dificile:

 mild to severe diarrhoea

 blood-stained stools
 fever
  cramps in the abdomen

15. Antibiotics should be used sparingly because overuse can cause bacteria to become resistant
much more quickly. Course of antibiotics should always be completed. Limit the typres of
antibiotics used.
16. Hygiene measures :
a. Wash hands with alcohol based gels between patients for MRSA
b. Chlroine based disinfectant needs to be used to avoid trhw spread of C.Dificile
c. Long ties, wristwatches and long-sleeved shirts are banned. These can carry bacteria
from 1 patient to another
d. Thorough cleaning of hospital wards, toilets and equipments such as bedpans can
also control the spread of disease.
e. Isolate infected patients. Spread can be controlled in this way.
17. Patients may be screened for MRSA and other infections. They can be treated immeiatel.
Hospital adivse people not to visit if they are unwell. Visitors are encourages to wash their
hands and use the alcohol gels provided.
18. 30% decrease in the incidence of MRSA. Yes hygiene measures havebeen effective. C dificlie
cases have laso decreased.

Immunity

4 types – Natural – active and passive

Artificial – active and passive.

HIV and Tuberculosis