Abstract

Water is one of the basic resources needed to sustain plant and animal life
and ultimately human existence. Judicious use of this resource should be the
concern of all people. This booklet gives a brief amount of estimated water
resources and its efficient use. This booklet describes the hydrologic cycle, types,
utilization and economic use of water. This will enable the farmer to use the water
more scientifically and economically.

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 Chapter - 1

Introduction

Water is an essential requirement of all living beings and indispensable for

many human related activities. In nature it transports eroded material from
mountains and forests to the plains and the sea. Man uses water to carry away his
wastes, generate electric power, for navigation, industrial purposes and also as a
source of recreation. Apart from all these, the role of water in agriculture is very
significant Water is a limited resource and its efficient use is crucial to the survival
of the human beings. Therefore, every effort must be made to make the best use of
water so as to make possible a high level of continuous production. Several factors
are to be kept in mind for the conservation and development of water resources.
These are as follows:

1. Availability and source of water;

2. Climatic condition;

3. Quality of water;

4. Factors affecting water resources;

5. Distribution and variation of rainfall & water resources;

6. Competing demands; and

7. Nature of the soil. .

Water resource management is the activity of planning, developing,

distributing and managing the optimum use of water resources. It is a sub-set
of water cycle management.
Water is essential for our survival. The field of water resources management
will have to continue to adapt to the current and future issues facing the allocation
of water. With the growing uncertainties of global climate change and the long
term impacts of management actions, the decision-making will be even more
difficult. It is likely that ongoing climate change will lead to situations that have

2
not been encountered. As a result, alternative management strategies are sought for
in order to avoid setbacks in the allocation of water resources.
Ideally, water resource management planning has regard to all the
competing demands for water and seeks to allocate water on an equitable basis to
satisfy all uses and demands. As with other resource management, this is rarely
possible in practice.
One of the biggest concerns for our water-based resources in the future is
the sustainability of the current and future water resource allocation.[1] As water
becomes more scarce, the importance of how it is managed grows vastly. Finding a
balance between what is needed by humans and what is needed in the environment
is an important step in the sustainability of water resources.
Meanwhile the World Bank defines WRM as the “process of planning,
developing, and managing water resources, in terms of both water quantity and
quality, across all water uses”. It includes the institutions, infrastructure,
incentives, and information systems that support and guide water management.

According to the World Bank, water resources management seeks to harness

the benefits of water by ensuring there is sufficient water of adequate quality for
drinking water and sanitation services, food production, energy generation, inland
water transport, and water-based recreational, as well as sustaining healthy water-
dependent ecosystems and protecting the aesthetic and spiritual values of lakes,
rivers, and estuaries.

Water resource management also entails managing water-related risks,

including floods, drought, and contamination. The complexity of relationships
between water and households, economies, and ecosystems, requires integrated
management that accounts for the synergies and tradeoffs of water's great number
uses and values.

One of the goals of water resource management is water security. It is not

possible to „predict and plan‟ a single path to water security for rapidly growing
and urbanizing global populations. This is due to climatic and non-climatic
uncertainties. To help strengthen water security, there is a need to build capacity,

3
adaptability and resilience for the future planning and management of water
resources.

According to the World Bank, achieving water security in the context of

growing water scarcity, greater unpredictability, degrading water quality and
aquatic ecosystems, and more frequent droughts and floods, will require a more
integrated and longer-term approach to water management. This is in essence what
water resource management is about: bringing together multiple organisations,
across different disciplines to plan for future water usage holistically.

1.2 State of Problem

Problem Statement, hypothesis and rationale

Total water in the world is estimated to be 1.5 billion cu km. About 95% of this is
the salty water found in the oceans. This comes to around 1.425 billion cu km.
Remaining 5% is fresh water i.e. only 75 million cu km. Out of this 75 million cu
km 60 million cu km are immobilized as continuously frozen polar ice and snow,
leaving only 15 million cu km as fresh liquid water for human, animal and plant
needs. The world reserve of water resources is given in Fig. 1.

World Water Resources

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 Of the 15 million cu km of fresh water about 1 % (150,000 cu kin) is surface
water found in rivers, lakes and streams and 99% is stored underground at varying
depths. About half of this ground water (7,000,000 cu km) is stored at depths
greater than 1000 metres and is considered too expensive to pump to the surface
for most uses. So total usable water in the world is 7 million cu km of fresh ground
water at reasonable depth plus the 1,50,000 cu km of surface water.

III. Hydrologic Cycle

Consumable water is obtained through precipitation. Precipitation occurs by

the unending moisture cycle of the earth called hydrologic cycle. Moisture is
constantly circulating between the land, the ocean and the atmosphere. This
hydrologic cycle has neither a beginning nor an end. Radiation from the sun
evaporates water from ocean, lakes, rivers into the atmosphere. Transpiration also
takes place from the vegetation and adds water to the atmosphere. The water
vapour rises and collects to form clouds. Under certain conditions, the cloud
moisture condenses and falls back to the earth as rain, hail, sleet or snow. The
whole process is diagrammatically given in two Figures 2a & 2b. The Hydrologic
Cycle.

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Hydrologic cycle.

Hydrologic cycle.

Water is life sustaining liquid. It is one of the most important natural

resources which is essential for the existence of living organisms.

Water is the most widely distributed key resource to meet the basic needs of
a growing population, social and economic ambitions, demanding agriculture,
expanding urbanisation, increasing industrialisation and many other causes.

The demands for water is becoming more and more challenging day by day.
Hence water in all its forms (solid, liquid and gas) should be harnessed properly.

6
 Drinking water is one of the basic needs for all of us. Unfortunately, about
5.76 lakh villages have been facing scarcity of water. In Rajasthan, people in
certain pockets have to wait for hours to collect one bucket of water from water
tankers brought by the trains, trucks and tractors. In many hilly areas, the situation
is the same. In many tribal and backward areas un-hygienic and unsafe water
collected in ponds, tanks etc., during rainy season are the only source of drinking
water.

Our country is facing frequent floods and drought often at the same time in
different parts because of variable nature and uneven distribution of rains. Besides
these, due to large scale deforestation and soil erosion the rivers are silted up
causing floods. For sustained and increased agricultural production, industrial
development and economic emancipation of the country the most vital resources
are soil and water, which need to be conserved, developed and managed
efficiently. In India, floods, water-logging, soil erosion, drought salty groundwater,
etc. are some of the major problems of water management for agriculture and other
needs.

The major problems of water management

Floods:
Floods refer to the inundation of large parts of land by water, which
otherwise remain dry for some duration of time. Flood causes heavy loss to
agriculture, livestock and property. Deforestation, overgrazing, mining,
industrialisation, global warming, etc. have contributed largely in the incidence of
floods

The best solution to overcome such damage is large scale irrigation projects,
which will also protect from other environmental hazards. These hazards may be in
the form of increase in water logging, soil sedimentation in reservoirs, damage to
forest areas, large scale growth of aquatic weed of nuisance value, displacing
wildlife and degradation of valuable landscape etc.

Plantations can reduce the impact of water flow on soil erosion. For water
management, Land use State Boards were set-up in 1980 in order to protect the soil

7
and water to enhance their productivity through proper land and water use
practices

Water Logging:
A soil is said to be water logged when it is completely saturated with water,
which is caused by water stagnation on flat land and low lying areas. It occurs due
to excess rainfall, floods, seepage high water table, obstruction to natural drainage,
over irrigation, etc.

In most of the low lying areas, wet conditions persist longer that results in
delayed sowing or less crop production. Another impact is that when water dries,
salts accumulate on the soil surface resulting in salinity. Since water logging is the
second biggest threat to the soil, next to erosion, it is therefore, necessary to study
water table fluctuations, groundwater recharge, assessment of seepage from canals,
tanks, etc.

Significance of study

Water shortage is one of the biggest problems that the country faces today.
A big reason for this problem is the poor management of available resources. On
one hand, we over-exploit our rivers, lakes, groundwater and other sources of
water, but on the other hand, we allow colossal amounts to run off into the sea
unutilized. The role of participatory water management needs to be emphasized
in addressing the problem of water scarcity in the country. To address this
problem, the Government, the civil society and the local level communities must
all work together to find ways to preserve, protect and augment the available water
resource. There are examples from states like Maharashtra and Gujarat where such
participatory management of water have helped turn water- starved, barren
farmlands into fields producing multiple crops in a year.
Long-term sustainability of water resources can be assured only through
holistic management programs that take care of both demand-side and supply-side
management. Supply-side management focuses on management of aquifer systems
and recharge of groundwater resources while demand-side management involves
efforts at arresting the decline in groundwater levels by regulating the withdrawals
and increasing water use efficiency.

8
 Demand side management is thus dependent on community participation. It
requires the community to make efforts at ensuring that water is extracted in a
sustainable manner, the cropping pattern is suited to the area, drip/sprinkler
irrigation is encouraged, and people of the community resort to water budgeting.
There is a need to promote and encourage participatory management as a
solution to long-term, sustainable development of water resources in the
country. Participatory management recognizes groundwater as a Common
Property Resource. When this management method is employed to manage
groundwater, the local communities themselves regulate the extraction and use
of water and are also proactive in augmenting and recharging the resource.
Participatory management of groundwater has resulted in many success stories in
the states of Maharashtra (Tamaswada Nalah Treatment), Gujarat (Upleta Taluk,
Rajkot), Maharashtra (Beed, Jalna, Satara) Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu
(Annavasal) to name a few.

OBJECTIVES OF WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Depending on the region and state of current water conditions, policy and
implementation, water resource management objectives can vary.

However, often Water Resources Management objectives can include

promoting conditions for environmentally sustainable, economically efficient and
equitably allocated use of water resources. They also include to increase the
benefits and reduce the risk related to existing hydraulic infrastructure.

Throughout these projects, a common objective is to integrate policy

approach within other sectoral policies in a wider area across the country. This
includes often developing social, technical and administrative water resource
management tools.

According to the GWP, an IRWM approach focuses on three pillars:

 an enabling environment of suitable policies, strategies and legislation for

sustainable water resources development and management,

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  putting in place the institutional framework through which to put into
practice the policies, strategies and legislation, and
 setting up the management instruments required by these institutions to do
their job.

Water resource management policy

When it comes to drafting water resource management policy, it's important

to have a clear understanding of what policy is and is not. Not to be confused with
implementing strategies, policy is a set of decisions, made at the highest political
level in a country following dialogue and consultation. The result will then shape
and determine how things will be done in any given sector.

Within water resouce management, a key component is not only the policy,
but a process or plan on how to implement such a policy. Furthermore, policy
should not be confused with legislation. After a policy has been adopted,
legislation needs to be examined to see where amendments and changes are
needed.

According to the OECD, water outcomes are often influenced by policies

outside the water domain. As a result, increasing unity between water policies and
other sectoral policies is a key component of an integrated approach to water
resources management.

Furthermore, there is no one size fits all approach, nor one correct
administrative model.

The GWP said: “The art of IWRM lies in selecting, adjusting, and applying
the right mix of tools for a given situation. Agreeing on milestones and timeframes
is critical for success. The implementation may take place on a step-by-step basis,
in terms of geographical scope and the sequence and timing of reforms. Scope,
timing, and content of measures can be adjusted according to experience. In
developing a strategy and framework for change, it is important to recognize that
the process of change is unlikely to be rapid.”

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 For policy-making and planning, in order to obtain an integrated approach it‟s
important that water development and management takes into account the various
uses of water and the range of people‟s water needs, including:

 Stakeholders are given a voice in water planning and management, with

particular attention to securing the involvement of women and the poor;
 Policies and priorities consider water resources implications, including the
two-way relationship between macroeconomic policies and water
development, management, and use;
 Water-related decisions made at local and basin levels are along the lines of,
or at least do not conflict with, the achievement of broader national
objectives; and
 Water planning and strategies are incorporated into broader social,
economic, and environmental goals.

GWP added: “Putting sustainable and integrated management of water resources

into practice must be anchored at all levels with the highest political commitment.”

Hydrology is the study of the global water cycle and the physical, chemical,
and biological processes involved in the different reservoirs and fluxes of water
within this cycle. In general, hydrologists focus on terrestrial water, while
recognizing that the global hydrological cycle includes exchanges of water
between the land surface, ocean, atmosphere, and subsurface. Meanwhile water in
the oceans and atmosphere is mainly the concern of oceanographers and
meteorologists. Many hydrologists work at the interface between land surface
water and the atmosphere, studying precipitation and evapotranspiration processes
in the field of hydrometeorology.

Water resource management includes consideration of several disciplines of

hydrology, including the global water cycle, surface water and groundwater, water
chemistry and pollution and aquatic biology. This is according to S.J. Marshall in
his Hydrology module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences.

After treatment, water supplies are sent to meet a range of requirements

including industrial, municipal, agricultural and ecological. While some of these

11
water uses take water from the system and can be classed as "consumptive", others
return water after use but to a lesser quality. This water often requires treatment to
return it back to a natural state and sometimes this is not possible, for example an
industrial tailings pond.

The balancing act involved in water management includes a broad range of

stakeholders and includes water policy and legal experts. Hydrologists have
essential input to these complex and sometimes confrontational deliberations and
negotiations. They also play a central role in applied hydrology – engineering of
major waterworks to manage water. Water distribution systems have been a
hallmark of civilization since Babylon, and the modern stamp on this includes
major hydroelectric dams and reservoirs, urban waterworks, and water treatment
facilities.

These and other tools help governments to manage water resources in a way that
serves societal and ecological needs.

According to Marshall, water resource management is one of the world‟s

greatest challenges due to competition for limited resources, regional disparities in
water supply and affluence, mounting global water demand, aquifer depletion, and
pollution- and climate-change-induced water stress. Integrated sustainable water
resource management is an area requiring innovation, progress, and international
cooperation in the coming decades.

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METHODOLOGY

Utilization of Water Resources

Water resources are utilized mainly for three purposes:

1. Irrigation
2. Industrial
3. Domestic

Out of these three, irrigation is the major consumer of water resources. The total
utilization of water in India is depicted in the following flow-chart in Figure 3. on
the Total Precipitation.

Total Precipitation

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 Our water resources are insufficient to meet the long term requirement of
agriculture, industry and other uses, unless its judicious and economic uses are
ensured.

The total geographical area of our country is 328.7 million hectares (m.ha).
About 42% of this area is under cultivation i.e., 140.7 m ha. Only 26.6% of this
area is irrigated through various sources. Following tables give the area irrigated
by different sources indifferent years and the States.

Table 6 .Irrigation potential or different sources or water

(Area in million hectars)

Sl.No. Sources 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-

85

1 Government 14.68 14.87 15.74 15.33

canals
(36.3) (37.2) (37.5) (36.5)

2 Private canals 0.84 0.495 0.495 0.495

(2.1) (1.2) (1.2) (1.2)

3 Tanks 3.506 3.112 3.783 3.330

(8.8) (7.8) (9.0) (8.0)

4 Tubewe/ls 9.900 10:684 10.973 11.265

(24.9) (26.7) (26.I) (26.9)

5 Other wells 8.267 8.428 8.548 8.723

(20.8) (21.1) (20.4) (20.9)

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 6 Other sources 2.566 2.375 2.411 2.600

(6.5) (6.0) (5.8) (6.2)

7 Total irrigated 39.764 39.969 41.995 41.779

area

(in bracket per cent of the area is shown)

Irrigation is mainly carried out through minor irrigation schemes as well as

major and medium irrigation schemes. Our nation has the potentiality to explore
maximum amount of water but technology and attempts have to be developed for
the utilization. Following table gives the potential created and utilized water.

Table 7. Net area irrigated by different sources (in thousand ha)

Sl States Canals Tanks Tube Other Other Total

source
.No wells wells Irrigat
.
ed
area

1 Andhra Pradesh 1627 1100 114 470 126 3437

2 Assam 362 --- --- --- 210 572

3 Bihar 896 118 846 225 475 2760

4 Gujarat 245 25 130 999 15 1414

5 Haryana 1036 1 682 31 4 1754

6 Arunachal --- 0.5 2 1 87 90

pradesh

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 7 Jammu & Kashir 280 0.5 2 1 11 302

8 Karnataka 480 410 0.5 336 131 1365

9 Kerala 86 58 54 NA 30 228

10 Madhya Pradesh 801 132 26 700 145 1804

11 Maharastra 379 260 -- 1046 117 1802

12 Manipur --- --- --- --- 65 65

13 Meghalaya --- --- --- --- 37 37

14 Orissa 655 233 NA 127 --- 1015

15 Punjab 1383 -- 1559 172 7 3121

16 Rajasthan 887 53 50 1219 30 2547

17 Tamil nadu 911 750 62 807 35 2565

18 Tripura --- 2 --- 0.5 23 30

19 Uttar pradesh 2473 330 3189 1314 349 7933

20 West Bengal 960 303 --- 17 209 1409

21 Union Territores 28 3 45 7 35 118

All India 13775 3986 6469 7557 2304 34491

NA = Not Available

Source: Water Use Efficiency in Agriculture by S. Giriappa, P.35.

Total ground water resources can irrigate 42.29 m ha, but present utilization
is only 10.01 m ha and remaining 32.28 m ha is left unutilized, though there is a
potential to explore it.

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VII. Economic Use of Water Resources

Water is the most critical input in crop production. It also influences almost
all the bio-physiological processes of plants. When we speak of economic use of
water, it refers to the system which aims at optimum utilization of available water
resources in crop production without adversely affecting soil health. As we have
discussed earlier the main source of water for plant growth is irrigation, so while
irrigating following important points are to be kept in mind. These are:

--when to irrigate

--how much to irrigate

--how best to irrigate

Determination of water requirement and criteria for scheduling irrigation

help to define when to irrigate. The estimation of plant available moisture and
deficit expressed as depth in the rooting zone enables to decide how much to
irrigate. Selection of suitable method of irrigation in a given situation will meet the
question how best to irrigate. Some other measures for efficient management of
irrigation water are discussed as below.

STUDY AREA

The Subarnarekha River rises near Nagri village(23˚19´N, 85˚11´E) in the

Ranchi district of Jharkhand of its total length of 395 km the lion's share of 269 km
is in Jharkhand, 64 km in West Bengal and 62 km in Bihar.
The river drains a total area of 19,296 sq km. The bed of the River Subarnarekha is
believed to contain traces of gold (hence the name which literally means the) It is
also a ready indicator that the stream containsmany metals, minerals and other
substances in its churning waters (Mukhopadhya, 1980).
The river is basically a rainfed peninsular river with the wet months being from
June to September.

17
Stretches of the River in its upper course remain more or less as dry, stagnant pools
often highly charged with pollutants, particularly during dry periods. The
Subarnarekha and its tributaries are the main source of urban water supply with the
ground water resources of the region still under-utilized (MINARS Report, 2008).
Some of the important towns along its course are also significant industrial centres.
None of the towns except partly for Jamshedpur and the Tatanagar Railway
Colony have wastewater treatment worth mentioning (MINARS Report, 2002).
The River Subernarekha's course from Hatia (23˚41´ N, 85˚16´ E) to Bahragora
(22˚16´ N, 86˚43´E) in Jharkhand has been identified as a polluted river stretch
under the proposed National River Action Plan (Central Pollution Control Board,
India). Data available on the polluted stretches (MINARS Report, CPCB, 2000)
shows that the water quality of the Subernarekha River has deteriorated mainly due
to discharge of golden untreated, domestic and industrial effluents into it.

18
 CHAPTER - 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Water management and consumption pattern has invited the attention of

scientists, economists, administrators, environmentalists, sociologists and even
nongovernmental organizations. A lot of fragmented and piece- meal studies on
urban water situation have been conducted and these studies largely focus upon the
following issues: Scarcity of water and its reasons;

 Depletion of water resources both surface as well as groundwater;

 Equity considerations in urban water supply;

 Pollution and quality of water;

 Water education and users participation;

 Water pricing;

 Demand side management through economic incentives and disincentives.

 Aijaz (2010) in his paper on, ―Water for Indian cities: Government practices
and policy concerns‖, noted that the demand for basic infrastructure and services in
Indian cities has increased due to rapidly growing population.

Such increasing demands often adversely affect the quality of urban life, the
economic productivity, as well as sustainable development. The main purpose in
paper was to highlight the problems involved in improving access to water supply
in Indian cities faced with a severe water shortage crisis. A case study approach
was followed, and the status of water supply service was described for three large
cities of India, namely, Delhi, Mumbai and Kolkata. It was proposed that there
exists an immediate need to build up the water infrastructure and institutions, and
pointed out that the challenge for stakeholder„s lies in speeding up the reform
process and in the implementation of efficient water governance practices. Amiraly
et al (2004) in their paper on, ―Rainwater harvesting, alternative to the water
supply in Indian urban areas‖ calculated that water scarcity is a main feature of
north-western states of India. The continuous increase in the population and the
financial, administrative and technical deficiencies in the new supply system have
19
led to the deterioration of the water supply service in Ahmadabad city. The water
demand has increased due to the improvement in the standards of living of the
masses. This has resulted in an ever increasing pressure on underground water
resources, which has lead to an alarming depletion of aquifers. The objective of the
research to evaluate to what extent the traditional system might constitute an
additional source of water within the old city of Ahmadabad and locally reduce the
pressure on water demand, assuming that the existing supply system was not
fulfilling the needs of the users. The results of this exploratory field study
conducted in the old city in 2001-02, which combined quantitative and qualitative
aspects, give an outlook on people„s opinions and behaviors regarding both
systems. Finally, the rehabilitation of rainwater harvesting structures in the old city
of Ahmadabad suggests the necessity of empowering local structures of water
management in semiarid urban areas to create the conditions for a sustainable
implementation. Araral (2010) in his paper on, "Urban water demand management
in ASEAN* countries: Challenges and solutions", pointed that communities face
challenges in managing urban water demand when populations are rising, looming
water scarcity is on high speed and urbanization is on rising trend. Depending on
country„s circumstances, both short term and long term solutions including tariff
solutions, management solutions, technical / engineering solutions, institutional /
regulatory solutions and leadership, public education and community involvement
were suggested. Short term solutions include reducing commercial losses, checking
on meter accuracy and reducing pressure. Long term solutions include pipe
placement programs, shifting towards economic valuation of water service,
performance and process benchmarking and 100 percent metering. Other effective
long term institutional solutions include more effective regulation, private sector
participation and financial restructuring of water utilities. These solutions can only
be applied if formal training is provided to the staff, advisory services can be
enhanced and leadership qualities can be developed. Arlosorof (2007) in his paper
on, ―Water demand management – A strategy to deal with water scarcity in
Israel: A case study‖, found that to combat water scarcities in The Middle East, a
condition which might accompany the Middle East socioeconomic policies for
many years to come is ‗Water Demand Management„, and/or ‗Water
Conservation„ as well as the ‗Increase of Water Use Efficiency„. These three terms
have become a major shift of paradigm from the conventional supply side
management of water to the management of the demand side, producing additional
20
quantities of water for the immediate needs of the society, through the creation of
―Virtual‖ quantities of water, whether by conservation strategies or by increased
agricultural and industrial production per unit of water, as well as the import of
water intensive agricultural products and decreasing exports of such products.
Bathla (1999) in her paper on, ―Water resource potential in Northern India:
Constraints and analysis of price and non- price solutions‖, examined the linkages
between water depletion, continuous population growth and economic
development. The consequent fall in water table may lead to constraints in the use
of water. This has strong inequity implications in the resource use. It was revealed
that a mix of interventions based on price solutions, non-price solutions and
institutional set up are decisive in bringing a sustainable development and use of
resource. Bhandari and Khare (2006) in their study, ― Poor provision of
household water in India: How entrepreneurs respond to artificial scarcity‖,
observed that though water is not strictly a ‗public good„, in most countries it has
been a convention that water supply and provision is the government„s realm. In
India too this is the case. India has blessed with some of the best natural water
resources in the world. It has perennial rivers that are spread fairly evenly across
the country, a large coastline, and (generally) high rainfall levels. The study
analyses the problems with urban water supply in Delhi and other regions of India.
It examined the adverse human and environmental impacts of unpriced water
which is supplied inefficiently by the public sector. Boland and Whittington (2000)
in their research paper on, "Water tariff design in developing countries" showed
that increasing block tariffs (IBTs), were widely used in the developing world,
discourage wasteful use of water, promote economic efficiency, and assure access
to sufficient water for basic sanitation. In fact, these claims are incorrect. In
practice, IBTs are likely to promote inefficiency, inequity, unfairness, net revenue
instability, and other negative consequences. An alternative tariff design, a uniform
price with rebate (UPR), was presented. A revenue-neutral comparison, using
developing country data, shows the UPR to outperform the IBT on all counts,
while avoiding certain undesirable aspects of IBTs.

Bouselly et al (2006) in their working paper on, ―Water and urban poor‖
studied that rapid urbanization was responsible for increased urban poverty and
greater demand for many utility services in India. The pressure on public water
utilities becomes immense, which to a great extent are not able to provide services

21
of good quality for all. The urban poor suffer the most because of the inadequate
water supply as they cannot afford the payments that have to be made as coping
strategies and neither can they afford to spend time standing in lines. Among the
various factors responsible for the poor service delivery the most important is the
meager pricing of the water, which discourages investments in the system and
prevents the municipalities from adopting any water saving schemes. Since the
Governments are either unwilling or unable to raise tariffs and improve cost
recovery, the only solution is allowing private participation in the sector.
Privatization along with improving cost recovery and encouraging quality and cost
innovations will also ensure a more efficient and accountable service delivery
system. As for the arguments against privatization of the water sector: the
perceived inability and unwillingness of the poor to pay the charges under the
privatized system, both are proven to be baseless. The poor do pay and often pay a
lot more per liter than the well off even while they do not consume as much as the
rest of the population do. Experience has shown that the poor would be willing to
pay higher user charges if they were ensured a more adequate and efficient supply.
Thus we have privatization as the model means to counter the deficiencies of the
current water supply system. Central Public Health and Environmental
Engineering Organization (CPHEEO) (2005) study on," Status of water supply,
sanitation and solid waste management in urban areas", found that the urban
population of India is growing rapidly and is putting considerable pressure on
urban services. Urban infrastructure has been unable to keep pace with the growing
population. A great challenge for Indian cities is to make cities to provide every
citizen with basic services. Urban local governments are entrusted with the task of
providing these basic services but they are often short of funds and unable to
discharge their duties satisfactorily. In order to understand what needs to be done
to improve the provision of basic services, we need to know the level of provision
of these services. The objective was to assess the status of water supply, sanitation
and solid waste management in 300 selected cities and towns and to estimate the
requirement of funds for full coverage of population by these services in the urban
areas of the country. Chaudhary et al (2002) in their paper on, ―An analysis of
groundwater vulnerability and water policy reform in India‖ established that water
is a basic human need, a finite life support system and a key to prosperity.
Unplanned industrialization, urbanization and impact of liberalized import of
wastes intended for recycling have adversely affected the water environments in
22
India. This is further exaggerated by lack of discipline and a weak obligation
towards conservation and pollution prevention. Measures have to be especially
taken to resolve the groundwater problems. While groundwater resources are quite
well assessed, overexploitation still occurs frequently. There has been a
considerable lack in implementing existing policies as well as developing new laws
and policies. Dwarakanath (2006) in his paper on, ―Rain water harvesting in
urban areas and its impact‖ pointed out that urban centers in Indian cities have been
facing acute water shortages now-a-days. On one hand there is acute water scarcity
and on the other the streets are often flooded during the monsoons. This has led to
serious problems with depletion of water table on one side, deterioration of
chemical quality of ground water on the other side. Most of the traditional water
harvesting structures in cities have been neglected and fallen into disuse,
worsening the urban water scenario. One of the solutions to the urban water crisis
is rainwater harvesting capturing the run off. Emoabino and Alayande (2007) in
their paper on, ―Water demand management, problems and prospects of
implementations in Nigeria‖, pointed out that water supply in Nigeria was facing
serious challenges and supply-oriented indefinite expansion of water supply
infrastructures was stressing the available budgetary allocations to the sector to the
limit. Governments have been pursuing water supply programmes and donor
agencies also have been making efforts to expand water supply infrastructures.
Despite these efforts still a substantial number of people are not covered with safe
drinking water and sanitation.

BOOK REVIEW

Cai and Wang (2006) and Cai et al. (2006) calibrated a holistic water
resources–economic model involving essential water resources and economic
components in a consistent model for Maipo River Basin, Chile. They evaluated
economic benefits from water uses for different demand management
instruments (e.g. markets in tradable water rights, production and benefit functions
with respect to water for the agricultural and urban-industrial sectors etc). The
optimization model was used to maximize water use profit with embedded basin-
wide simulation of flow and salinity balance, reservoir operation, irrigation
scheduling, and crop growth. They calibrated the model to match a large number

23
of computed values with observed or recorded values under given climate
regime and agricultural inputs (e.g. flow through river reaches and reservoirs;
water withdrawals for both agricultural, municipal and industrial sites; crop
harvested area and yield; farmer incomes and profit from industrial and municipal
water uses etc.).
Ringler and Cai (2006) introduced the role of wetlands and fisheries in the
economic hydrologic management of Mekong River Basin. They described
valuation techniques for wetlands and fisheries in a basin context and estimated
the economic benefits associated with aquaculture production by a production
function approach, where the value of the fisheries is related to in-stream flows.
River‟s hydrologic water balance was used to estimate the water supply,
while water demand is estimated endogenously based on functional relationships
between water and productive uses in different sectors (e.g. irrigated
agriculture, domestic-industrial areas, wetlands, fisheries, and hydropower).
Optimization was based on maximizing economic benefits of water use while
keeping the balance between water supply and demand.

Ringler et al. (2006) used a holistic approach in analyzing the water

allocation to generate options for water policy reform in the Dong Nai River
Basin for optimal, sustainable, efficient and equitable utilization of water
resources. There were three components in the modeling framework:
hydrologic components which include the water balance in reservoirs, river
reaches, and crop fields; economic components which include the calculation of
benefits from water uses by sector, province, and demand site; and institutional
rules and economic incentives that affect the hydrologic and economic
components. As a similar approach to Ringler and Cai (2006) water
supply is determined through the hydrologic water balance in the river
system, and water demand is determined endogenously within the model based on
functional relationships between water and productive uses. The optimization
objective was to maximize economic benefits to water uses in irrigated
agriculture, domestic and industrial uses, and hydropower and environmental
requirements to control saltwater intrusion were included as flow constraints.

Schoups et al. (2006) developed a spatially distributed simulation-

optimization model to investigate conjunctive management of surface water and

24
groundwater resources to alleviate the effects of droughts on the profitability and
sustainability of irrigated agriculture in Yaqui Valley,

Mexico. The simulation model consists of an agronomic component and

simulators describing the hydrologic system and profit maximization problem was
formulated and solved using large-scale constrained gradient-based optimization.
The decision variables of their objective functions include crop area,
groundwater pumping and reservoir release. Optimization was based on
maximizing the profit from irrigation district while keeping the reservoir spills
minimum.

Ward et al. (2006) designed and constructed an integrated basin wide

nonlinear programming model for the purpose of optimizing water allocations in
Rio Grande Basin. The objective of their study was to conduct an integrated
economic-hydrologic-institutional analysis of policy responses to mitigate
drought impacts. Their integrated model was formulated as a mathematical
optimization problem, using the sum of benefits from basin water diversions for
off-stream uses and benefits of in-stream use recreation as the objective.
Total water-related benefits were estimated as a quadratic function of
consumptive use and recreational benefits of reservoirs were assumed as a
quadratic function of storage.

Pulido-Velazquez et al. (2006) presented a modeling framework for the

economic optimization of conjunctive use in a water resource system by
efficiently integrating distributed parameter groundwater simulation and dynamic
stream-aquifer interaction within the overall model for the Adra River system in
Spain. They defined the objective function to be minimized as the sum of the
economic losses derived from water shortages in the consumptive demands plus
the variable operating costs such as pumping costs in order to optimize the net
benefit of water use in the system.

25
Article Review: -
Article-1
A new paradigm for water? A comparative review of integrated, adaptive
and ecosystem-based water management in the Anthropocene

Article-2
Overcoming the land–water disconnect in water-scarce regions: time for
IWRM to go contemporary

Article-3
Integrated water resources management: unified process or debate forum

Article-4
Can integrated water resource management be of value to business,
specifically the oil and gas sector

Article-5
Integrated water resources management: horizontal and vertical explorations
and the „water in all policies‟ approach

26
 CHAPTER -3

DATA ANALYSIS & INTERPRETATION

On an average, India receives about 120 cm of precipitation in a year, mostly
as rainfall. .On volume basis this is 394.5 million hectare metre (m. ham). (let us
take 400 m. ha m as an approximate figure). The main source of precipitation is
rainfall. India is a vast country in the world compared to any other country having
an annual rainfall of about 117 to 120 cm. Rainfall over the entire country during
monsoon is nearly 75% of the mean annual, while during pre-monsoon and post -
monsoon seasons the country receives almost the same amount of rainfall which is
about 10 to 11 % of the mean annual. In January and February the country receives
just about 3.5% of the mean annual rainfall and it is mostly confined to Jammu &
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Po.jab, North-West U.P., North Bengal and Assam.
Different monsoons is shown below in Tables 1 & 2 respectively.

Table 1 .Rainfall distribution In various states of India (in mm)

Sl. States Meteorological Rainfall

No. Sub-divisions
1 Andhra Pradesh Costal 935
Telangana 891
Rayalaseema 893
2 North Eastern Arunachal Pradesh 3736
States Assam 2423
Nagaland 2065
3 Bihar Plateau 1490
Plains 1267
4 Gujarat Gujarat 1002
Saurastra 590
5 Haryana Haryana 772
6 Himachal Pradesh Himachal Pradesh 1971
7 Jammu & Jammu & Kashmir 967
Kashmir
8 Karnataka Costal 3366
27
 North Interior 837
South Interior 914
9 Kerala Kerala 2961
10 Madhya Pradesh West 1144
East 1470
11 Maharastra Madhya 706
Marathwada 780
Vidarbha 1124
Konkan 2871
12 Orissa Orissa 1486
13 Punjab Punjab 760
14 Rajasthan West 465
East 937
15 Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu 1008
Pondichery 1335
16 Uttar Pradesh East 873
Plains 806
Hills 1840
17 West bengal Sub-Himalayan 3079
Gangetic 1846

Note: The above mentioned figures are based on the total rainfall received
from June to September during 1977-78.

On the basis of these, different regions of the country can be divided into
three categories viz., high rainfall areas, medium rainfall areas and low areas. The
areas receiving above 1,150 mm annual rainfall are high rainfall areas, those
receiving between 750 and 1,150 mm are medium rainfall areas and the areas with
annual rainfall below 750 mm are low rainfall areas.

28
Table 2 .Distribution and extent of rainfall through different monsoons

Sl.No. Time & type of monsoon % of rainfall

1. South West monsoon (June to Sept) 75

2. Post monsoon season ((Oct to Dec.) 10 – 11

3. Winter season ( Jan to Feb) 3-4

4. Pre-monsoon season ( Mar to May) 10-11

IV. Types of Water Resources Based on Uses

According to the uses water resources may be classified into three main
groups.

1. For consumptive uses

2. Partially consumptive uses

3. Non consumptive uses

1. Consumptive uses

Irrigation, urban and rural water supplies are grouped in this ' category, since, in
these situations, water is directly consumed by living beings.

29
2. Partially consumptive uses

Use of water for domestic and industrial purposes, thermal and nuclear
power generation, etc. are partially consumptive as, a part of the water can be
renewed for reuse after proper conditioning.

3. Non-consumptive uses

This includes the quantity required for hydro-power generation, navigation,

pollution control, recreation, preservation of fish and wild life etc.

V. Water Resources in India

According to the placement, water resources of India are : divisible into two
distinct categories:

A. Surface water resources

B. Ground water resources

The precipitation that falls on land is the ultimate source for both the
categories of water resources.

A. Surface water resources

When rain falls, a sizable portion is intercepted by the vegetation, or
temporarily detained in surface depressions. When the available interception or the
depression storages are completely exhausted and when the rainfall intensity at the
soil surface exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soils, the over land flow begins.
This water reaches the rivers, streams, lakes, surface reservoirs, darns, etc. Our
irrigation mainly depends on surface water resources. Runoff water from streams

30
and rivers is stored in reservoirs or is diverted directly through canal system for
irrigation. Water re- sources region can be planned on the basis of river basins.

1. River systems in India

Rivers are the main source of surface water. A river basin has well defined
watershed boundary and also has relationship with ground water resources in most
of the cases.

India has been divided into six river basins for the purpose of assessment of
the available water resources. The following table will present the location,
climatological factors, annual run-off and approximate volume of water of these
six river basins. These are:

a. Indus basin

b. Ganga system

c. Brahmaputra system

d. East coast

e. West coast and

f. Rajputana region

31
 Table 3 -Different river basins of India

Sl. Important State in the Cath Avge Total Mean Avg Volume
No River region Ment Annual Precipi- Tempe Annual Of
. basin Area Precipi Tation - Runoff Water
(m ha) Tation M ha Rature M ha M ha
M ha metre metre metre
O
metre C

1 Ravi, J & 35.40 56.00 19.82 1260 07.94 04.93

Beas, Kashmir,
Punjab
Sutlej
Haryana

Himachal
prade

2 Ganga, U.P. Bihar, 97.60 111 108.3 16.80 48.96 18.50

Yamuna M.P

Chambal Rajasthan &

gogra West Bengal

Guwduk,
Kosi

3 Brahmapu Assam, 50.62 122 61.72 08.20 38.08 1.23

tra, Meghalaya,

Subausiri, Nagaland
Manar
West Bengal
Teest

32
4 Cavery, Madhya 121 109 131.9 26.1 41.19 33.80
Krishna, Prades
Godavari,
Bihar,
Mahanadi
Orissa,
,
Subarnare West Bengal
kha
A.P.
Damodal
Maharastra

Karnataka

Tamil Nadu

5 Tapti, Gujarat, 49.16 122 59.98 25.5 31.06 6.92

Narmada, Kerala
Mahi,
Maharastra
Sabarmati
Karnataka

6 Luni & Rajasthan 16.80 29.00 04.87 26.2 - 1.22

Ghagaoa

7 Total 370.6 --- 386.7 --- 167.2 66.6

1

The assessment of this surface reservoir is also calculated by lots of

assumptions on run-off, rainfall temperature etc. So this resource can be an
approximate figure. All these water resources cannot be utilized due to the
limitations imposed by the physiographic factors.

33
 Surface water stored in reservoirs or diverted directly is distributed for
irrigation through the canal irrigation network. A canal starts either from a water
storage dam or diversion darn. Irrigation water flows through the complete canal
system before it reaches the farmer's field to be irrigated. The canal network
consist- of canals, distributaries, water courses and field channels.

B. Ground Water Resources

The main source of ground water is rainfall. However, ground water
recharge is supplemented by other sources such as seepage from canals and field
channels, ponds, tanks, effluent drainage from rivers, deep percolation from
irrigated fields, etc. A part of any of these water sources that infiltrates into surface
soil may continue to move laterally at a shallow depth. This water which flows
below the soil surface may eventually reach the stream channel. This flow of water
below the surface is called sub surface run off. A part of the sub surface run-off
may enter the stream promptly, whereas the remaining part may percolate deeply
into the soil and remain above the water table in the zone of saturated flow. This
water table shows the upper level of ground water in the earth.

The total run-off in the stream channel includes the melted snow, the surface
run-off, the sub surface run-off and the ground water run -off. The portion of run-
off water, after infiltration reaches the ground water table, together with the
contribution made to ground water from a neighbouring basins, effluent rivers,
natural lakes, ponds, artificial storage reservoirs, and canals irrigations r constitutes
the ground water resources.

This whole process is diagramatically explained below Figure 2

1. Ground water regions or India

The availability and development potential of ground water in India on the

basis of geological consideration can be described under the following three broad
categories:

a. Unconsolidated rocks

b. Semi-consolidated rocks
34
 CHAPTER - 4

CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION

1. Check water logging

It is one of the major problems in water management. The concept of plant

available water capacity enables one to avoid application of excess water which
further helps to minimize water- logging along with salinity and alkalinity.
Frequent irrigations maintain high soil moisture regime but it depends on the
method adopted for irrigation.

2. Drainage

To avoid water logging condition and salt accumulation, the field should be
provided with a proper drainage system. The drainage provides suitable
environment to the development of plant root system and helps in optimizing crop
production.

3. Disiltation of tanks

Siltation of tanks and reservoirs both traditional and modem, has added to
the gravity of problem of surface water management. It reduces the storage
capacity of the reservoir or tanks and increases in the volume and velocity of
floods. Disiltation may be difficult for the big reservoirs but this can be easily
practised in tanks, ponds, ditches etc.

4. Ground water management

Management of surface water and ground water are equally important in

water harvesting and recycling. In areas that greatly depend on ground water for
their irrigation requirement, should be ensured that crops are provided with water
during the critical period of their growth. For this exploitation of ground water
should be managed in a balanced manner.

35
 Total amount of precipitation received is constant, and it‟s economical use is
the only way to increase production. At present, 29% of the total precipitation is
lost through surface run-off and 53% through infiltration. For better management
of ground water, the ultimate aim is to increase from 53% of the total precipitation
moving into the soil to 100 per cent. This will recharge to ground water.

Ground water availability gets considerably reduced due to increased

exploitation and poor recharge conditions. Therefore, proper water balance
between availability, recharge and exploitation should be maintained. For this, a
proper study and planning is very necessary"

5. Watershed management

Watershed is the geographical area from which the entire surface run-off
originating due to the rainfall coverage flows through the existing drainage system
towards a common outlet Let us say, it is a small catchment area in which the
excess water of that particular region resulting from run-off is conserved either by
check darns or by gully plugs or through percolation ponds.

An important planning input is watershed management is to conduct the

ground water study. This study is undertaken to assess the ground water status, soil
types and water stored at various depths. With this information it will be possible
to plan properly the optimum utilization of the available water.

The above discussion underlines the fact that in the face of anticipated
population growth and technological advancement, the country's utilizable water
resources are limited and there is no ground for complacency in the matter. There
is utmost need for laying maximum emphasis on conservation and most efficient
utilization of the available water resources. Technological and management
capabilities will have to be upgraded for this purpose.

36
 CHAPTER - V

REFERENCE

1. Walmsly, N., & Pearce, G. (2010). Towards Sustainable Water Resources

Management: Bringing the Strategic Approach up-to-date. Irrigation &
Drainage Systems, 24(3/4), 191–203.
2. ^ USGS - Earth's water distribution
3. ^ Fry, Carolyn The Impact of Climate Change: The World's Greatest
Challenge in the Twenty-first Century 2008, New Holland Publishers Ltd
4. ^ "Extend access to water with the help of technology. [Social Impact].
DESAFIO. Democratization of Water and Sanitation Governance by Means
of Socio-Technical Innovation (2013–2015). Framework Programme 7
(FP7)". SIOR, Social Impact Open Repository.
5. ^ Grafton, Q. R., & Hussey, K. (2011). Water Resources . New York:
Cambridge University Press.
6. ^ Molden, D. (Ed). Water for food, Water for life is A Comprehensive
Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture. Earthscan/IWMI, 2007.
7. ^ The World Bank, 2006 "Reengaging in Agricultural Water Management:
Challenges and Options". pp. 4–5. Retrieved 2011-10-30.
8. ^ Chartres, C. and Varma, S. Out of water. From Abundance to Scarcity and
How to Solve the World’s Water Problems FT Press (USA), 2010
9. ^ "GES knowledgebase". Global Economic Symposium. Retrieved 2016-02-
16.

37