Animal and Physiology Test 1 Review

Anatomy- Structure Physiology- Functions of living organism

Atomic<Molecular<Cellular<Tissue<Organ<System<Organism

Homeostasis-Walter Cannon “dynamic equilibrium”

Glycolipids on external layer/cholesterol found in membrane

Integral proteins- transmembrane, serve as transporters

Peripheral proteins- attached to integral proteins, enzymes

Glycocalyx-attach to proteins, helps identify individual types of cells

Membrane junctions- Tight junctions-adjacent membranes fuse (impermeable)

Desmosomes- Anchoring junctions (permeable)
Gap Junction- plasma membranes close, but don’t
touch(communication)

Inclusions-non-functioning chemicals: glycogen granules, lipid droplets, melanin granules

Peroxisomes- detoxify stuff

Ribosomes- contain rRNA, (attached to rough ER), make proteins
ER- encloses cisternae
Golgi Apparatus- packages proteins and proteins from rER
Lysosomes- digest from endocytosis
microtubules-largest, determine overall cell shape and placement of organelles
Microfilaments-thin strands of actin, interact with myosin, form cleavage furrow
Intermediate filaments- tough protein fibers, help prevent cells from being pulled apart
Passive transport if small, lipid soluble, or have a carrier molecule

Osmotic pressure- pressure to prevent entry of a solvent

osmolarity- total concentration of all solute particles in solution
Hydrostatic pressure- back pressure exerted by water against membrane
Tonicity- ability of solution to change tone or shape of a cell
Hypotonic- lyses
Hypertonic- shrinks

Vesicular(bulk) transport- transported across membrane by exocytosis/endocytosis

Resting membrane Potential- K+ higher inside, Na- higher outside.

Contact Signaling- cells recognize other cells
Electrical Signaling- Results in alteration of voltage-gated channels
Chemical Signaling- Lingands such as neurotransmitters/hormones
Activates second messangers: G-proteins, cyclic AMP, Nitric Oxide

Isotopes- different mass #, same atomic #

Alpha particles- 2 protons plus 2 neutrons
Beta particles- like electrons
Gamma-electromagnetic energy

Molarity= moles/liter Molal= # of moles/kg solvent Osmolarity=sum of solute molarities

Ionic Bonds-electrons are transferred b/w atoms cations+anions

Covalent bonds- atoms share electrons
Reduced=gaining hydrogen atoms Oxidized= loses hydrogen atoms
Acid=whatever released H+ Base=proton acceptors pH=-log[H+]
Carbohydrates
Polysaccharides-long chains of simple sugars(starch and amylopectin)
Lipids
Saturated fat-solid at room temp Unsaturated- liquid at room temp
Phospholipids:
Glycerol Backbone, 2 fatty acids, 1 phosphorus containing group
Amphipathic-polar and non-polar region
Fatty acids non-polar Phosphorus group polar

Steroids-fat soluble, synthesized from cholesterol

Eicosanoids-lipids derived from arachidonic acid (prostaglandin)
Proteins-
contain C,N,H, and O. may contain S and P
Amino acids: amine group:-NH2 acid group:-COOH

Enzymes:
Proteins
Holoenzyme- apoenzyme (protein portion) and cofactor
Coenzyme-if it is a vitamin, called coenzyme
Structure
Primary-linear sequence (covalent bonding)
Secondary- coiled (hydrogen bonding) alpha helix or beta pleated sheet
 Tertiary- Secondary folded on itself into ball-like structure
Quaternary- 2 or more polypeptide chains aggregate

Collagen is a fibrous protein- most abundant in body. Contains 3 polypeptide chains

Nucleic Acids
Nucleosides- base + sugar
Nucleotides- nucleosides + phosphate
nitrogen containing base-adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, or uracil
pentose sugar
phosphate group

Muscle STUFF
Types:
Skeletal-voluntary and striated
Cardiac- occurs in heart. Involuntary, striated, intercalated discs
Smooth- involuntary, nonstriated, and visceral

CT wrappings:
Epimysium- CT around muscle
Perimysium- CT around bundles of muscle cells
Endomysium- CT around cells

Muscle fibers(multinucleated cell)>myofibrils>actin and myosin

Attachments:
Direct- epimysium fused to periosteum or perichondrium of cartilage
indirect- CT wrappings surrounding muscle extend as tendon
Band stuff:
A-band-(anisotropic; not equal) dark bands all myosin included
I-band-(isotropic; equal in refracting power) light bands Only actin
M-line- middle of thick filaments
H-zone-without actin (only myosin)
Z-line-line of actin
1 sarcomere= ½ I band, a-band, ½ I band
terminal cisternae-where A and I bands meets
Neuromuscular junction
Motor neuron
embedded in muscle fiber (trough in sarcolemma) and releases Ach
synaptic cleft
Subneural folds
Generation of AP across sarcolemma:
Sarcolemma polarized
Ach opens chemically regulated Na+ channels causing depolarization
Causes voltage-gated Na+ channels to open and AP is move across sarcolemma
Repolarization
Refactory period (AP is all-or-none response)

Destruction of ACh
Acetylcholinesterase- located on sarcolemma
myasthenia gravis- loss of nicotinic receptors
curare- blocks nicotinic receptors; used on poison arrows

Excitation-Contraction Coupling
Depolarization- signal propagation
Depolarize T-tubules
Electronic coupling to terminal Cisternae
Ca++ released into sarcoplasm
Ca++ bound to troponin-C
tropomyosin translocates-exposes myosin binding sites
binding actin+myosin head (ADP+Pi)
myosin head changes shape (release ADP+Pi)
Induces a shift or rotation-pull actin
ATP binds to myosin head
head detaches
ATP hydrolyzed
head tilts and attaches to another site on thin filament
Calsequestrin: removes Ca++ from cytoplasm
Acetylcholine broken down by acetylcholinesterase
organophosphate insecticides and phosphate esters (nerve gas) inhibit muscle spasm
(diaphragm--- Death)
curariform drugs- binds postsynaptic membrane and blocks Ach action (no AP
Botulinus toxin- blocks release of Ach from synaptic bouton-flacid

Types of contractions
Concentric-muscle shortens
Eccentric- lengthening
Isometric- same length but increase tension
 Isotonic- same tension, but length changes

motor unit- all the muscle fiber innervated by single motor neuron, fine control requires small
motor units
Muscle twitch
latent period-time needed for excitation coupling
period of contraction
period of relaxation
graded responses
frequency of stimulation/strength of stimulation
Summation
wave(temporal)
Treppe: staircase effect
Muscle is normally slightly contracted
spinal reflexes from stretch receptors
Muscle metabolism
stored ATP- lasts about 4-6 secs interactions of ADP w/creatine phosphate, stored
glycogen via anaerobic glycolysis, aerobic respiration
Phosphorylation of ADP by CP… Creatine phosphate + ADP  creatine + ATP

Anaerobic Glycolysis and Lactic Acid Formation

Pyruvate produced from glycolysis is converted to lactic acid
produces 5% as much as aerobic, but 2.5 times faster
2 ATP/glucose, can provide short term energy

Aerobic Respiration
Provides 95% of ATP
occurs in mitochondria; called oxidative phosphorylation
Glucose+O2 CO2 + H2O 36 ATP/glucose

Muscle fatigue
muscle glycogen- can supply glucose independent of blood glucose
muscle fatigue- physiological inability to contract
due to relative deficit of ATP
lack of ATP causes contractures (constant contraction-writer’s cramp)
excessive lactic acid also causes fatigue
Force of contraction
# muscle fibers contracting
relative size of muscle- larger muscles can generate greater tension
series-elastic elements- collectively all noncontractile structures
contractile elements in parallel w/elastic components(sarcolemma,CT)+series
elastic components(tendons, ligaments) means stretch of SEC before
work “smooth action”

Muscle Fiber Type

slow oxidative
slow contracting, slow fatigue (posture), large # mitochondria, use ATP slowly,
red meat, because of myoglobin
Fast Phasic Glycolytic Fibers
rapid contraction and fatigue, used for rapid response, ATP from glycolysis, white
meat
Fast Phasic Oxidative Fibers
quick contracting, but slower fatigue, high mitochondria, flight muscles of birds

White muscle fibers-large in diameter, few mitochondria/low myoglobin, few capillaries,

high glycogen content
Red muscle fibers-smaller diameter, high mitochondria, high myoglobin, many
capillaries, low glycogen content

Smooth muscle- small, spindle shaped, single nucleus, no CT sheath but has endomysium,
usually in sheets (such as in GIT)
no neuromuscular junction
innervating nerves have varicosities forming diffuse junction
SR less developed; T-tubule absent
Caveoli-infoldings of plasma membrane w/high calcium
no visible cross striation
ratio thick:thin filaments lower than skeletal muscle
no troponin or sarcomere

Contraction
calcium comes from SR
Combines w/calmodulin which then activates myosin light chain kinase
myosin then binds to actin
 sequester calcium to end contraction

Regulation of contraction
neural
Ach/NE
Chemical
Hormones, lack of oxygen, excess CO2
Mechanical

Special features of Smooth muscle contraction

response to stretch- bladder, stomach
Length and Tension-can be stretched more than skeletal and still generate force
Hyperplasia-increase in #, Hypertrophy-increase in size (ex:uterus as fetus grows)

Types of smooth muscle

Single unit-visceral, gap junctions, functional syncytium, can generate spontaneous APs
Multiunit-in large airways, arteries, internal eye muscles
structurally independent