SUBSONIC AERODYNAMICS ASPECT RATIO

Vortex generators transfer energy from the free airflow High Aspect Ratio
into the boundary layer. Reduced drag
Vortex generators change laminar flow into turbulent Increased lift
flow.
Reduced critical alpha
Transferring energy from free airflow into boundary
layer delays the forward movement of the separation Reduced downwash behind trailing edge
point with increasing alpha. Increased effective alpha
Turbulent flow is thicker than laminar flow. Reduced induced angle?
Lift and drag forces acting on a wing cross section
depend on the pressure distribution about the wing GROUND EFFECT
cross section.
Entering Ground Effect
The mean aerodynamic chord for a given wing of
any planform is thre chord of an equivalent untwisted, Decreased downwash & downwash angle
rectangular wing with the same pitching moment and Decreased induced alpha & induced drag.
lift characteristics as the actual wing. Increased CL & lift
The greater the downwash, the greater the lift being
generated by the aerofoil.
Leaving Ground Effect
Geometric “Washout” describes twisting of the wing
along its length, so that the angle of attack at the tip is Increased downwash & downwash angle.
less than at the root. Increased induced alpha & induced drag.
Friction drag is lower in the laminar layer. Decrease CL & lift.
The turbulent layer is ticker, has more kinetic energy
and is better able to resist separation. A large reduction in CDI will occur when the aircraft is
Increased speed = Decreased alpha and decreased half a wingspan above the ground.
induced drag.
Induced drag varies with the square of the increased FLAPS
in lift.
Fowler flap increases the wing area and the wing
CDI varies with CL2 camber. CD will also increase.
Elliptical wing planform most efficient but most Any amount of flap will increase drag
expensive to build.
An increase of TE flap will increase CLMax
Induced drag is not significantly changed by flap
extension. Large TE flap angles are used for landing

The strength of wing tip vortices increase as the aspect Fowler flap is the most efficient TE flap
ratio is decreased Flap deployment results in a most down moment from
the wing and a nose up moment from the tail.
A high tail produces a reduced nose up moment than
a low tail.
Slotted flap directs high energy airflow from the lower
surface of the wing to the upper surface of the flap.
Slotted flap gives a greater increase in CLMax with a
lower increase in drag.
HIGH SPEED AERODYNAMICS
The speed of pressure wave propagation is called the
Local Speed of Sound.
Local Mach number will always be higher than
freestream Mach number.
A shockwave will form as soon as MCRIT is exceeded.
There is no shockwave at MCRIT.
MCRIT is inversely proportional to mass.
Increase Alpha = Decrease MCRIT.
Mach tuck can be prevented by using Mach trim.
Subsonic range ends at MCRIT
The supercritical wing characteristics include large
nose radius, flatter upper surface and negative &
positive camber.
The supercritical shape delays the formation of large
shockwaves above Mcrit
Vortex generators energise the boundary layer and
decrease shockwave induced flow separation.
A Mach trimmer corrects insufficient stick force stability
at high Mach numbers.
Exceeding MCRIT in a swept wing aircraft may result in
buffeting and a tendency to pitch down.
The increase in stall speed with increasing altitude is
due to compressibility effects.
When shock stall occurs there will be flow separation.
The bow wave will first appear at a speed just below
M1.0.
In supersonic flight a straight wing has a lower DC than
a swept wing.
A thinner wing will give an increased MCRIT
Wave drag above MCRIT consists of energy drag and
boundary layer separation.
MCRIT is reduced by wing sweepback, decreased
mass, thin aerofoils & area ruling.
Shock stall occurs because of flow separation at any
angle of attack.
Shock stall occurs when the lift coefficient reaches its
maximum value.
TUCK UNDER
Tuck under is the tendency for the nose of the aircraft
to drop at high Mach numbers.
Tuck under is cause by the aft movement of the CP
and as a result of reduced downwash angle at the
horizontal stabiliser.
Normal Shockwave – (More Change)
Decrease in velocity to subsonic.
Great decrease in airflow energy
Increase in pressure, density, temperature and local
speed of sound.
Increasing mass increases shockwave intensity.
Increase alpha, increase shockwave intensity.
Oblique Shockwave – (Less Change)
Airflow changes direction
Decrease in Velocity but remain supersonic.
Decrease in airflow energy.
Increase in pressure, density, temperature and local
speed of sound.
When Mach number increases (towards drag
divergence Mach number) the normal shockwave
moves aft and the coefficient of lift increases.
In the transonic speed region the Lift/Drag ratio will
decrease.
Increase alpha, increase shockwave intensity.
EXPANSION WAVE
Increase in velocity
Decrease in pressure, density, temperature and local
speed of sound.
WING SWEEPBACK
Increasing wing sweepback increases MCRIT.
Increasing wing sweepback increase drag divergence
number.
Drag divergence is the speed at which the coefficient
of drag rises rapidly.
BUFFET
During a push over manoeuvre the buffet free range
increases.
Buffet free range decreases with increasing mass.
PROPELLERS
Asymmetric Blade Effect
Asymmetric blade effect is mainly induced by the
inclination of the propeller axis to the relative airflow.
It occurs when the propeller axis is not in line with the
airflow through the propeller. The down going blade
has a higher blade alpha and produces more thrust.
Asymmetric blade effect on a CW propeller causes
left yaw.
Asymmetric blade effect increases with increasing
engine power.
Asymmetric blade effect increases when the angle
between the propeller axis and the airflow through the
propeller increases.
Propeller angle of attack increase with increasing RPM.
Propeller noise increases with increasing tips speed.
Propeller noise decreases with an increasing number
of propeller blades.
GEOMETRIC PITCH
Geometric pitch is the theoretical distance a propeller
would advance in one revolution at zero blade angle
of attack. (How much it would move forward through
a solid instead of air).
Geometric pitch is a distance not an angle.
A coarser pitch has a greater geometric pitch.
Effective pitch is how much the propeller actually
advances in air with slippage.
PROPELLER EFFICIENCY
Increasing propeller blade chord length increases the
power absorption and thrust but decreases aspect
ratio and efficiency.
Propeller icing increases blade element drag and
reduces blade element lift.
Propeller Efficiency is defined as usable power
available of the propeller and shaft power.
Variable pitch prop improves its efficiency over a wide
speed range.
Fine pitch is for lower airspeeds. Coarse pitch is for
higher airspeeds.
Propeller gyroscopic effects occurs during pitch and
yaw changes.
Propeller gyroscopic effects are created at high
propeller RPM. (Even higher is the plane is moving
slowly at high RPM eg Take Off)
The torque effect make the a/c roll in the opposite
direction to the propeller when viewed from behind
on the take off run. Eg. RH prop: left roll…. Left yaw
when in the climb.
THRUST
Thrust increases away from the root but return to zero
at the tip.
GYROSCOPIC EFFECT
URRD: Pitch Up : Right Yaw, Right Yaw, Pitch Down
Propeller gyroscopic effects occurs during pitch and
yaw changes.
Propeller gyroscopic effects are created at high
propeller RPM. (Even higher is the plane is moving
slowly at high RPM eg Take Off)
PROPELLER ANGLES
Blade alpha of a fixed pitch propeller is increase when
the TAS decreases.
At a given TAS, blade alpha increase with RPM.
A feathered propeller blade angle is 90 degrees.
Blade angle reduces from root to tip.
FLIGHT MECHANICS
Rate of turn varies with TAS and bank angle.
To fly a particular rate of turn at a higher TAS, the bank
angle must be increased.
As AoA increases the CP moves forward
CG moves forward as fuel is used.
Weight acts through the CG.
If the CP is behind the CG, in straight and level flight the
tailplane must provide a downforce. Lift must equal
the lift + the downforce of the tailplane.
LIFT
Lift and WeightxCosGamma act perpendicular to the
flight path.
Lift acts through the CP.
Lift drag ratio is between 10:1 and 20:1.
During a steady climb lift is less than weight and load
factor is less than 1.
In descent lift is less than weight and thrust is less than
drag.
Lift in climb or descent = Weight x CosGamma.
Lift in a turn = Load Factor x Weight.
Lift in a Turn = 1 / Cos Bank Angle x Weight
In a turn at 45 degree bank angle, the lift and
centripetal force are equal.
If lift doubles, load factor doubles.
DRAG
Drag, thrust and WeightSinGamma act parallel to the
flight path.
Increasing drag increases the glide angle and
decreases glide range.
CLIMB ANGLE
Sin Gamma = Gradient /100
The best angle of climb is where the difference
between excess thrust available and drag is the
greatest.
Climb angle reduces with increasing weight, altitude
and temperature.
DESCENT
Weight x SinGamma = Weight Apparent Thrust
Weight apparent thrust acts parallel to the flight path.
Weight x Cos Gamma acts perpendicular to the flight
path.
GLIDE
In a glide there is no thrust. The forward component of
of weights drives the descent.
Glide distance = height change x LD ratio
The forward component of weight increases with
increasing descent angle.
At a higher weight the a/c will glide the same distance
but ROC will be higher.
High rate of descent can be achieved by closing the
throttles and lowering the nose and increase drag
(spoilers).
Min rate of descent of the glide is at VMP but will not
give the best range.
The descent angle of a given aeroplane in a steady
wings level glide has a fixed value for a certain
combination of configuration and angle of attack.
TURNING
Centripetal force causes the aircraft to turn.
As angle of bank increase the AoA must also increase
to maintain level flight.
Radius of turn in independent of weight and a/c type.
Rate 1 turn is 180 degrees per minute or 3 degrees
per second.
Angle of bank required = TAS/10 +7.
A steeper bank angle reduces the radius of the turn
and increases the rate of turn.
A given TAS will give a specific rate of turn in any a/c.
If TAS is doubled, radius is x4
If TAS is doubled rate of turn is halved.
Load factor is a factor only of bank angle.
Induced drag increases in a turn.
ENGINE FAILURE
Uncoordinated flight is caused by adverse aileron yaw,
engine torque, gyro precessions, asymmetric flight.
VMC varies with temperature and density.
The two most important parameters to determine
the value of VMCG are engine thrust and rudder
deflection.
VMCG reduces with an increase in field elevation and
temperature as the thrust developed by the operating
engine is less.
VMCL is the minimum control speed for approach
and landing.
VMCL is determined with landing flap extended and
trimmed for all engines operating.
IAS is the vital element in the control of the aircraft with
asymmetric thrust.
If the critical engine fails a higher IAS is required to
maintain control.
On a 4-engine jet, either outboard wing will be a critical
engine.
Banking towards the live engine is limited to 5 degrees.
Yawing to counter the failed engine increases parasite
drag.
Banking method gives less parasite drag and greater
rudder authority and allows a lower VMCA.
Asymmetic rolling is greater if flaps are extended.
Ability to climb can be reduced by 80% with a failed
engine.
Factors affecting roll and yaw moments on asymmetric
thrust:
VMCG
During determination of VMCG, the aircraft may not
deviate more than 30ft from the runway centre line.
VMCG is only considered for take off.
VMCG determination permits rudder control only – no
nose wheel steering.
During VMCG determination the CG should be on the
aft limit.
LOAD FACTOR
Load factor limits:
Aerobatic: 6g
Utility: 4.4g
Light: 3.8g
Transport: 2.5g
Transport with Flaps Extended: 2.0g The tail plane generates positive longitudinal static
Load Factor in a Turn = 1 / Cos Bank Angle
GUST LOAD FACTOR
Gust Load Factor is a measure of how much the value
of lift changes in turbulence.
A high gust load factor = bumpy ride, a low gust load
factor = smooth ride.
When the wing area increases the gust load factor
increases.
An aircraft travelling at a lower alpha will experience a
higher gust load factor than an aircraft travelling at a
higher alpha.
When the EAS increases the gust load factor increases.
Gust load factor increases with wing area.
Wing loading is the ratio of Weight/Wing Area
A smaller wing area, gives a higher wing loading.
A high wing loading gives a smaller increase in load
factor.
The greater the side slip, the greater the fin angle of
attack.
Excessive side slip can cause fin stall.
Following an engine failure, increasing side slip gives
decreasing rudder effectiveness.
STABILITY
Lateral stability is motion about the longitudinal axis.
Directional stability is motion about the normal axis.
Longitudinal stability is motion about the lateral axis.
SLATS
Slats are the most effect leading edge devices.
Slats delay the stall until a higher angle of attack.
Slats are normally installed at the wing tips and LE flaps
installed at the wing roots.
STATIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY
Longitudinal static stability is created by the CG being
located in from of the neutral point.
The fuselage has a negative contribution to the static
longitudinal stability of a conventional jet transport
aircraft.
A statically unstable aircraft can never be dynamically
stable.
Static longitudinal stability exists when the change in
total aircraft lift acts aft of the centre of gravity.
stability.
A statically stable aircraft has its neutral point aft of its
CG.
The wings contribution to static longitudinal stability
depends on CG location relative the wing’s
aerodynamic centre.
A forward CG gives more longitudinal static stability.
An aft CG gives less longitudinal static stability.
A CG location beyond the aft limit can cause an
unacceptably low value of the manouvere stability.
The neutral point is the CG location that gives the
aircraft neutral longitudinal stability.
The aft CG limit is the lowest amount of static
longitudinal stability acceptable.
The foreword CG limit is the lowest amount of
manoeuvrability acceptable.
Engines mounted underwing will produce an
destabilising effect.
STATIC LATERAL STABILITY
Positive static lateral stability is the tendency of an
aeroplane to roll to the left in the case of a side slip.
Wing sweepback provides a positive contribution to
static lateral stability.
Anhedral wing design decreases lateral static stability
Stock Position Stability
A decrease in IAS requires a pitch up input from pilot.
A high wing configuration produces more lateral
stability than a low wing.
A ventral fin reduces static lateral stability.
Dutch rolls occur when lateral stability is strong and
directional stability is weak.
Spiral dives occur when static directional stability is
strong and static lateral stability is weak.
Static lateral stability increases with increasing altitude.
STATIC DIRECTIONAL STABILITY
Static directional stability is the tendency for an aircraft
to recover from a skid without input from the pilot.
Aspect ratio does not influence directional stability.
Excessive directional static stability makes aircraft
prone to spiral dive (spiral instability).
A dorsal fin provides positive contribution to directional
stability.
STICK FORCE STABILITY
Stick forces vary with stability.
High stability = high stick forces.
Moving CG aft decreases the amount of stick force
required.
Stick forces per g decrease with altitude because
there is less aerodynamic damping.
Installing a bob weight on the front of the control
column will pull the stick forward. The force it creates
at 1g will double at 2g.
A bob weight and a down sprint both increase stick
forces when the stick position is aft.
CONTROL
Servo tabs, horn balances and spring tabs all reduce
stick forces.
The purpose of a trim tab is to reduce stick forces to
zero in steady flight.
The stick is not connected to the control surface. Stick
movement moves the tab, and the forces created
move the control surface.
ELEVATOR
If a servo-tab elevator jams in flight, the pitch control
sense will be reversed.
Elevator trim systems are more sensitive to flutter.
Elevator trim tabs create more drag than stabilisers.
Aircraft manoeuvrability increases with increasing IAS.
In differential aileron control systems, the up going
aileron has larger deflection that the down going
aileron.
At high IAS a spring tab acts like a servo tab.
Take-off stabiliser trim setting is affected by flap setting;
CG position & actual TOM.
Mass Balancing prevents flutter.
A horn balance decreases stick forces and helps the
pilot to move the control surface.
TRIMMABLE STABILISER
THS is capable of enabling much large CG range.
THS is less sensitive to flutter.
THS cope better with the use of high lift devices.
THS trim runaway is more serious than elevator trim
THS is able to compensate larger changes in pitching
moments.
ARTIFICIAL FEEL SYSTEM
The primary input for an AFS is IAS.
ADVERSE YAW
Adverse Yaw is the tendency of the aircraft yawing in
the opposite direction to the roll due to the different in
induced drag on each wing.
Frise ailerons reduce adverse yaw.
The leading edge of the up going frise aileron protrudes
from the underneath of the wing to cause extra drag.
Differential ailerons reduce adverse yaw.
The up going differential aileron travels further than the
down going aileron.
CONTROL
VB Design Gust Speed (66ft/sec gust load allowance)
VA Design Manouvering Speed (VS1 x Square root of
the limiting load factor)
VC Design Cruise Speed (50ft/sec gust load allowance)
VD Dive speed (25ft/sec gust load allowance)
“Wing Loading = Weight / Wing Area
Small wing area = smaller increase in lift & smaller
increase in load factor.
Higher airspeed = larger gust load factor
Decrease in wing loading gives an increase in gust
load factor.
Decrease in altitude will increase gust load factor.
Resistance to wing flutter increases with increasing
wing stiffness.
Excessive free place reduces the speed at which
control surface will occur.
There is a min and max speed to fly in turbulence. VRA
is the speed to fly at in turbulence.
Flaps deployed the aerodynamic efficiency of the
wing is achieved.
Lowering flaps increases stall margin but decreases
max strength margin.
At higher airspeed the aerodynamic forces will be
greater.
Structural failure speed must be higher than VD
Wings will oscillate slightly in turbulence.
Control surface flutter can be prevented by moving
the CG of the control surface to the control surface
hinge line. This can be done by placing a mass
balance ahead of the hinge line.
At low speed, wing twist from aileron displacement will
have a negligible effect.
At high speed, wing twist from aileron displacement
will have a significant effect.
High speed aileron reversal occurs when the wing twist
has a greater effect than the aileron input.
The wing tip is most sensitive to high speed aileron
reversal.
Outer ailerons only work when the flaps are down.
Inner ailerons always work.
VMCG decreases with increasing airfield elevation.

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