Physics Notes For Tenth Class by Muhammad Arif Rattar

FAMCY Educational institute of computer English Language and coaching center
Created by Dr Asif Rattar

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CHAPTER NO 1
INTRODUCTION OF PHYSICS
Topics of the Chapter
a) Introduction of physics
b) Classification of science
c) Branches of physics
d) Most famous Muslim scientists
INTRODUCTION OF PHYSICS:
Definition:
"It is branch of science which deals that the study about
energy and matter interaction between them is called Physics."
Energy: Ability of doing work or capacity of doing work is called
energy.
Matter: Any thing which occupies space and mass is called matter.
Classification of Science:
Matter: Any thing which occupies space place and carry mass is called
matter.
STATE OF MATTER
(1) Gas: It has no shape and has no volume.
(2) Liquid: It has no shape and has volume.
(3) Solid: It has shape and has volume.
(4) Plasma: It is a mixture of gas, solid and liquid is called
Plasma.
BRANCHES OF PHYSICS
Composed by M Arif Rattar

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1. Mechanics: It is branch of Physics in which, we study about the
motion of particles or bodies is known as Mechanics.
2. Electricity: It is branch of Physics in which we study about the
involving electric charges and effected is called Electricity, the
charges are rest motion.
3. Electromagnetism: It is branch of Physics in which we study about
the electricity which produced by magnetic field.
4. Solid-State Physics: It is branch of Physics in which we study
about the property of crystalline material only, that is of material
constituent in atoms are arranged in three dimensional.
5. Nuclear Physics: It is branch of Physics in which we study about
the structural properties and reaction between the nuclei atom.
6. Atomic Physics: It is branch of Physics in which we study about
the structure and properties of atoms, theses atom are present in the
nucleus.
7. Plasma Physics: It is branch of Physics in which we study about
the properties of highly ionized atom forming a mixture of bare nuclei
and electrons.
8. Bio Physics: It is branch of Physics in which we study about the
application of physical methods and types of explanation to
biophysical system.
9. Astro-Physics: It is branch of Physics in which we study about the
properties and structure of stars and planets. It is also called
Astronomy.
MOST FAMOUS MUSLIM SCIENTISTS
ABU-ALI HUSSAIN IBN-AL-HAITHAM:

He was born in 965 A.D... He was born at Basra a
historical city of Iraq. He was great scholar of Physics, Mathematics,
engineering astronomy and medicine. He worked on optics. It is branch
of Physics. His famous book was "Kitab-ul-manazir". He wrote the most
wonderful chapter of this book is on human eyes. According to this book
"the light on entering the eye makes it emit light rays, which on hitting an
object make the object visible to the eye". Some of the incident light rays
are reflected from the object and enter the eye. He constructed a pinhole
camera and he managed to obtain an image of a "sun eclipse" with its
help. He was first scientist to give two laws of reflection of light to the
world. He was died in 1039 A.D…
AL-BERUNI:
The most famous scholar of the golden age of Islam Al-Beruni
was born in a small town "Berun" in present day Afghanistan 973 A.D…

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He wrote a many book under the age of seventy five years. Such are
subject as Mathematics Cosmology, Physics Geography, History,
Culture, Civilization, Archaeology, Comparative Religions, Geology,
Chemistry and Biology. Al-Beruni discussed the measurement of earth,
the shape of earth, the movement of sun and moon. The phase of the
moon and the movement of the moon were known "Planets". Planets
about writing the book are "Qanoon-Al-masoodi". He gave the method of
determing the longitude and latitude of a place. He also determined the
densities of metals. He measured the circumference of the earth.
YAQUB KINDHI:
The famous Arab Philosopher Yaqub Kindhi was born 900
A.D. in Basra. He produced extensive research monographs on
meteorology, specific gravity and especially work is reflection of light.
He discussed about musical instruments. He discovered a method express
the notes of music in term of frequencies. In addition to sound he also
worked on geometrical optics. One his work optic was translated in Latin.
MUHAMMAD BIN MUSA KHWARZIMI:
He was born in 780 A.D. in the city of Khwarzimi.
He was member of institution of learning the "Bait-ul-Haikmat". The two
monographs Hisab and Aljabar-wal-Maqabla. He introduced the method
of counting based on numbering and decimal system. One important
feature of Khwarzimi is algebra is that he is used in geometrical
construction for the first time for solving various algebraic problems. He
was died in 850 A.D. in the age of 70 years.
NASUR- UD-DIN- MUHAMMAD BIN HASSAN TUSI:

The famous Muslim philosopher, Mathematician and
scientist Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad Hassan Tusi was born in the city of
Iran in 1201 A.D… He was the minister of Halaku Khan.
DR: ABDUL QADEER KHAN:

He was born on 1st April 1936 A.D. at Bhopal in
India. He obtained M.Sc technology degree from Holland. He was
selected as research Assistant in the same university. His PhD degree was
from leaven Belgium. He worked expert at Urenco enrichment plant in
Holland. After returned to Pakistan, the former engineering research
laboratories have been named as "A. Qadeer laboratories". He awarded
from "Hilal-i-Imatiaz" by the Govt: of Pakistan.

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DR: ABDUS SALAAM:

He was born in Jhang a district in the Punjab (Pakistan) in 1926 A.D…
His college education from Govt: college Lahore". He passed every examination with
distinction. His better results, he was awarded Govt: scholarship for advanced studies
in U.K. He came back to Pakistan in 1950 A.D… He was awarded noble prize in
Physics in 1979 A.D… For his work is in "Grand Unification Theory"(GUT). They
are engaged in their own countries by joining with "Elites of Physics".

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CHAPTER 2
MEASUREMENT
Topics of the chapter:
(a) Introduction of Measurement
(b) Fundamental Physical Quantities
(c) Fundamental Units
(d) Derived Physical Quantities
(e) Derived Units
(f) Systems of Measurement
(g) International System of Units of Measurement
(h) Measuring Instruments
(i) Problems of chapter
INTRODUCTION OF MEASUREMENT:
It is the study of any body or any things
measure in the physical quantities is called Measurement.
Fundamental Physical Quantities:

These quantities which have used to express or
measure the measure the earth or surface of any thing and measure the
period at observation or experiment is performed is called Fundamental
Physics Quantities.
Fundamental Physical Units:

The units used to express or measure in fundamental
physical quantities are called Fundamental Physical Quantities.
There are three Fundamental Physical Units. They are:
(1) Mass
(2) Length
(3) Time
Derived Physical Quantities:
These quantities which have derived from
fundamental physical quantities are called Derived Physical quantities.
Derived Physical Units:

The units used to express or measure in Derived
physical quantities are called Derived Units.
SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT:
There are three systems of measurement. They are:
(1) C.G.S

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(2) F.P.S
(3) M.K.S
CGS System:
Centimeter, Gram and Second are fundamental physical units of
length, mass and time. In CGS system, the derived unit of force is Dyne.
1Dyne= 1g×1cm/sec:
F.P.S System:
Foot, Pound and Second are fundamental physical units of length,
force and time. It is British Engineering System. In FPS system the
derived unit of mass is slug.
1slug= 1P×1F/sec
MKS System:
Meter, Kilogram and Second are fundamental physical units of length,
mass and time. In MKS system the derived units is force.
1Force=1kg × 1m/sec2.
International System of Measurement:

It is introduced in 1960 A.D. in the conference of
International System of Measuring of weigh, time and length in Paris. It
is also called S.I Units of measurement. In this MKS system is upgraded
and made S.I system. The fundamental or Basic units length (L), mass
(M), time (t), electric current (I) temperature (T), luminous intensity (I υ)
and amount of substance (n) are meter (m), kilogram (kg), second (sec),
ampere (A), Kelvin (K), candela (cd) and mole (mol).
These quantities are listed in table with the symbols
Table SI Base/Fundamental Units

No. Physical Quantity Name Symbol
01 Time Second s
02 Length Metre m
03 Mass Kilogram kg
04 Amount of substance Mole mol
05 Thermodynamic Kelvin K
temperature
06 Electric current Ampere A
07 Luminous intensity Candela cd

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The Derived Units:
These derived units are obtained from the fundamental units.
For example: volume of box is equal to length × height that is meter ×
meter = m2
Meter is fundamental quantity; so meter cube is derived units. Similarly
speed, acceleration, force, density, area etc are derived quantities and
their units are derived units
The Derived unit speed (v), acceleration (a), volume (V), force (F),
pressure (P), work (W) and charge (Q) are meter/second (), meter second2
(m/sec2), meter cubic (m3), Newton (m.kg/sec2), Pascal a (N/m2), Joule j
(Nm), coulomb C (A.s)
Some derived quantities and their derived units with their symbols are
given below:
These quantities are given in the table on next page.
TABLE SI DERIVED UNITS

S.no Derived Quantity Symbol Unit Unit symbol
01 Speed v Meter/second m/sec
02 Acceleration a Meter/second2 m/sec2
Volume V Cubic meter m3
04 Force F Newton N(m.kg/sec2)
05 Pressure P Pascal Pa(N/m2)
06 Work W Joule J(N.m)
07 Charge Q Coulomb C(As)
Smaller and bigger units or prefixes units
Bigger Units Smaller Units

Deca- D - 101 Pico – P- 10-12
Hecto – H – 102 Nano – n – 10-9
Kilo – k – 103 Micro – µ – 10-6
Mega – M – 106 Milli – m – 10-3
Giga – G – 109 Centi – c - 10-2
Tera – T- 1012 Deci – d – 10-1
Example: 2.1
Data
L= 2.52 cm

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(i) mm =
(ii) m= ?
We know that,
(i) 1cm = 10 mm
2.52 cm = 2.52 × 10
= 25.2mm Ans
(ii) 1cm = 0.01 m

2.52 cm = 2.52 × 0.01
= 0.0252 m Ans
Example: 2.2
Data
Wave length = 7000 × 10-10 m

(i) µm =?
(ii) mm = ?
We know that,
(i) 1 m = 106 µm
= 7000 × 10-10 × 106 µm
= 7000 × 10-4 µm Ans
(ii) 1 m = 103 mm
= 7000 × 10-10 × 103mm
= 7000 × 10-7 mm Ans
Example: 2.3
Data
Mass = 3.635 g
(j) µg =?
(ii) mg = ?
(iii) kg = ?
We know that,
(i) 1 g = 106 µg
3.635 g = 3.635 × 106 µg
= 36350000 µg Ans
(ii) 1 g = 103 mg
3.635 g = 3.635 × 103 mg
= 36350 mg Ans

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(ii) 1 g = 10-3 kg
3.635 g = 3.635 × 10-3 mg
= 0.03635 kg Ans
MEASURING INSTRUMENT:
Those instrument or apparatus that used
for measurement, physical quantity and duration of event time is called
measuring instrument.
VERNIER CALLIPERS
An ordinary meter rod can measure a distance upto 7mm. to measure
distances smaller than this the instruments are used. It is used to measure
a distance accurately up to 0.1mm. A vernier calliper consists of
rectangular steel bar whose one side is graduated in cms. It is known as
"main scale". A small scale consisting of 10 division which slides over
the main scale is known as "vernier scale."
VERNIER CONSTANT OR LEAST COUNT (LC)

Vernier constant or least count is the minimum distance that can be
measured with the help of vernier calliper. It is the difference between the
value of one main scale and one vernier division.
10 vernier division = 9 main scale
= 9 mm
1 vernier division = 9mm
10
= 0.9 mm
Least Count = difference between main scale and vernier division.
= 1 mm – 0.9 mm
= 0.1 mm or 0.01 cm
Formula of Least Count:
LC = Value of smaller division
Total no: of division of VS
= 1 mm
10
= 0.01 mm
MICROMETER-SCREW-GAUGE
The vernier callipers can measure up to 1/100 of a cm. It consists of a
solid U- shaped frame F of metal. It has a fixed studat with plane
roundend and other end B. B passes a fine and accurately cut screw S
having a plane roundend. A cap fit on the screw-division 50. Scale
graduated in millimeter on the nut of screw. Parallel to the axis of the
screw and is called "Linear main scale".

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PITCH OF SCREW
It is the distance of b/w the two consecutive thread of the linear screw. It
is measured by the distance travelled by the circular scale on main scale.
During one complete solution of the circular scale.
Formula:
Least count = Pitch of screw
No: of division on the Circular scale
L C = 1 / 2 mm = 1 = 1 mm
50 2×50 100
= 0.01 mm or 0.001cm
PHYSICAL BALANCE
It is common device that used for to find the mass of object. It consists of
a horizontal beam resting at its middle point on a central knife edge. Two
similar pans are suspended on two more knife edges near each end of the
beam. A long pointer capable of swinging on a scale PS attached to the
middle of the beam the physical balance is leveled on a table by means of
leveling screw. The beam is set free by rotating the knobat the front of the
balance. The pointer moves towards the side smaller mass by means of
two adjustment screw. Standard mass in the pan is adjusted to find the
mass of the object.
STOP WATCH
If we are interested to measure time intervals for event we use a special
watch known as "Stop Watch". Scales of minutes and seconds hand in it
are on a circular dial. Stop watch is set at zero. Pressing and releasing the
Knob. The Knob B is pressed and released again the watch start. The
second hand complete one rotation of sixty seconds, the minute. Hand
advance by division.
MEASURING CYLINDER
It is a glass cylinder with a scale in cubic centimeter or milli- (ml)
marked on it. It is used to find the volume liquid. When a liquid is
poured, it raises certain height in the cylinder. The level of liquid in the
cylinder is noted and the volume of liquid obtained. The cylinder lies on
horizontal table.

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25 ml
20 ml
10 ml
05 ml
MEASUTMENT-OF-AREA
It object is regular shape their area. The area of a rectangular object is

determined by finding its length and breath.
The area of circular shaped object can be calculated by measuring its

radius and then applying formula.
π = r2
.: π = 3.14 or 22
7
The area is expressed in sq: meter.

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MEASUREMENT OF VOLUME
h Y-axis→
Z-axis→ W L
↑
x- axis
V = height × length × width
Volume is the space occupied by an object. Solid has a regular shape. The
volume of a rectangular block is founded by measuring its length, breath
or width and height.
Volume of block =(length × breath × height) or (l × b × h).

The volume of a sphere of radius r is equal to 4/3 π r2
Cross section π r2
Radius
The S.I unit of volume is cubic meter (m3). Volume o f liquid is
expressed in litres.
1 liltre = 1000 cm3
1 liltre = 1000 ml
CHAPTER 3
SCALARS AND VECTORS
a) Introduction of Scalar and Vector
b) Representation of a Vector
c) Negative of a vector
d) Addition of vectors by Head to Tail rules
e) Subtraction of vectors
f) Trigonometry
g) Resolution of vector
h) Addition of rectangular component of vectors
SCALAR:

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Those physical quantities which have only magnitude but no
direction are called Scalar, only numbering or suitable units are called
scalar quantity.
Example: speed, volume, mass, time, work, density, length, temperature,
distance.
VECTORS:
Those physical quantities which have magnitude and direction for
their complete description is called vector, these directional quantities are
called vector quantity.
Example: Displacement, Velocity, Force, acceleration, momentum etc
It is denoted by "arrow (→)" and arrow shows vector quantity.
We write as give an arrow upto the capital letter as given below:
A has vector and magnitude

A Only magnitude
REPRESENTATION OF A VECTOR:
• Graphically, a vector quantity denoted by direction of a vector.
North
West East
South
• The length of the arrow on certain scale represents the magnitude
of the vector and arrow gives the direction of vector.
5 cm
Tail Head
A
• The velocity of 500 km/h due east is represented by the direction
line OA
Scale = 1 cm =
100 Km/h
= 5 cm =
500 km/h
Three types of vector of direction
X-axis direction
Y-axis direction A
Z-axis direction
y-axis F

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30° θ
x-axis
z-axis
Required the vectors

1. x-axis direction
2. y-axis direction
3. Force of direction
4. Angle
NEGATIVE OF A VECTOR:
A
-A
These vectors which have same magnitude but its direction is opposite to
that of vector A is called "Negative vector".
ADDITION OF VECTOR:
The adding of vectors two or more than two but they have
different in direction is called Addition of vector.
ADDITION OF VECTOR BY HEAD TO TAIL RULE METHOD:
• The sum of vectors is different from that of scalar addition.
• While adding vectors we have to take cover direction, In addition
to magnitude.
• The sum or resultant vector of two or more vectors is a single
effects as the combine effects of all the vectors.

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R=A + B
• if we have two vectors A to B their resultant vector is R .
SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS:
In the order to subtract a vector from another vector the sign o f the
vector to be subtracted is changed and then adds to their vector.
For Example:
If vector B is subtracted from vector A.
A–B
A – B = A + (- B)
A–B=A–B
A B
-B
A -B
A–B AB = AB + BC
AB = A + (- B)
AB = A – B
TRIGONOMETRY:
It is important branch of mathematics, and it is used to
solve various problems in physics it we denoted angle of vectors and
direction. It introduced by Muhammad Bin Musa Khwarzmi
Tri + gono + metry = three + angle + measurement.
B
Hypotenuse perpendicular
θ Triangle
O A
Base

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The ratio between two sides of the right angled triangle is represented by
different names
1. Sine θ
2. Cosine θ
3. Tangent θ
Sin θ = AB = Perpendicular
OA Base
Cosine θ = OB = Base
OA Hyp:
Tangent θ = AB = Perpendicular
OB Base
TABLE OF TRIGONOMETRIC RATIO
S.no Angle Sin θ Cos θ Tan θ
01 0° 0 1 0
02 30° 0.5 0.866 0.577
03 45° 0.707 0.707 1
04 60° 0.866 0.5 1.73
05 90° 1 0 0
RESOLUTION OF VECTORS:
A vector has into its components. The process of slitting
a vector into its parts is called resolution of vector. These parts may
acting different directions and are called "the components of that vector."
We can resolve a vector into a number of components, but generally a
vector is resolved into two components at right angle to each there are

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called "rectangular components." The component along horizontal
direction is called "Horizontal component of the vector". The component
along vertical direction is called "Vertical components of the vector".
B
y-axis
F Fy
Fx
O x-axis
A
.: Fx, Fy
There are two rectangular components. Such Fx, Fy of vector F
.: Fx = OA = Base = Cos θ
OB Hyp:
Fx = F Cos θ → (1)
It is a horizontal component.
.: Fy = AB = perpendicular = Sin θ
OB Hypotenuse
Fy = F Sin θ
→ (2)
It is vertical components.
ADDITION OF RECTANGULAR COMPONENT OF VECTORS:
We have two perpendicular vectors AB and BC, denoted by

Fx and Fy.
F Fy
A B
Fx
AC = AB + BC
F = Fx + Fy
As, ABC is a right angled triangle
AC = √ (AB)2 +(BC)2
F = √(Fx)2 + (Fy)2

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Resolve the direction and angle
Tan θ = Fy
Fx
θ = tan-1 Fy
Fx
CHAPTER NO 4
KINEMATICS
a) Kinematics
b) Rest
c) Motion and its types
d) Distance, Speed and its types
e) Displacement, Velocity and its types

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f) Acceleration and its types
g) Deceleration
h) Three equation in Kinematics
1. vf = vi +at 2. s = vit +1/2 at2 3. 2as = vf 2 – vi 2
i) Motion under gravity (Free fall motion)
KINEMATICS:
It is the branch of the mechanics which deals with the study of
motion of objects without reference to the force or agent is called
"Kinematics"
For Example: Motion of car, walking of man and motion of ball etc.
REST:
A body does not change its position but remain same place.
OR
If a body does not change their place from A point to B point is
called "Rest".
MOTION:
A body changes its position but not remain same place.
OR
If a body changes its position from A point to B point
OR
An object change their position from one place to another place is
called "Motion"
TYPES OF MOTION:
There are three types of motion. They are:
1. Translatory Motion
2. Rotation Motion
3. Oscillatory (Vibratory) Motion
TRANSLATORY MOTION:
A motion of a body in which every particles of the body is
being displaced by the same amount is called Translatory motion.
OR
An object moves a straight path.
A B
EXPLANATION:
A car is moving a straight path A to path B but this path is
straight path
ROTATION MOTION:
When an object spins or rotates about a fixed point or axis its
motion is called rotational motion.

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Example :(1) Earth rotates in own axis.
(2) An electron rotates in orbit around the nucleus.
OSCILLATORY (VIBRATORY) MOTION:

Such a motion to fro motion of an object about mean
position is called Oscillatory motion. OR A motion is here and there
motion is called Oscillatory motion.
Sample Pendulum
EXPLANATION:
When a pendulum swings from one side to other side and
back the motion of pendulum is to and fro motion. The motion of
pendulum is example
DISTANCE, SPEED AND ITS TYPES:
Distance:
Two points or line which has magnitude but no direction is
called Distance.
A B
100 m
It has scalar quantity and it is denoted by "s"
Speed and its types:
Total distance covered per unit time is called Distance.
OR
The ratio of total distance covered by total time is called
Distance
100 m
A B
60 sec
It has scalar quantity
Equation:

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Speed (v) = total distance covered (s)
Total time (t)
v = s_
t
Its SI unit is m/s
(1) Average speed:
Total distance covered in average by interval time is
called average speed.
Vav = s_
t
DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY AND ITS TYPES:
Displacement:
The two points have direction and as well as magnitude
is called Displacement.
OR
Shortest distance between two points is called Displacement.
North
A
West
East
South
Velocity and its types:
Velocity:
Total displacement covered per unit time is called Velocity.
OR
The time rate change of displacement is called Velocity.
It is a vector quantity and it denotes by "V"
Mathematically we can be written by
V = S_
T
That means the speed of the body in different direction is its called
velocity.
It is a vector quantity and its S.I unit is m/s
Average Velocity:

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Total displacement is covered in interval time is called
average velocity.
Vav = Total displacement covered
Total time OR
Vav = S_
T
Acceleration and its types:
Acceleration: The rate of velocity is called Acceleration. OR if a body is
moving a velocity with respect to time is called acceleration
Explanation: If the speed is increasing then acceleration is positive. If
the speed is decreasing then acceleration is negative or retardation. The
positive acceleration is same direction. The negative acceleration is
opposite direction.
Acceleration is a vector quantity.
Velocity (+ve) Velocity (+ve)
+ ve
– ve Negative Acceleration
Mathematically formula
a = ∆V
∆t
a= V a = Vf – Vi
t t
.: ∆V = Vf – Vi
There are two factors in acceleration.
1. Initial Velocity (Vi)
2. Final Velocity (Vf)
The unit of acceleration in S.I system m/s2 or ms – 2
Uniform Acceleration:
If a velocity body is moving a along a straight line
changes uniformly in equal time. OR If a body moving with uniform
velocity is called uniform acceleration.
Average Acceleration:
The ratio between total change in velocity and time is
called average acceleration
.: a av = ∆V
∆t
Deceleration or Retardation:

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If a car is moving with its acceleration , when driver
apply the bricks the deceleration or retardation is produced.
Equation in Kinematics:
There are three equations in Kinematics.
1. Vf = Vi + at
2. s = Vit + 1/2 at2
3. 2as = Vf 2 – Vi 2
First equation:
If an object is moving with uniform acceleration and its velocity
change initial velocity (Vi) to final velocity (Vf) in time interval t
Vf = Vi + at
Solution
Vf = Vi + at .: a = Vi – Vf
t
a = Vi –Vf
t
by cross multiplication
at = Vi – Vf
Change the side of Vi
at + Vi = -Vf
Now the change side of Vf
Vf = at +Vi
And now rearrangement of at + Vi
Vf = Vi + at Hence proved
Second Equation:
A body starts with an initial velocity Vi and moves for t
second with a acceleration so that final velocity become Vf. We find the
distance
S = Vit +1/2 at 2
Solution
S = vt .: V = Vi +Vf
2
S = Vi + Vf × t
2
S = Vi + Vi + at ×t .: Vf = Vi+ at
2
S = 2 Vi + at ×t
2 2

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S = Vit + 1 at 2
2
S = Vit + 1 at2
2 Hence proved
Third Equation:
It is related to motion. Initial velocity, the final velocity,
acceleration and distance traveled
2as = Vi 2 + Vf 2
Solution
S = Vt .: V = Vf +Vi & t = Vf – Vi
2 a
S = Vf + Vi Vf – Vi
2 a
S = Vf 2 - Vi 2
2a
By cross multiplication
2as = Vf 2 – Vi 2
2as = Vf 2 – Vi 2 Hence Proved
Motion under Gravity (Free fall motion):

If we drop a body from certain height. It falls to the ground with a
velocity continues to increases till it.
It was introduced by the Galileo an Italian scientist dropped several
bodies from tower in Pisa. Acceleration is freely falling body is called
acceleration is due to gravity and denoted by "g". Its value is 9.8 m/s 2
These three equations will be applied in the free fall motion.
1. Vf = Vi + gt
2. s = Vit +1/2 gt 2
3. 2gs = Vf 2 – Vi 2
CHAPTER NO 5
FORCE AND MOTION
(a) Force
(b) Newton's Laws of Motion
(c) Mass and Weight

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(d) Momentum and Law of conservation of momentum
(e) Friction
(f) Rolling Friction
FORCE:
It is an agent which the changes or tends to change the state of
rest the motion of a body is called Force.
Its S.I unit is Newton or N.
Unit of Force:
The unit of force is Newton (N= kg.m/s 2). It is denoted by
N. It can be defined as fellows: "A force which produces an acceleration
of one metre per second on a mass of one kilogram is known as one
Newton"
Newton's Laws of Motion:
There are three laws of motion. Now we discuss about
these laws of Newton.
Newton's First Law of Motion:
This law states that "Every object continues its state of rest
or uniform motion in a straight line, unless it is act upon by an external
force"
OR
If the total force of object is zero, its centre of mass continues is in the
same of the motion.
Example: A book lying on the table will remain their for ever in the
same position unless some one comes and removes it position.
Conclusions:
1. Force is an agent which produces or tends to produce a change in
the state of rest of motion.
2. All material object posses the property of opposing any change in
their state of rest or uniform motion. This property is known as
"Inertia" Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist a change in its
state is called "Inertia".
Therefore the first law of motion is also called the law of inertia.
Newton's Second law of Motion:
This law state that "When force is applied on a object, it will be produce
acceleration in its own direction." Force is directly proportional to the
magnitude of force and inversely proportion to the mass of the object.
F F
A a A a

A B
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Different force acting on the same mass
F F
a a
Mathematically we can be written
Acceleration is directly proportional to the Force and mass is constant.
Same force acting on the different masses
a ∝ F(Mass is constant) → (1)
Mass is inversely proportional to the acceleration and force is constant.
a ∝ 1/ m (Force is constant) → (2)
Combine both equation (1) and (2)
a ∝ F/m
Now remove the sign of the proportionality and use constant K.
a = K F/m
The value of K is 1.
Therefore a = 1. F/m
OR F = ma
The unit of force is the Newton (N= kg/m 2).
Newton's Third law of Motion:
This law state that "Every action there is equal and
opposite in the reaction." OR action or reaction of forces but opposition
in the direction of motion.
• Both reaction and reaction between the forces.
For Example: Let a person throws a ball on a wall. The ball bounces
back is due to the reason that the ball exerts a certain force on the wall.
This is called action of the ball on the wall. In response the wall also
exerts a force of the same magnitude on the ball which is called reaction
of the wall on the ball, and hence the ball bounces back.
Action of the ball
F
Reaction of the wall
Mass and Weight:
Mass:
.: m = F/a
The ratio between force and acceleration is called mass.

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It has inertia. Mass has no direction so it is scalar quantity. Mass of body
is remain constant.
The S.I unit of mass is kilogram and this can be measured in laboratory
by an ordinary balance.
Weight:
F = ma
a = g (g = gravity)
W = mg
The force by which is the earth attracts to the body toward centre. The
mass body is m and its acceleration is due to gravity. Weight of body is
not remain same. Direction is always toward centre of earth.
It is due to this attraction that the bodies which are not too far from earth's
surface, fall with the same acceleration. This acceleration is called the
acceleration due to gravity and is denoted by g. since weight is force
therefore the second law of motion (F = ma)
DIFFERENT BETWEEN MASS AND WEIGHT:
Mass Weight
1. The quantity of matter in 1. Weight is the force

a body is called its mass. It with which earth
is the measurement of attracts a body towards
inertia possessed by a body. its centre. If the mass of
It is that property of a body the body is m and its
which determines the acceleration due to
acceleration produced in it gravity is g, its weight
under the influence of given W is given by W = mg.
force i.e a = F/m
2. Mass has no direction. 2. Weight is always
directed towards the
centre of the earth.
3. The mass of the body 3. The weight of body
remains constant every is not a constant
where, whether it is quantity as its value is
measured at a point for different at different
away from the center of the distances from the
earth or close to its centre. center of the earth.

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MOMENTUM AND LAW OF CONSERVATION OF

MOMENTUM:
Momentum:
Momentum is defined as the "product of mass and velocity
of object and its denoted by P". The property of moving object is called
momentum. The S.I unit of momentum is kg.m/s and it is vector quantity.
Momentum is the direction of velocity.
P = m. v
For example: A bullet has a mass of 10 grams and a speed of 1000 m/s
but despite its small mass it is difficult to stop.
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

"The momentum of an object of an isolated
system always remains constant is known as law of conservation of
momentum."
Isolated System:
The system which is not act upon the external force is
called isolated system.
Explanation: Consider a system consisting of two ball of masses m1 and
m2 moving in straight line, with velocities u1 and u2 (u1 > u2). On colliding
with each other they move with velocities v1 and v2.
The total momentum of the system before collision
= m1 u1 + m2 u2 -------------- (1)
m u1 m u2
1 2
Now collision of the system

m m
1 2

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After collision the momentum of the system

= m1 v1 + m2 v2 ---------- (2)
m V1 m V2
1 2
Combine both equations

m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 +m2 v2
Law of conservation of momentum
m1 u1 – m2 v1 = m2 u2 – m2 v2
m1(u1 – v1) = m2(u2 – v2)
FRICTION:
If a body is slide over to other the body of surface OR if a body
is made to side over the surface
OR
If a body is made to slide over the surface of another body of motion is
opposed by the force of friction due to roughness of the two surfaces.
FœR
Where "R" is reaction of body
F = μ R-------- (1)
μ=F
R
Meu (µ) is coefficient of friction.

If normal reaction is equal to the weight of the block.
R = mg .: W = mg
F = μ mg
Co-efficient of friction is constant for a given pair of surfaces. For a
different pair it has a different value. Values of µ for some pair of
surfaces are given in the table.
Object ( dry surface) Co-efficient of friction

Between wood and wood 0.3
Between wood and stone 0.4
Between metal and metal 0.2
Between wood and leather 0.4
Between road and rubber tyre 0.7

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ROLLING FRICTION:
A spherical ball rolling it experience an opposite force
called rolling friction.
OR
When a body rolls over the surface, the force of friction is called
rolling friction.
For Example: The rolling friction between steel surface is 1/100 of the
sliding friction between these surfaces. Besides, in rolling friction the
contact surfaces is much les than that in sliding friction.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Friction:

Advantages of Friction: Friction is very useful of our daily life. In the
absence of friction motion would not have been possible. When we walk,
we push the ground backward and the ground gives us a reaction in
forward direction. This is possible because of friction. When we stop a
moving car or bicycle, we again use the force of friction between the
wheel and the road.
Disadvantages of Friction: The main disadvantage of friction is that it
produces heat in various parts of the machines there by some useful
energy is wasted as heat energy. Similarly, cars, buses, and trains lose
part of their energy is overcoming friction.
Methods of Reducing Friction:
Friction can be reduced by adopting the following methods.

(i) The various parts of the machines which are moving over
one another are properly lubricated.
(ii) In machines the sliding of various parts is usually replaced
by rolling and this is done by using bail bearing.
(iii) Where sliding is unavoidable a thick layer of greasing
material is used between the sliding surfaces.
(iv) The front of the fast moving objects e.g cars, aeroplanes are
made oblong to minimize air friction.

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CHAPTER NO 6
STATICS
(a) Introduction of Statics
(b) Resultant of Two Forces
(c) Resultant of Two Forces at an Angle
(d) Equilibrium
(e) Torque or Moment of a Force
(f) Condition of Equilibrium
(g) States of Equilibrium
(h)Centre of Gravity
(i) Centre of gravity of Irregular Shaped Objects
INTRODUCTION OF STATICS:
Definition: It is the study of the bodies at rest under no: of force, the
equilibrium is called Statics.
RESULTANT OF TWO FORCES:

Let us consider a body. Two forces F1 and F2 are equal
in magnitude, are acting on it in opposite direction along the same line.
The body remains at rest under the influence of these forces. If the forces
were unequal the body would move towards the stronger one. The net
effect of the forces is a single force which is called resultant of the
friction of the forces.

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F1 F2
Equal forces acting on body
F1 F2
Unequal forces acting on body
The two forces may act on the body making certain angle with
each other
F1
F
F2
Resultant force (F)
RESULTANT OF TWO FORCES ACTING AT AN ANGLE:

In case of the forces can be represented in the magnitude and
direction by two adjacent side of a parallelogram. The resultant force is a
vector represented by the diagonal from the point of intersection. This is
called the parallelogram of forces. In head-to-tail rule we draw force F1
from the terminal point of force F2. to get the resultant forces FR, we draw
a vector from the initial point of the force F2 to the terminal point of the
force F1. This is the same force as obtained from the parallelogram of
forces
F1
F2

=============================================================
F1 FR
F2
EQUILIBRIUM:
Two equal forces are acting on body in the opposite
directions is called Equilibrium. When they are in rest or motion. If the
two forces F1 and F2 are equal and opposite and acting along the same
line.
There are two types of Equilibrium.
(1) Static Equilibrium
(2) Dynamics Equilibrium
(1) Static Equilibrium: The body forces acting remain same as in rest is
called static equilibrium.
Explanation: The book lying on a table as a book at a rest. The body is
acting on the horizontal direction.
(a) Two forces act upon the book, the force of gravity downward and
equal force by the table upward.
(2) Dynamics Equilibrium: The acting forces. There will in the motion
state is called Dynamics equilibrium. The body is acting on the vertical
direction to ward the earth. Two forces are not in equal. At torque is zero.
Explanation: Now consider the jumping of paratroops from the
areoplane. After jumping from the areoplane, the parachute is not opened
for some time. During this period the paratrooper falls freely downward
with acceleration due to gravity of earth. On opening the parachute, the
acceleration of the paratrooper will start decreasing due to reaction of air

=============================================================
on the parachute depends upon the velocity of the parachute. When this
velocity decreases the reaction of air will also decrease. At a particular
velocity the reaction of air on parachute becomes equal to the weight of
the paratrooper. At this stage both the forces cancel the effect of each
other and the parachute falls down with a uniform velocity. This is an
example of dynamics equilibrium.
(b) After a parachute opens and falls a certain distance, it moves
downward thereafter with uniform velocity.
TORQUE OR MOMENT OF A FORCE:

The turning effect of a force of body is
called torque. Moment of force or torque may be rotates an object in
clockwise or anticlockwise direction is called torque. The product of
force and the moment arm of the force.
Mathematically:
τ=F×d
Where " τ " is used for torque
τ = N.m
S.I unit of torque N.m
For example: Consider the example of opening of a door. It is commonly
observed that if a force F is applied at a point 'A' the door opens more
easily than if the same forces is applied at point 'B' it is concluded that
further the line of action of a force from the axis, greater is the torque. In
other words the torque depends on the distance between the line of action
of the force and the axis of rotation of the body. However, the distance is
the perpendicular distance between the axis and the line of action of the
force and the axis. If the same force F is applied at point A, not in a
direction perpendicular to the door, but in a direction which passes
through the hinges, the door does not open. The torque is zero, because
the perpendicular distance between the direction of the force and axis of
rotation is zero. Thus the torque depends on the perpendicular distance
between the axis of rotation of the body and line of the action of the
forces. This perpendicular distance is called the moment arm. To the

=============================================================
other factor on which the torque depends is the magnitude of the applied
force. It is commonly observed that greater the magnitude of the force
applied to the door at any particular distance from the axis of rotation,
easier it is to open the door. From the above consideration we may
conclude that the torque depends on two factors.
(1) The magnitude of the applied forces.
(2) The moment arm
CONDITION OF EQUILIBRIUM:
First of Condition of Equilibrium (Static Equilibrium):

According to Newton's second law of motion, we
know that if the net force acting on an object is zero the object has zero
acceleration. If an object that is at rest or moves with a uniform velocity
then the equilibrium is defined as "An object is in equilibrium when the
object has zero acceleration"
OR
"An object is said to be in equilibrium if the sum of all the forces acting
on it in one direction balances the sum of all the forces acting in the
opposite direction."
If two dimension x-axis and y-axis is equal to aero.
∑ Fx = 0
∑ Fy = 0
∑ it is symbol of sigma.
Second Condition of Equilibrium:
This condition net turning effect of forces acting on
the object must be also zero. if body apply two equal but opposite forces
at point x-axis and y-axis.
∑τ = 0
STATES OF EQUILIBRIUM:
There are three states of equilibrium, these are:

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(1) Stable equilibrium
(2) Unstable equilibrium
(3) Neutral equilibrium
(1) Stable Equilibrium:

"If a body returns back to its original position when it is
slightly displaced, then the body is said to be in stable equilibrium"
For Example: A book lying flat on a table is in stable equilibrium.
In stable equilibrium, when the body is displaced, the centre of gravity
is slightly raised and the weight of the body passes through base.
(2) Unstable Equilibrium:
"If a body not return to its original position when it is
slightly displaced then the body is said to be its unstable equilibrium."
For Example: A pencil placed vertically on table is unstable equilibrium.
In unstable equilibrium, when the body is displaced
slightly, the centre of gravity is slightly lowered and the weight of the
body does not pass through base.
(3) Neutral Equilibrium:
"If a body is slightly displaced. It does not come back to
its original position but occupies a new position similar to its original
position, then the body on said to be in neutral equilibrium."
For Example: If ball is pushed slightly to roll, it will not come back to
its original position. The new position of the ball is similar to original
position. In this case the centre of gravity is neither raised nor lowered
but it remains at the same height.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY:
"The centre of gravity is defined as a point at which the
whole weight of the body appears to act."
The centres of gravity of regular shaped bodies are:
(1) Sphere Centre of Sphere
(2) Circular Plate Centre of plate
(3) Uniform Rod Centre of Rod
(4) Triangular Plate Intersection of Medians
(5) Cylinder mid Point of Axis
CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF IRREGULAR SHAPED OBJECTS:

Centre of gravity shaped bodies is found by following rule.
• Centre of gravity lies below the point of suspension.
• Drill few holes near the edge of the plate. Suspend the plate by
passing nail through hole. A when the plate comes to rest draw
vertical line

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• Again suspend the plate by passing nail through the hole B and
when plate comes to rest draw the vertical line
• As centre of gravity (CG) lines below the point of suspension,
therefore it must be on the line. First line as well as on the second line.
The only point common to both the lines is the point of intersection G.
This must be the centre of gravity of the body.
CHAPTER NO 7
CIRCULAR MOTION AND GRAVITATION
(a)Circular Motion
(b) Uniform Motion
(c) Centripetal Force
(d) Centrifugal Force
(e)Gravitation
(f) Law of Universal Gravitation
(g)Mass of Earth
(h) Variation of g with Altitude
CIRCULAR MOTION:
The Motion occur in body by rotational with axis is called
circular motion
OR
If a body move with circular path is called circular motion.
For Example:
(1) Planets revolve round sun
(2) Electrons revolve round nucleus
(3) The Moon revolves round earth

=============================================================
In all the above examples, the force acting on the bodies changes the
direction of velocity and not the magnitude of velocity.
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION:
If a body moves with constant speed in a circle, then it is called
uniform circular motion.
Suppose an object is rotating in a circle with constant speed as shown in
fig: 7.1
Since the object is rotating with constant speed, therefore the magnitude
of velocity (Speed) is constant but the direction of velocity is
continuously changing which is along tangent at points x, y, z etc.
Since the velocity is changing (due to change in direction and not
the magnitude), therefore, the object is said to posses acceleration.
This acceleration is called centripetal acceleration and is written
as a, it is found that (1) ac is directly proportional to square of velocity,
and
(2) ac is inversely proportional to the radius of the circle.
If m be the mass, v be the speed of the object rotating in the circle of
radius r, then
ac = V2/r
(1)
The direction of this acceleration is towards centre of the circle or

perpendicular to the direction of motion.
CENTRIPETAL FORCE:
From Newton's 2nd law, we know that force produces acceleration
in its own direction. Thus centripetal acceleration is produced by a force

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having direction towards centre of the circle. This force is called
centripetal force and is written as F
According to the Newton's 2nd law
F = ma
Using the value of ac from eq (1) we get
Fc = mV2/r (2)
Suppose a ball of mass m is attached to one end of string and the other
end is held in hand. If the ball is rotated in a horizontal circle with
constant speed, then the hand is applying force on the ball through string
towards the centre of the circle. This force is centripetal force. If the
string breaks, then the ball will move along tangent.
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE:
According to the third law of motion the relation of the
centripetal force pulls the ball outward. This outward relation force on us
is called Centrifugal force.
The magnitude of the centrifugal force is equal to the magnitude of
the centripetal force but its direction is opposite.
Suppose a ball of mass m is attached to one end of a
string and the other end of the string is held in hand. If the hail is rotated
with constant speed in horizontal circle, then the hand is exerting force on
the ball forwards centre through string. This force is centripetal force.
Since to every action, there is an equal and the opposite reaction.
Therefore the ball is exerting an equal force on hand having direction
away from the centre of the circle. This force is called centrifugal force.
GRAVITATIONAL FORCE:
When a body or mass of object or ball is dropped
from the top of a building, it accelerates downward at 9.8m/s2 therefore a
force must be acting on it is called the force of gravitation or gravitational
force.
LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION:
It was isolated by Newton in 1666, so it is
some time says Newton’s law of universal gravitation. It is statement that
“Every body in the universe attracts every other body with a force which
is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to square of distance between their centers”.
Consider two spheres A and B of masses m1 and m2 with their
centers at a distance r from each other, then according to the law of
gravitation, the force of attraction F is A
B
M1 M2
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F
Then mathematically written as,

F α mr1m2 ------------------- (i)
F α 1/r2 ------------- (ii)
Combine both equation, we yet
F α m1m2/r2
F = G m1m2/r2
Where “G” is the constant of proportionality and is called gravitational
constant. Its value is 6.67×10-11N.m2/kg2.
MASS OF EARTH:
The mass of earth can be determined by help of
“universal gravitation law”. Let Me be mass of earth and R is its radius.
When body of mass m is placed on the surface of earth, then according to
law of gravitation, the force exerted by earth on the body is,
ME
According to universal gravitational law

F = G m1m2/r2
F = G ME m/R2 ---------- (i)
:. W= mg
:. a = g
Therefore F = mg
mg = GMe m
R2
g = GMe
R2
Where “g” is acceleration due to gravity.
g = GMe
1 R2
B. M. C
Me = g R2
G

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Now putting the value following in above formula Me mass of earth.
g = 9.8 m/s2
R = 6.4×106m
G = 6.67×10-11N.m2/kg2
Me = g R2
G
Me = 9.8×(6.4×106)2
6.67×10-11
VARIATION OFMe g WITH

= 6×1024 ALTITUDE:
kg
The value of “g” does not depend upon the mass of
body. The acceleration due to gravity depends upon the distance of the
body from the centre of earth.
Centre
Equatorial Radius Equatorial
Radius
If distance from the center of the earth is increased, the value of g will be
decreased. The value of g at the pole is greater than at equator between
the earth is not a perfect sphere. Its equatorial radius is greater than the
radius at the pole. If the distance is equal to twice the radius of the earth
from its surface. Its value will decrease to one2 ninth.

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CHAPTER NO 8
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
Topics of the Chapter:

(a) Work
(b) Energy
(c) Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy
(d) law of Conservation of Energy
(e) Need to Conserve Energy
(f) Power
WORK:
It is done when a force produces displacement in body
OR
The product of force and displacement is called work
Mathematically
W= F × d
W= F × S
It is vector quantity. Its components of force with direction
W=Fs ------------
F

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When force and distance are not in the same direction but force makes 1k
with the direction of motion then the work is calculated by multiplying
component of force along the direction of motion and distance.
W= F Cos θ × S
or W=FS Cos θ
Fy
F
θ Fx
F Cosθ
In S.I System, the unit of work is joule. It is defined as “If force of 1 N

moves body through 1 m in the direction of force, then the work is said to
be 1 J.”
ENERGY:
“The ability of doing work is called energy.”
The unit of energy is same as that of work i.e. joule.
There are various forms of energy. For example; chemical energy,
electrical energy, mechanical energy, heat energy, solar energy, nuclear
energy etc.
Here we shall study mechanical energy which may be
kinetic or potential energy.
KINETIC ENERGY AND POTENTIAL ENERGY:
Kinetic Energy:
“The energy due to motion of body is called kinetic
energy.”
Let us calculate the kinetic energy of a body of mass m moving with
velocity V.
Suppose the body is at rest on frictionless surface. A force F acts on the
body and moves it through a distance S in its own direction, such that the
final velocity of the body becomes V.
Now
W= F× S, But F= ma hence
W= ma × S
W=Fs ------------
m F m V

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Let us calculate S separately.

Vi =0 Now
Vf = V Vf 2 - Vi 2 = 2as
S=? or V2 – (0)2 = 2as
or V2 = 2as
or S = V2/a. Using it in eq W = ma × S, we
get
W = ma× V2/2a
or W = 1/2 mV2
Since this work is done by the force upon the body, therefore the body
possesses same kinetic energy. Hence
K.E = ½ mV2
Thus
(1) K.E is directly proportional to the mass of the body, and
(2) K.E is directly proportional to the square of velocity
Potential Energy:
“The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position is called
Potential energy.”
If a body of mass m is lifted through a height h against the force of
gravity mg, then the work on the body is mgh. This work is stored in the
body as its potential energy. Hence
P.E = mgh
In this formula h is the vertical height. The body may be carried from
ground to the height h through any path, the P.E remains same i.e. mgh.
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY:
Statement:
“Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but it can change
from one form to another form”
Let us verify law of conservation energy in the case of
mechanical energy (kinetic and potential).
Suppose a body of mass m is at which is height h above the ground
level C, B is a point distance x below A.
A
x
h-x
C
=============================================================
At A the body is at rest.

Therefore
K.E = 0
P.E = mgh, therefore, the total
energy E is
E = K.E + P.E
E = 0 + mgh
or E = mgh (1)
If the body is allowed to fall, then h decrease therefore
P.E decrease but since due to acceleration g, the velocity increase
therefore the K.E increases. Hence it can be said that P.E is converted
into K.E
When the body passes through B, then new height is (h-x). let
us find velocity V at B by using the equation of motion.
Vf 2 - Vi 2 = 2as
Or V2 – (0)2 = 2gx where a = g and s = x
2
V = 2gx Hence
at point B
K E = ½ mV2 = ½ m × 2gx = mgx
& P.E = mg (h-x) = mgh – mgx
Adding them we get the total energy at B as
E = K.E + P.E
Or E = mgx + (mgh – mgx)
Or E = mgx + mgh – mgx
Or E = mgh
This is same as total energy at A which is given by equation (1).
Thus when P.E is converted to K.E
“The total energy remains constant”
Hence the Law is verified.
POWER:
The rate of doing work is called power or the ratio between the
working by the time is called Power or work done in a unit time is called
power.
It is scalar quantity. Its formula is
P = w/t .: W = F×d
Or P = F×d/t
The S.I unit of power is Watt.
1 watt = Joule/time
Watt: Power is joule per second is called Watt.
Bigger unit of power is
1 KW = 103 W
1 MW = 106 W

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The one horse power is equal
1 hp = 746 Watt
CHAPTER NO 9
MACHINES
(a) Introduction
(b) Mechanical Advantage and Efficiency
(c) Kinds of Machines
INRODUCTION:
There are many devices which helps us in doing work in
a convenient manner. All these devices are called machines.
MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE AND EFFICIENCY:
Some important terms used in machines are defined below:
Effort:
It is the force applied on the machine. It is denoted by P.
Load:
It is the weight lifted by machine. It is denoted by W.
Mechanical Advantage (MA):
The ratio of load to effort is called mechanical advantage.
Therefore
Mechanical Advantage = load/effort
MA = W/P (1) MA has no unit.
Input:
The work done on the machine is called input. If effort P acts
through a distance d, then
Input = Pd (2)
Output:
The work done by the machine is called output. If load W is lifted
through a height h, then
Output = Wh (3)
Efficiency:
The ratio of output to input is called efficiency of machine.
Efficiency = Output/Input
Efficiency is measured in percentage. Hence
Output × 100
Efficiency =
Input (4)
Using equation (2) and (3) we get

Efficiency = Wh/Pd × 100 (5)

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Machines do not create any energy for us. It does same work what
we put into it. Actually out is less than input because some energy is used
up in overcoming friction which exists between various parts of machine.
Thus the efficiency of machines is always less than 100 %.
A machine is said to be ideal if output is equal to input. For this
machine the efficiency is 100 %. Hence for ideal machine
Output = Input
Wh = Pd
Or W/P = d/h or MA = d/h (6)
Thus
Mechanical Advantage depends upon the distance through which effort P
acts the height through which load W is lifted.
KINDS OF MACHINES:
All machines consist of one or more of the following Six simple
machines.
(a) Lever (b) Pulley (c) Inclined Plane (d) Wedge (e) Screw (f)
Wheel and Axel
(a) Lever:
It is a simple machine which consists of a rigid bar capable of
turning about a fixed point called its fulcrum. Load W is lifted by lever
by applying the effort P. The perpendicular distance between effort P and
function is called effort arm.
The perpendicular distance between load W and fulcrum is
called weight arm or load arm.
Levers are three kinds depending upon the position of effort.
Lever of 1st kind:
Fulcrum F is between P and W.
For example, balance, handle of a pump, a pair of scissors, see saw are
examples of it.
Lever of 2nd kind:
Load W is between fulcrum F and effort P. The door, the nut
cracker, punching machine and oar used in rowing, are examples of
second kind of lever.
Lever of 3rd kind:
Effort P is between fulcrum F and load W. Human fore arm,
upper and lower jaws in the mouth, a pair of forceps, etc are examples of
3rd kind of lever.
In all kind of lever
Torque of effort = torque of load
i.e. Effort × effort arm = Weight × weight arm
P × BC = W × AB

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Or W/P = BC/AB
Or MA = Effort arm/Weight arm (7)
(b) Pulley:
A pulley is a grooved wheel supported in a frame, Called block
such that wheel can turn about an axle in the block. The pulley can be
suspended from a fixed beam by means of a hook. A rope can pass over
the pulley. The pulley can be used in two ways.
(1) Fixed Pulley:
The block of the pulley is fixed to the ceiling. Load W is tied
to one end of the rope and effort P is applied as the other end. If we
neglect the weight of the rope and friction. Then
W × OB = P × OA
As OB and OA are equal, therefore they cancel out Hence,
W=P
Or W/P = 1 or MA = 1 (8)
The effort applied P is equal to the weight W. This pulley is used only to
change the direction of force. W is lifted upward by applying effort P in
the downward direction which is a convenient direction to apply force.
(2) Moveable Pulley: In this case the block and the pulley both are
moveable. The weight W is tied to a hook in the block of moveable
pulley and effort P is applied at the force end of the rope.
Two segments of the rope are lifting W. The tension in each
segment is P. Hence
W = 2P
Now,
Mechanical Advantage = W/P using W = 2P, we get
MA = 2P/P
Or MA = 2 (9)
MA is 2 which mean a load of 100 N can be lifted by an effort of 50 N.
(c) Inclined Plane:

Inclined plane is a plane surface inclined at certain angle with
the horizontal.
It is used in raising heavy loads. The load W is lifted through a
height h by applying effort P through a distance l along the place.
Output = Input
Wh = P × l
Or W/P = l /h
Or MA = l /h (10) Since h/l = Sin θ
Hence Therefore l /h = l /Sin θ
MA = l /Sin θ (11)
Thus the smaller the angle θ, the greater is the mechanical advantage.

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(d) Wedge:
It consists of two inclined plane put together. It is used to split
wood into pieces.
Let an effort P be applied on the top of the wedge placed on a log of
wood. The load in this case are the forces R1 and R2 each equal to R
acting perpendicular to the inclined planes of the wedge.
The forces P, R1, and R2 can be represented by the sides of a triangle xyz
such that
xy represents P
yz represents R1
and yz represents R2
since R1 = R2 = R = load, therefore
MA = load/effort
Or MA= R/P
Or MA = zx /xy
As Δ’s xyz and and ABC are similar and zx/xy = AC/BC
Therefore
MA = AC /BC
Length of inclined surface of the wedge

or MA=
(12) Thickness of the wedge
(e) Screw:
It consists of a threaded rod with a head, called the screw head.
The distance between two adjacent threads is called its pitch, applied at
the screw head, the screw moves forward into the wood through a
distance equal to its pitch h. if d be the radius of screw head then the
effort P moves through a distance 2πd.
If there is no loss of energy due to friction, then
Output = Input
W× h = P × 2πd
W/P = 2πd /h
Or MA = 2πd /h (13)
Screw Jack:
It is a simple machine used to lifted a car or other automobile
when need arises. The car or automobile of weight W is placed on the
platform provided for this purpose. The pitch of the screw is h.

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The effort P is applied at the handle H. When effort moves
through a distance 2πd (one rotation) where d is the length of the rod, the
load W is lifted through a height h.
For an ideal case (no friction).
Output = Input
W/h = P × 2πd
W/P = 2πd /h
Or MA = 2πd /h (14)
(f) Wheel and Axle:

A wheel with larger radius (R) and another with smaller radius
(r) are fixed on the same shaft and are called wheel and axle respectively.
It is often used to lifted bucker of water from the well.
The shaft is held in clamps so that it can rotate freely.
The effort P is applied at the rim of Wheel of radius R while the load W
is lifted by a string wound round the axle.
For one complete rotation, the effort moves through a distance
2πR while the load is raised through a distance 2πR.
If friction is neglected, then
Output =Input
W × 2πr = P × 2πR
W/P = 2πR/2πr
Or W/P = R/r
Or MA = R/r (15)
CHAPTER NO 10
MATTER
(a) Introduction
(b) Molecular Kinetic theory of Matter
(c) Brownian Motion
(d) States of Matter

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(e) Elasticity
(f) Stress
(g) Strain
(h)Hooke’s Law
(i) Young’s Modules
(j) Fluids
(k) Pressure
(l) Pressure in liquids
(m) Pascal’s Principle
(n)The Hydraulic Machines
(o) Atmospheric Pressure
(p) Barometers
(q) Archimedes Principle
(r) Buoyancy and floating of bodies
INTRODUCTION:
Matter exists in these states. These states are solid, liquid, and
a gas. Temperature and pressure may change the state of matter. For
example, ice is solid. When heated it is converted into liquid (water). On
further heating it is converted into gaseous state (steam). The existence of
these states of matter can be explained on the basis of kinetic molecular
theory of matter.
MOLECULAR KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER:

According to this theory, matter consists of molecules. A
molecule consists of one or more atoms. The molecules are in some state
of motion, therefore they possess kinetic energy. The motion can be
translational, vibrational and rotational.
The molecules of a substance attract each other with a force
which increases with the decrease of distance between them.
When a substance is heated, the molecular motion increase the
motion which is increased may be transnational, vibrational or rotational
depending upon the state of matter.
BROWNIAN MOTION:
The fact that molecules are in motion was first found by
Robert Brown in 1827.
He observed that Pollen grains suspended in water were constantly
moving in a Zig Zag path. This motion was due to collisions of water
molecules with pollen grains. This confirmed that water molecules were
also in random motion. This random motion of tiny particles is called
Brownian motion.

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This Brownian motion is seen whenever very small

particles are suspended in a fluid (liquid or gas) medium. For example,
smoke particles in air also show Brownian motion.
STATES OF MATTER:
Solid:
The molecules of solids are held firmly to one another by some
force of attraction. They simply make vibratory motion about their mean
positions and do not move away from each other. Solids have definite
shape and can not be compressed easily. As the temperature of a solid is
raised, its molecules vibrate with greater amplitude. At a certain
temperature, called the melting point, force of vibrations overcomes the
binding forces and the solid is converted into liquid.
Liquid:
The attractive forces between the molecules of liquid are less strong
than in solids. Liquid molecules are no longer held in fixed position but
can slide over one another. The molecules of liquid are arranged in fixed
pattern; therefore the liquids do not have definite shape. They occupy the
shape of the container in which they are placed. The surface of a liquid is
always in level because the molecules at the surface are attracted inward
by the other molecules.
When a liquid is heated, its molecules gain more kinetic energy.
At a certain temperature, the kinetic energy is so large that it overcomes
the attractive force between the molecules. The molecules escape from
the surface and the liquid is converted into gas.
Gas:
The molecules of gas are at a large distance from each other,
therefore the force between the molecules of gas is negligible. The
molecules of the gas are constantly in random motion making collision
with each other and with the walls of the container. Like solids, gases do
not have definite shape and like liquids, they do not have definite volume.
ELASICITY:
When force is applied to a rubber wire, it is stretched. When the
force is removed, it regains its original shape and size.
“The Phenomena of returning to original shape and size after the
force is removed, is called elasticity.”
If force is applied to a meter rod, it bends. When force is removed, it
again becomes straight. If the force is increased, then at a certain value of
force, it breaks. Thus there is a limit to the applied force form which the
rod recovers its original shape when the force is removed. This limit is

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called elastic limit. After crossing this limit, the material never gains its
original shape even when the force is removed
The elastic behavior can be explained on the basis of kinetic
molecular theory of matter. In solids, the force of attraction between the
molecules is very large. Thus when the supplied force is removed, this
force of attraction between the molecules brings the body back its
original shape.
A body is said to be more elastic if it shows less change even
when large force is applied to it. Thus steel is more elastic than rubber.
STRESS:
Suppose a force products change in length of rubber wire if cross
sectional area is doubled, then double force will be required to produce
same change.
“The opposing force that resists any change, acting per unit area, is
called stress.”
For example, if
On area A, force is = F
When on unit area, the force is = F/A, Hence
Stress = F/A = Force/ area
is denoted by Greek letter sigma (σ) Hence
σ = F/A (1) Its unit is N/m2
STRAIN:
Stress can produce change in shape, length or volume. This change
is called strain.
“The change in unit length is called longitudinal strain”
For Example,
If the length L, Changes by = ΔL
Then unit changes by = ΔL /L, Hence
Longitudinal strain = ΔL /L = change in length / original length
is denoted by Greek letter epsilon (ε), Hence
ε = ΔL /L (2) it has no unit.
HOOKE’S LAW:
It states that within the elastic limit, “Stress is directly
proportional to strain.”
i.e. Stress α strain
If a graph is plotted between stress and strain for a steel wire, then it is a
straight line upto point χ. In this region stress is proportional to strain and
the material is elastic. If the stress is removed, the wire regains its
original length.
Plastic Region

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Breaking point
Strain
Stress
If the stress is applied beyond elastic limit, the change becomes
permanent and the material is said to be in the plastic region. The point at
which material becomes plastic is called elastic limit or yield point. The
material breaks at a certain point, called the breaking point.
YOUNG’S MODULES:
With in elastic limit
Stress / Strain = Constant
The constant is called Modules of elasticity.
“The ratio of normal stress to longitudinal strain is called Young’s
Modules of elasticity.”
Thus
Young’s Modules Y= Stress / longitudinal strain
Or y = σ / ε
Using equations (1) and (2), we get
y = F/A / ΔL / L
or y = FL / A ΔL (3)
FLUIDS:
Fluids (including both liquids and gases) are the substances that
flow. A fluid acquires the shape of the container in which it is put. Fluid
put in a container exert force perpendicular to the walls of the container.
If this were not so, any sideways force by a fluid on a wall (action) would
be met with an equal force on it by the wall (reaction) which would cause
the fluid to move constantly parallel the wall. Since this does not happen,
therefore the fluid exerts force perpendicular to the wall.
PRESSURE:
The perpendicular force acting on unit area of a surface is
called pressure. If the area A, the force is F then on unit area, the force is
F/A hence,
Pressure = F/A = force/Area
P= F /A (4)
The unit of pressure is also N/m2 called Pascal (Pa), such that
1Pa = 1 N/m2, hence
When one Newton force acts on one m2, the pressure is said to be 1
Pascal. The bigger unit is kilo Pascal (1KPa 2 = 1000 Pa 2).
PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS

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Let us calculate the pressure at the bottom of liquid contained
in a glass.
Consider an imaginary Cylinder of liquid inside the liquid. The lower
circular cross sectional area A is depth h below the surface.
The volume of the liquid in the cylinder = Ah. If ρ (Greek letter rho)
be the density of liquid, then
Mass / volume = density
Or m / Ah = ρ
Or m = ρAh. Hence
Weight mg = ρ. Ahg
This is the force acting normally at the area A.
Since
Pressure = Force / Area, thereforce
P = ρ Ahg / A
Or P = ρhg (5)
Thus pressure at point inside liquid depends upon
1) The height from the surface, and
2) The density of the liquid
For Example,
A swimmer experiences more pressure at a greater depth than at a lesser
depth. Similarly a more dense liquid exerts more use pressure at a point
in the liquid than a less dense liquid exerts at the same point.
PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE:
Pascal’s Principle says that
“Liquid transmits pressure equally in all directions.”
Pascal’s Principle can be verified by an experiment. Consider a vessel
containing four pistons. This vessel is filled with water.
If a force is applied inward through a certain distance on one piston,
then the remaining three pistons move outward through some distance.
Thus the liquid transmit pressure equally in all directions.
THE HYDRAULIC MACHINES:

The following machines are deviced on the fact that liquid transmit
pressure equally in all directions.
The Hydraulic Brake System:
The hydraulic brake used in a car or bus etc.
It consists of a matter cylinder joined by tubes to four small cylinders,
one for each wheel. They are called brake cylinders. The tubes contain
brake oil. When the brake pedal is pressed, the pressure is exerted on the
oil. This pressure is transmitted equally to the brake cylinders through the
oil. This pressure causes the piston in each brake cylinder to move
outward. The outward motion of the piston causes the brake shoe to tough
against the rotor and hence the friction stops the wheel. When the brake

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pedal is released, the spring which connects the two brake shoes
contracts, due to which the brake shoe are pulled inward and the wheel
gets free.
Hydraulic Lift:
In hydraulic lift a narrow cylinder A is connected with a wider cylinder
B. It is filled with incompressible fluid. When pressure is applied at A in
the downward direction, then according to Pascal's Principle, it is
transmitted equally to B. The piston B which acts as platform therefore
moves upward and the heavy load placed over the plat from is lifted.
Hydraulic Press:
It is similar to hydraulic lift with the difference that the piston B used to
lifted heavy object is provided with a rigid roof. When the piston B
moves upward, it compresses any object placed between the rigid roof
and the piston. It is used to compress cotton into compact bale, powdered
materials into compact solids etc
Pressure in gases:
Suppose a gas is contained in a vessel. According to kinetic theory, the
molecules of gas are in random motion. The molecules move freely
inside the vessel and make collision with each other and with the wall of
container. The continuous collisions of molecules with the wall of the
vessel accounts for the pressure of the gas.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE :
We live the bottom of deep sea of air called atmosphere. The
major gases in air are nitrogen and oxygen. The atmosphere due to its
weight exerts pressure on the surface of earth and on every thing on earth.
This pressure is called atmospheric pressure. At sea level atmospheric
pressure is about 105 Pa (105N/m2).
Barometers:
It is device used to measure atmospheric pressure is called
barometer. Different types of barometer are below;
• Mercury Barometer: it is simple barometer used to measure
atmospheric pressure in the laboratory.
• Aneroid Barometer: it does not contain liquid. It consists of
corrugated steel box partially evacuated of air.

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CHAPTER NO 11
HEAT
(a) Introduction
(b) Nature of heat
(c) Temperature
(d) Transfer of heat
(e) Thermal Conductivity
(f) Gases laws
(g) Specific heat
(h)Law of heat exchange
Introduction:
When a piece of iron is placed on fire, it becomes hot. It means, it
has taken something from fire. This something is called heat.
Nature of Heat:
Heat is the transfer of energy (energy in transit) from one body to
another due to the temperature difference between the two bodies. When
a body absorbs heat, its internal energy increases and when it loses heat,
its internal energy decreases. Internal energy is the sum of all the kinetic
and potential energies of all the molecules of the body.
Temperature:
"Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body."
According to kinetic molecular theory, the molecular of substance have
various values of kinetic energy, some molecules have large K.E and
some molecules have small K.E.
"The average kinetic energy of molecules of a substance determines
the temperature of the substance."
Thermal Conductivity:
The ability of substance to conduct heat energy is called thermal
conductivity. Consider a metal block a length ∆L and area cross section
such that its one end is constantly maintained at a lower temperature T1
and other end at a higher temperature T2 .If heat ∆Q conducted from hot
end to the cold end in end in ∆t seconds, then it is end that,
∆Q α A
∆Q α (T2- T1)
∆Q α ∆t
∆Q α 1/∆L

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Combining them we get
∆Q α A (T2- T1) ∆t/∆L
∆Q = constant A (T2- T1) ∆t/∆L
∆Q = KA (T2- T1) ∆t/∆L -------------- (i)
If (T2- T1) = ∆T, then
∆Q = KA ∆T ∆t/∆L ------------------ (ii)
The constant K is called thermal conductivity of the material of different

materials have different values for K
A = 1 m2
∆L = 1 m
Area and length is equal to one meter cubic of the substance.
∆T = 1 C◦
∆t = 1 sec then from equation (2) we have
∆Q = K × 1 × 1×1/1
∆Q = K
The thermal conductivity is the quantity of heat conducted per second per
cubic meter of a substance whose opposite faces are maintained at a
temperature difference of 1 C.
Thermal Expansion of solid:

The solid substances are expanding or increase in size by heating is called
thermal expansion. For example: plastic jar expand on heat during
summer it means that solid is heated its temperature rise and its
molecules start vibrating with greater amplitude. Due to this, the average
distance between the molecules increase and the solid expands.
There are two types of thermal expansion.
Linear thermal Expansion:
When a metal rod is heated its length increase, is called linear thermal
expansion.
Consider a metal rod having length L. when the temperature is increase
by ∆T, let the increase in length be ∆L it is found that
Change in length (∆L) is directly proportional to original length (L).
∆L œ L → (1)
Change in length (∆L) is directly proportional to change in temperature
(∆T).
∆L œ ∆T→ (2)
Comparing equation (1) & (2), then we get
∆L œ L∆T --------- (3)

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The constant œ is called co-efficient of linear expansion of the material
rod. Then equation (3) can be written as
œ = ∆L/ L∆T ------------- (4)
Volume thermal Expansion:

When a block is heated its volume increase is called volume expansion. If
the volume V increases by ∆V when temperature is raised by ∆T then it is
found that:
Change in volume is directly proportional to the original volume.
∆V œ V → (1)
Change in volume is directly proportional to the change in temperature.
∆V œ ∆T → (2)
Comparing eq: (1) and (2), we get
∆V œ V∆T
∆V = β V∆T → (3)
β = ∆V/ V∆T
Gas Laws:
The behaviour of a gas is determined by physical quantities like
pressure, volume, temperature and mass of the gas relation between two
of variable, keeping the other variable constant are caused gas laws.
Boyle's Law:
"This law state that volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely
proportional to pressure. The temperature of the gas was kept by
constant."
Mathematically; it can be written as
V œ 1/p
V = 1/p (constant)
Or V = k/p
PV = k
Or PV = Constant
"Boyle's law can be defined as product of pressure and volume of a given
mass of a gas is constant. Its temperature is kept constant."
Boyle's Law by Graph:
If we put a graph for different values of same mass of the gas we get
hyperbolic as shown in the figure. The shape shows that if pressure of the
gas is increased the volume will decrease and vice versa.

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Charles's Law:
"This law states that volume of a given mass of a gas is directly
proportional to temperature. Its pressure of gas is constant."
Mathematically can be written as
VœT
V = T constant
V/T =Constant
Charles's Law by graph:
If graph is plotted between different values of volume and
absolute temperature the gas at constant pressure. We obtained straight
line, therefore we can say that volume and temperature change
correspondingly. If this graph is produced in the backward direction then
of observed that at temperature volume is not zero but it become zero at
-273K. Generally the gases are liquefied before reaching to the
temperature -273cº. The temperature -273cº is taken as zero on Kelvin
scale of temperature. The zero is called absolute zero.
General Gas Law Or General Gas Equation

General gas law is the combination of Boyle's law and Charles's law
According to Boyle's law
V œ 1/p (Temperature constant)
According to the Charles's law
V œ T (Pressure constant)
Combine both

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V œ T/p
V = T/p constant
PV = T constant or PV/ nT = constant
→ PV/nT = R
PV = nRT where n is number of moles and R is universal gas constant,
its value is 8.314 Joule /mole k
Specific Heat Capacity:

Statement: "Amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of unit mass by one Kelvin".
Explanation: It is found experimentally same amount of different
substance require different quantity of heat to raise their temperature by
1K or 1cº due different number of molecules.
Mathematically it can be written as
∆Q œ m and
∆Q œ ∆T
∆Q œ m ∆T
By removing sign of proportionality
∆Q = C m ∆T
Where C is constant and depends upon the nature of material. This
constant "C" is known as specific heat capacity or simply specific heat.
C = ∆Q_
m∆T
Unit of specific heat is J/ kg K.
Law Of Heat Exchange:
When hot and cold bodies are placed in contact, the hot body loses heat
and the cold body gain heat till the two bodies arrive at the same
temperature. In no heat is lost to the surroundings or gained from the
surroundings, then heat lost by the hot body is equal to the heat gained by
the cold body. Thus the law of heat exchange says that
Heat lost = Heat gained
This law is used to measure the specific heat of a substance by the

method of mixture.
CHAPTER NO 12
WAVES AND SOUND

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(a) Oscillation
(b) Simple Harmonic Motion
(c) Wave motion
(d) Characteristic of Wave
(e) How sound is produced
(f) Characteristic of Sound
(g) Echo
Oscillation:
A motion which repeats itself in equal intervals of time is called
periodic motion.
If a body in periodic motion moves back and forth along the same path,
then the motion is called vibratory or oscillatory.
Simple Harmonic Motion:

The force exerted by spring on the mass is called restoring force. If F
be the restoring force and at a certain instant if the mass be distance x
away from its mean position, then according to Hooke's law, under elastic
limit we have
Fα – x
Or F = Kx – x
Or F = - Kx (1)
Using Newton's 2nd law, we have
ma = - Kx where K is constant is called spring
constant
a = - K/m x (2)
or a = - (Constant)x both K and m are constant
or a = (Constant)x-x
or aα – x (3)
Thus
(1) Acceleration is directly proportional to displacement, and
(2) Acceleration is directed towards mean position
A vibratory motion having above two properties is called Simple
Harmonic Motion (S.H.M). The above two properties are called
characteristics of S.H.M
Let us define certain terms used in connections with S.H.M.
(1) Vibration: One completes trip is called Vibration.
(2) Time period (T): The time of 1 Vibration or 1 Oscillation is called
time period.
(3) Frequency: The number of vibrations made in 1 second is called
frequency.
In S.I system, its unit is Vib/ s or Cycles or hertz.

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Since
In T seconds, number of vibration = 1
Therefore in 1 second, number of vibration = 1/ T. Hence
f = 1/ T (4)
(4) Displacement(x): The distance from mean position is called
displacement.
(5) Amplitude (x o): The maximum distance on either side from mean
position is called amplitude.
The mass attach to the spring performs S.H.M with the time period
given as
T = 2π √m / K
Since f = 1/ T, therefore
T = 2π √m / K
Wave Motion:
When we dip a pencil into a tub of water, the molecules of water
below the pencil are disturbed. This disturbance moves from molecule to
molecule with same speed. This disturbance is called wave. Since the
disturbances moves with same speed in all directions, therefore the
molecules which start to vibrate at a certain instant lie on a circle. That is
why water waves are circular. It may be noted that the water molecules
which start to vibrate at a certain instant that water molecules simply
make up and down motion when the wave (disturbance) passes through
them. The water molecules do not move along with the wave.
Suppose one end of a rope is tied to a wall and the other end is
held in hand. If we disturb the end which is held in hand by jerking it,
then this disturbance (wave) will move from particle to particle along the
rope. The disturbances is moving along the rope is called a wave.
Transverse Wave:
"The wave in which particle of the medium vibrate perpendicular to
the direction of motion of wave, is called transfer wave."
For Example, Water waves and waves produced in a string are transverse
waves.
In transverse waves, the particles of the medium above mean level are
said to form crests and the particles below mean level are said to form
troughs.
Longitudinal Waves:
"The wave, in which the particles of the medium vibrate parallel to the
direction of motion of wave, is called longitudinal wave."
For Example, in a spring longitudinal waves are produced. The particle of
the spring, vibrate parallel to the direction of motion of wave.
Characteristics of a Wave:

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There are certain terms which are common to both types' waves. They
are the frequency (f), the time period (T), the amplitude (A), wavelength
(λ) and wave velocity (v). let us now define these terms.
Frequency (f):
The number of vibrations made by any particle of the medium in 1
second or the number of waves generated by a source in 1 second is
called frequency. Its unit is vib/s or cycle/s or hertz.
Time period (T):
The time taken by the particle of the medium to complete 1 vibration is
called time period. It found that
f = 1/ T
Wave length and Amplitude:
A transverse wave can be represented by the curve. The horizontal line
represents the mean position of the particles of the medium. Particles
above mean level form crests and particles below mean level from
troughs.
The wave length is defined as under:
"The horizontal distance covered by the waves during one vibration of the
particle of medium, is called wave length."
OR
The distance between two successive crests or two successive troughs, is
called wave length.
It is defined by the Greek letter λ (Lambda). The amplitude is defined as

under:
"The distance between the crest and the normal position or the distance
between the through and the normal position is called amplitude. It is
denoted by A."
Wave Velocity (V):
"The distance covered by the wave in 1 second, is called wave velocity."
It is denoted by V.
A very simple relation exists between wavelength, time period and
velocity of a wave. Let us find this relation.
We know that
Velocity = Distance / time
Since in the time period T, the wave covers distance λ, therefore, the
above equation can be written as
V= λ /T
or V= λ x 1/T Since 1/ T = f, therefore
V= λ x f
or V = fλ
Stationary Waves:

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"When two waves having same frequency and amplitude but
traveling in opposite direction combine, stationary waves we produced."
When a stretched string a fixed from both ends is plucked from centre or
1/4th of its length or 1/6th of its length, and released then two waves are
produced which move towards fixed suppose. After reflection from
supports when they combine with each other, stationary waves are
produced.
The points which remain at rest (Points of destructive interference) are
called notes.
The points which vibrate with maximum amplitude (points of
constructive interference) are called antinodes.
The distance between node and next anti-node is 1/4th of the wave length
(λ/4).
How sound is produced:

Sound is a form of energy which is produced by the vibrating body.
When a body vibrates, it produces waves in the medium. When these
waves reach our ear the sensation of sound is produced.
Audible Frequency Range:
Our ear can hear only those sounds whose frequency is between 20 Hz
and 20000 Hz. That i, the ear can not hear the sound if as frequency is
less than 20 Hz or greater than 20000 Hz. A sound of frequency is greater
than 20000 Hz can be produced but human ear can not detect it because
ear drum can not vibrate with such a high frequency. Sound having
frequency above 20000Hz is called ultrasonic.
Velocity of Sound:
We know that during rainy seasons the flash of lightening is seen earlier
than the thunder. This is been use the velocity of light is very very large
as compared to the velocity of sound. This observation can be used to
find the velocity of sound.
Consider two stations A and B at a distance of 8 to 10 km from each
other in open space. An observer is present at each station with a stop
watch and a gun. Each observer starts the stop watch when the flash is
seen and stops when the sound is heard. The time measured by each stop
watch in the time which the sound takes to travel the distance between
two stations.
If t1 to t2 times measured by the two observers, then the average time
t = (t1 + t2) / 2
If S be the distance between two stations, then the velocity of sound is
given as
V = s/t
The velocity of sound in air at O C is 330 m/s
The velocity of sound in water is = 1450 m/s

=============================================================
The velocity of sound in iron is = 5130 m/s
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND:
There are two types of sounds called the musical sound and noise. In
musical sound there is regularly between the vibration of frequency and
amplitude where as in noise, there is abrupt change is frequency and
amplitude.
A musical sound has following characteristics.

Loudness: Loudness of sound depends upon intensity. The intensity of
sound is the energy crossing unit area held normally, in unit time.
Loudness depends upon the following factors.
(1) Area of vibrating object: "The larger the area of a vibrating
objects, the louder is the sound produced."
(2) Amplitude: The greater the amplitude of the vibrating objects, the
louder is the sound produced.
Pitch of Sound: "The characteristic of sound by which a shrill sound can
be distinguished from a grave sound, is called Pitch of sound."
Pitch depends upon the frequency. The higher the frequency, the higher is
the pitch and shrill is the sound. The lower the frequency, the lower is the
pitch and grave is the sound. A disc capable of rotation about an axle has
holes of equal sizes and equally spaced at its boundary. A rubber belt
passes over the axle of the disc and also over a wheel which can be
rotated by a handle.
Take a long rubber tube having its one end connected to a compressor
and the other end is connected to a metallic jet.
Direct the get of compressed air onto the holes. Rotate the disc with
handle when the hole comes against the jet, the air passes through it and
produces disturbance (wave). As the speed of rotation of disc increases,
the number of times the air passing through the holes, also increases and
hence the frequency of sound eaves increase due to which the pitch of
sound rises.
Echo: "The sound heard after reflection from a surface, is called echo."
For normal human after ear, the effect of a sound remains for about
1/10th of a second. Two sounds produce in this interval will not be heard
as separate sounds.
The echo of sound can therefore be heard only if it arrives the car in time
1/10 second or more.
Suppose the echo of clapping is heard immediately while standing at
certain distance from a cliff or wall or a building.
If d be the distance of the cliff or wall or building from the person and V
be the speed of sound then the distance 24 must have been covered by
sound in time 1/10 seconds. Hence

=============================================================
Speed = distance covered by sound / time taken by sound
Or V= 2d/1/10
Or 2d = V×1/ 10.
CHAPTER NO 13
PROPAGATION AND REFLECTION OF LIGHT

(a) Rectilinear Propagation of Light (Path Of Light)
(b) The Pinhole Camera
(c) Reflection of Light
(d) Laws of Reflection
(e) Image Formed by a Plane Mirror
(f) Spherical Mirrors
(g) Reflection and Formation of image by a concave mirror
(h)Reflection and Formation of image by a convex mirror
(i) Mirror Formula (Equation for Spherical mirror)
Rectilinear Propagation of light (Path of light):

Rectilinear propagation of light means light travels in a straight time. If
an opaque object is placed in the path of light, its shadow is formed
behind the object. This shows that light travels in a straight line
Image: The image of an object can be real or virtual.
(1) Real Image: The rays starting from a point if really meet at some
other point, then the other point is called real image of the 1st point.
Real image can be obtained on the screen.
(2) Virtual Image: The rays of light starting from a point if appear to
meet at some other point, then other point is called virtual image of
the 1st point.
Virtual image can not be obtained on the screen. It should be
remembered that
"AT LEAST TWO RAYS ARE RQUIRED TO CONSTRUCT AN
IMAGE."
The Pinhole Camera:
It works on the principle of rectilinear propagation of light. It was
invented to observe the eclipses of the sun without damaging the eye. It
consists of rectangular box having a very small hole on one side and
frosted glass plate or photographic film on the other side. The box is
covered with a dark cloth.

=============================================================
The pinhole camera forms real and inverted image of the object. A
narrow pencil of rays starting form point A passes through the pinhole O
and illuminates a small area at A. similarly, a narrow pencil of rays
staring from C illuminates the small area at C. in this between A'C'. Thus
a real and inverted image A'C of the object AC is formed on the
photograph film.
Reflection of Light:
When light speeding from a source in one medium, falls on the surface of
another medium, part of light is sent back in the same medium. This
property is called reflection.
Law of Reflection:
When light traveling in one medium strikes the surface of another
medium, a part of it is reflected back in the same medium. Mirrors and
highly polished surfaces reflect the light strongly and the images of the
objects formed by reflection obey the two laws is called the laws of
reflection.
AO is called incident ray OB is called reflected ray point O is called point

of incidence. The perpendicular on the mirror from O is called normal.
LAON = Li is called angle of incidence, and
LBON = Lr is called angle of reflection.
Reflection of light incidence is equal to angle of reflection.
1st Law:
The angle of incidence is equal to angel of reflection.
i.e. Li = Lr
2nd Law:
The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie in the same
plane.
Regular and Irregular Reflection:
When rays of light fall on a smooth and shinning surface, like a plane
mirror, most of them are reflected in a particular direction. Such a
reflection is called regular reflection or specular reflection. Such a
reflection is used in construction of images.
When rays of light fall on a rough surface, like a white paper or a
painted wall, the rays are reflected back in different directions. Due to the
roughness of the surface, the angle of incidence is different for different
rays, therefore the reflected rays scatter in different directions. Such a
reflection is called irregular reflection or diffuse reflection.

=============================================================
Irregular reflection is very important for us. We receive light at dawn or
after sunset, due to the irregular reflection of sunlight from dust particles
in air. All the nonluminous objects are visible due to irregular reflection
of light from their surfaces.
Image formed by a Plane Mirror:
Two rays starting from the object after reflection from the mirror appear
to meet at the image. Thus to the eye, virtual image of the object will be
seen behind the mirror.
A ray from O falling normally on the mirror is reflected back normally
and another ray falling at a certain angle of incidence is reflected back at
the same angle of reflection (according to law of reflection Li = Lr). The
two reflected rays appear to meet at I. hence I is the virtual image of the
object O.
The two triangles are congruent; therefore, the distance of image I from
the mirror is equal to the distance of the object O from the mirror. The
characteristics of image formed by a plane mirror are given follows:
(1)Images are laterally inverted. That is the right side of the object
appears as the left side of the image.
(2)Images are of the same size as objects.
(3)Images are virtual and can not be obtained on the screen.
(4) Image is at the same distance from mirror as the object.
Spherical Mirrors:
Spherical Mirrors is a section of a hollow sphere. If the inner surface is
polished, then it is called a converging or concave mirror. If the outer
surface of the spherical mirror is polished then it is called a diverging or
convex mirror.
Let us study certain terms used in spherical mirrors.
a) Centre of curvature (C):
The centre of the sphere is called centre of curvature of the mirror.
b) Radius of curvature (R):
The radius of sphere is called radius of curvature of mirror.
c) Principal axis:
The line passing through pole and centre of curvature of mirror is called
principal axis.
Mirror Formula (Equation for Spherical Mirror):

If p be the distance of the object from the pole of the mirror
q be the distance of the image from the pole of the mirror, and
f be the focal length of the mirror, then a
Simple equation between them, is called mirror formula
Consider in which the A'B' of the object AB is formed by a concave
mirror,

=============================================================
Ray AP is reflected back at the same angel which it is incident obeying
the law of reflection. Two triangles ABP and A'B'P are similar, therefore
AB / A'B' = PB / PB'
AB /A'B' = p/q (1)
Again two triangles ABF and PDF are similar. Therefore
AB / PD = BF / PF Since PD = A'B', and BF = (p-f)
We have AB / A'B' =(p-f)/f (2)
Left hand side (L.H.S) of equations (1) and (2) are equal equal
Equation their right hand sides (R.H.S), we get.
p/q = (p-f)/f Dividing both sides by
p, we get p / qp = p- f / pf
p / qp = p / pf – f / pf
or 1/q= 1/f – 1/p
or 1/f = 1/p + 1/q

=============================================================
CHAPTER NO 14
REFRACTION OF LIGHT AND OPTICAL
INSTRUMENTS

(a) Refraction of Light
(b) Refraction of Light through a Prism
(c) Lenses
(d) Thin Lens Formula
(e) Optical Instruments
Refraction of Light:
"The change in direction and velocity of light as it enters from a medium
into another, is called refraction of light."
The refraction of light is explained in which the boundary AB separates
the two media. CO is called incident ray, OE is called refracted ray, point
O is called point of incidence, NON' which is perpendicular to AB is
called normal,
LCON = Li is called angle of incidence, and
LN'OE = Lr is called angle of refraction.
Refraction of light obeys two laws, called the laws of refraction.
1st law:
"The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the surface at the
point of incidence, lie in the same plane".
2nd law:
"The ratio of sine of angle of incidence (Sin i) to the sine of angle of
refraction (Sin r) remains constant for the two media."
This constant is called refractive index and is denoted by n.
Hence
n = Sin i /Sin r
it may be noted that
(1) When light enters from rarer to denser medium, it bends towards the
normal.
And (2) When light enters from denser to rarer medium, it bends away
from the normal.
The 2nd law of refraction is also called Snell's Law. It may be noted that if
a ray of light enters normally into the other medium, there is no change in
direction.
The refractive index of a medium is also defined as
"The ration of speed light in vacuum or air to the speed of light in the
medium."
Hence

=============================================================
Refractive index = Speed of light in air_______
Speed of light in the medium
Refraction of light through a Prism:
A prism is transparent body having three rectangular and two triangular
surfaces. The angle opposite to the base of its triangular, face is known as
angle of the prism.
The path of ray EF as it is refracted from a prism. OL is normal to
AB and PQ is normal to AC. When ray EF enters the prism. It bends
towards the normal OL and when it comes out from the prism, it bends
away from the normal PQ. EF is called the incident ray. FG is called
refracted ray. GH is called the emergent ray.
LEFG = Li is called the angle of incidence, and
LLFG = Lr is called the angle of refraction. If the incident rays EF and
the emergent ray HG are produced, they meet at M.
LHMK = LD is called angle of deviation.
The angle of deviation D depends upon the angle of incidence i. At some
of incidence, D has minimum value. This minimum value is called angle
of minimum deviation and is written as Dm. In this position the refracted
ray FG is always parallel to the base BC.
If A be the angle of the prism, and Dm be the angle of minimum
deviation, then the refractive index of the material of the prism is found
to be
Sin (A+Dm)
2
n = _____________________
Sin A
2
Lenses:
Lenses are made up of transparent refraction of medium (glass or plastic)
bounded by one or two spherical surfaces. The lenses are of two types,
(1) the convex, and (2) the concave lens.
(1) Convex Lenses:
The thickness of the convex lens at the middle is greater than at as edges.
A convex lens converges a parallel beam of light to a point, therefore it is
also called converging lens. There are three types of convex lenses
(1) Double convex lenses: Both the surface of a double convex
lens is convex.
(2) Plano convex lenses: One surface is convex and the order is
plane
(3) Concavo convex lenses: One surface is convex and the
other is concave.

=============================================================
(2) Concave lenses:
A concave lens is thinner at the middle and thicker at the edges. A
concave lens diverges a parallel. They are also of three types.
a) The double concave lens b) The Plano concave lens and c) convexo-
concave lens
Thin lens Formula:

The nature and the position of image can be found by using the following
formula, called the lens formula.
1/p +1/q = 1/f
Here
P is the distance of the object from the lens
Q is the distance of the image from the lens, and
F is the focal length of the lens.
Following sign convention is used while applying lens formula.
(1) All distances are measured from the optical centre of the
lens.
(2) Distance of the real objects and real images are taken
positive and the distances of virtual objects and virtual images are
taken negative.
(3) The focal length of convex lens is taken positive and the
focal length of concave lens is taken negative lens has virtual focal
point.
Optical Instruments:
(1) Camera:
It is an optical instruments by which permanent image of an object is
obtained on a sensitive screen. It consists of a light proof container
blackened inside to absorb stray light. In ordinary camera, a convex lens
is situated at the front but in costly camera a combination of lenses is
used. The purpose of the real and inverted image of the object is on the
sensitive screen situated at the back of the camera. The lens of the camera
can be moved in or our out with the help of mechanical mount in order to
get sharp image.
There is a shutter between the film and the lens. When a photograph is
taken, the shutter opens for a very short time on the sensitive screen or
photograph film. The formation of a clear and well focused image in a
camera depends upon the following factors.
(1) Diameter of the aperture of Camera: It adjusts the amount
of light entering the camera.
(2) Focal length of the lens: It adjusts the area and size of the
image.

=============================================================
(3) The time for the opening of shutter: It is so adjusted that
the film is exposed to the light properly and clear and distinct
image is formed on the film.
Compound Microscope:
The compound microscope is used when ever high magnification is
required. The magnifying power of a simple microscope can be increased
d
by decreasing the focal length of the lens as M = 1+ But due to
F
constructional difficulties, the focal length of the lens can’t be decreased
beyond a certain limit. Therefore to increase the magnifying power, two
separate lenses are used. The lens near the object is called the
OBJECTIVE and the other which is nearer the eye is known as thee
EYE PIECE. The objective and eye piece are both convex lenses, The
objective is of small diameter and small focal length (high power) when
.the eye piece is of large focal length then the objective
The AB is placed at a distance slightly greater than the focal length of the
objective. An inverted image A’ B’ is formed of A’. The eye piece is
adjusted so that the distance of A’ from it is less than its focal length. As
the eye piece acts as a simple magnifying glass, the final image PQ is
.formed at P which magnified and virtual
B Eye Piece
Final Image
P F ’A
Fo B O Eye
Q d
)Compound microscope(

=============================================================
CHAPTER NO 16
ELECTRICITY
(a) Coulomb's Law
(b)Electric Field
(c) Capacitor
(d)Electric current
(e) Resistance
(f) Ohm' law
Coulomb's Law:
Introduction:
This first experiment to study the force between two point
charges was carried out by Coulomb in 1785 by means of an apparatus
called torsion balance. The results of his observations are stated in a law,
called Coulomb's Law.
Statement:
"The force between two point charges is directly
proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to
the square of the distances between them"
Explanation:
If q 1 and q 2 be the point charges at a distance r from each
other placed in vacuum or air as shown in the given figure, then
according to the above statement, the magnitude of the force F is given
as:
F œ q 1 q 2 → (1)
Fœ 1
r2 → (2)
By comparing both eq: then we get
F œ q 1q 2
r2
F = K q1 q 2
or r2 → (1)
• When K is a constant and its value depends upon the system of

kinds used and the medium between the charges.
• The unit of charge in S.I system is Coulomb. It is depend in terms
of electric current which is a fundamental quantity having unit
Ampere.

=============================================================
• One Coulomb charge is that quantity of charge which crosses any
part of the wire in one second when a constant current of 1ampere
flows through it
• In equation (1), if
q 1 = 1 coul.
q 2 = 1 coul.
And r = 1 m and of the charges are placed in vacuum, then
F = 9×109 N
By using there values in equation (1) then we get
9×109 N = K 1coul × 1coul
1 m2
9×109 N× 1m2 = K
1 coul × 1 coul
K = 9× 109Nm2/coul2
Or → (2)
In the vector form, equation (1) can be written as
F12 = K q1 q2 r12
r2 → (3)
Where F12 means force of q 1 ε▫ q 2

and r 12 is unit vector along r having direction from q 1 towards q 2
In advanced electricity, another constant ε▫ called
permittivity of free space is used. It is supposed as
ε▫ = 1__ = 1________ = 8.85×10 – 12
4πk 4×3.14×9×109
Thus
ε▫ = 8.85 × 10 – 12 coul 2/Nm2 → (4)
From this supposition we leave

K = 1__
4π ε▫
Using it in equation (1), we get
F = 1_ q 1 q 2
4π ε▫ r2 → (5)
Electric current:
When charges move in a wire an electric current is said to flow through
the wire. The electric current through a conductor is defined as the

=============================================================
amount of charge passing through any part of the conductor per second. It
is denoted by I.
If Q charges passes through a conductor in t sec then current I is
given by
Q
I =
t
UNIT:
The unit of current is AMPERE (A).The current is said o be one
‘ampere” When one coulomb of charge passes through any part of the
wire in one second.
i.e.
1coulomb
1 ampere = 1sec
The smaller units are as given below.
I micro ampere (1 µ A) = 10-6 A
I milli ampere (1mA) = 10-3 A
Resistance:
COMBINATION OF RESSITOR
We often encounter circuits where resistors are connected in series
or in parallel. In both cases, the total current flow from the battery and its
power output can be calculated if the equivalent resistance is determined.
1. SERIES COMBINATION:
A number of resistors R1, R2, and R3 are said to be connected in
series if they are connected end to end connectivity that the same current
I flows through ach.
R1 R2 R3
+
V
If in place of the above three resistance only one resistance Re is

joined to the battery the resistance Re is called the equivalent resistance.

=============================================================
Re
+
By Ohm’s Law V
V = IRe
If V1, V2 and V3 be the potential difference across R1, R2 and R3, then
V= V1 + V2 + V3
But V1=IR1, V2= IR2, V3= IR3
∴
IRe = IR1+ IR2 + IR3
Re = R1 + R2 + R3
If there are more than three resistors in series, then a single equivalent
resistance can be given as
N
R = ∑ Rj
j =1
II. PARALLEL COMBINATION:

When the resistors are combined between two common terminals
then such a combination is called parallel combination. Consider three
resistors R1, R2 and R3 are connected in parallel as shown in fig.
R1
R2
R3
+ –
V
We will suppose that main current I divides into I1, I2 Into I1, I2 and I3
through the resistors R1, R2 and R3 rep. And that the common p.d across
then is V. if R 
Is the equivalent resistance then.

=============================================================
V
I = and I = I1 + I2 + I3
R
Where I1 = V/R1, I2 = V/R2 + V/R3
v I I I
∴ R = R1 + R2 + R3
for more than three resistors
1 N
=∑ 1
R J =1 Rj
Ohm's Law:
According to ohm’s (German Scientist George Ohm), “The current
through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
between the ends of the conductor, provided that physical conditions
remain the same.” The physical state of the conductor means nature of
material, temperature and dimension of t he conductor.
Consider a conductor ab through which an electric current I flows,
when a potential difference V is applied across it.
I
+ –
By Oh’s Law
V∝I
OR V=IR 1
This is the mathematical from of Ohm’s law. Where R is constant
of proportionality called as ‘resistance” of the conductor and depends
upon the nature, dimension and temperature of the conductor. From
equation 1.
V V
I = and R=
R I
The S.I unit of resistance is the Ohm, shown as Ω (The Greek letter
Omega).
The resistance of the conductor is said to be one Ohms if a current of one
ampere passes through it when a P.d of 1 volt is applied across its end.

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MOST FAMOUS MUSLIM SCIENTISTS

ABU-ALI HUSSAIN IBN-AL-HAITHAM:

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DR: ABDUS SALAAM:

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Fundamental Physical Quantities:

Fundamental Physical Units:

Derived Physical Units:

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Table SI Base/Fundamental Units

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These quantities are given in the table on next page.

TABLE SI DERIVED UNITS

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Bigger Units Smaller Units

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(ii) 1cm = 0.01 m

Wave length = 7000 × 10-10 m

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VERNIER CONSTANT OR LEAST COUNT (LC)

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It object is regular shape their area. The area of a rectangular object is

The area of circular shaped object can be calculated by measuring its

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Volume of block =(length × breath × height) or (l × b × h).

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A has vector and magnitude

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Required the vectors

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We have two perpendicular vectors AB and BC, denoted by

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OSCILLATORY (VIBRATORY) MOTION:

DISTANCE, SPEED AND ITS TYPES:

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2as = Vf 2 – Vi 2 Hence Proved

Motion under Gravity (Free fall motion):

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Action of the ball

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1. The quantity of matter in 1. Weight is the force

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Now collision of the system

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After collision the momentum of the system