University of Yaoundé I

National Advanced School Of Engineering

Department of electrical Engineering

ELECTRICAL ENERGY METER DESIGN

AND REALIZATION

By: Guy Rostand KOUGANG

June 2010

1
 ABSTRACT
Most energy consumers complain about their monthly energy bill delivered by the
energy provider after the reading the actual meter index and subtracting the previous
month index.
This work presents the root of designing and realization of a digital energy meter of
electrical characteristics 20A, 220V, 50Hz, single phase. As the results are interesting,
it can be used as palliative to the actual complaint of electric energy consumers
provided energy tariff is reprogrammed to meet their local ones. Then they can in life
follow their energy consumptions, tariff and bill without necessary waiting the local
operator agents.
Key words: digital meter, electrical energy, design, realization, energy bill

RESUME
La plupart des consommateurs d’énergie se plaignent des factures énergétiques
mensuelles délivrées par leurs approvisionneurs après le relevé du nouvel index et la
soustraction de l’ancien index. Ce travail présente les bases de la conception et la
réalisation d’un compteur digital d’énergie électrique aux caractéristiques 20A, 220V,
50Hz monophasé. Les résultats étant intéressant, il peut être utilisé comme palliatif
aux plaintes actuelles à condition que les tarifs soient reprogrammés selon les tarifs de
la zone de son utilisation. Ainsi les consommateurs pourront en permanence suivre
leur consommation et tarif sans nécessairement attendre la venue de l’opérateur.
Mots clés : Compteur numérique, énergie électrique, conception, réalisation, facture
énergétique

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Contents
ABSTRACT ...........................................................................................................................................2
RESUME ..............................................................................................................................................2
List of abbreviations ...........................................................................................................................5
List of variables ...................................................................................................................................6
List of tables .......................................................................................................................................6
List of figures ......................................................................................................................................6
CHAPTER 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................7
1-Background and context of the study ...............................................................................................7
2-Problem statement ..........................................................................................................................7
3-Research question ...........................................................................................................................8
4-Research hypothesis ........................................................................................................................8
5-Scope and objectives of the study ....................................................................................................8
6-Achievements ..................................................................................................................................8
7-Overview of Dissertation..................................................................................................................9
8-Definition of terms [0] .....................................................................................................................9
Chapter 2: Literature review on energy meters ................................................................................. 10
Introduction......................................................................................................................................10
I- Definition of an energy meter ........................................................................................................ 10
1-Direct current (DC) .....................................................................................................................11
2- Alternating current (AC) ............................................................................................................12
3-Unit of measurement .................................................................................................................12
II-Types of meters .............................................................................................................................13
1-Electromechanical meters .......................................................................................................... 14
2-Electronic meters .......................................................................................................................16
3-Solid-state design.......................................................................................................................16
III-Applications .................................................................................................................................17
1- Multiple tariff (variable rate) meters ......................................................................................... 17
2-Domestic usage..........................................................................................................................18
3-Commercial usage......................................................................................................................18
4-Appliance energy meters ........................................................................................................... 18

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 5-In-home energy use displays ...................................................................................................... 19
6-Smart meters .............................................................................................................................19
7-Prepayment meters ...................................................................................................................20
8-Time of day metering .................................................................................................................21
9-Power export metering ..............................................................................................................21
10-Location ...................................................................................................................................22
IV-Customer drop and metering equation .........................................................................................23
V-Tampering and security .................................................................................................................25
Conclusion: .......................................................................................................................................27
Chapter 3: Material and methods .....................................................................................................27
Introduction......................................................................................................................................27
I-Block diagram .................................................................................................................................27
1-Blocks description ..........................................................................................................................27
a- Electrical installation .............................................................................................................27
b- Transducing ..........................................................................................................................28
c- DC supply ..............................................................................................................................28
d- Conditioning .........................................................................................................................28
e- Processing ............................................................................................................................. 29
f- Displaying .............................................................................................................................. 29
2- Block calculation .......................................................................................................................30
a- Sensing and conditioning.......................................................................................................30
a.2 Current transducer ..............................................................................................................32
2 Microcontroller protection ....................................................................................................... 34
3-DC supply...................................................................................................................................34
4- General layout of the circuit .................................................................................................. 35
5-List of materials......................................................................................................................35
II- Data processing flow chart ............................................................................................................37
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................38
CHAPTER 4: REALIZATION AND RESULTS ANALYSIS............................................................................ 39
Introduction......................................................................................................................................39
I-Realized device ...............................................................................................................................39
II-Measurements done with the meter .............................................................................................40
III-Comment of the results ................................................................................................................ 43
IV-Possible sources of errors in measuring the energy....................................................................... 44

4
 Digitally signed by
Guy Rostand
KOUGANG
DN: cn=Guy Rostand
KOUGANG, c=CM,
ou=GEDH,
email=g.rostandkouga
ng@gmail.com
Reason: J'ai revu ce
document
Location: gauche
Date: 2020.03.23

V-Advantages and drawbacks of the meter ....................................................................................... 45

23:01:01 +01'00'

1- Meter Characteristics ................................................................................................................45

2- Meter advantages ..................................................................................................................... 45
3- Meter limitations ......................................................................................................................45
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................46
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION.........................................................................46
Meter advantages and disadvantages ...............................................................................................46
Recommendation .............................................................................................................................47
Suggestions for further studies ......................................................................................................... 47
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................47
References:.......................................................................................................................................48
Appendix .......................................................................................................................................... 49

List of abbreviations

DC : Direct Current
AC: Alternating Current
ADC: Analog to Digital Converter
RTC : Real Time Clock
TOU: Time Of Use
AMR: Automatic Meter Reading
STS: Standard Transfer Specification

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 List of variables

I: current
V: voltage,
P: active power,
E: energy
T: fundamental period,
t: time
N and M: Number of samples
: alternating voltage
: 5V DC voltage
VoV: analog input voltage

List of tables
1Table 3.1: list of materials ............................................................................................................... 35
2Table 4.1: Data obtained from the testing of the meter................................................................... 41

List of figures
1Figure 2.1 : Three-phase electromechanical induction meter, metering 100 A 240/415 V supply.
Horizontal aluminum rotor disc is visible in center of meter .............................................................. 15
2Figure 2.2: Solid state electricity meter used in a home in the Netherlands. .................................... 17
3Figure 3.1: Block diagram of the system .......................................................................................... 27
4Figure 3.2: Voltage divider ..............................................................................................................30
5Figure 3.3: Voltage conditioning block.............................................................................................31
6Figure 3.4: Current conditioning...................................................................................................... 32
7Figure 5: 3.5 Vdc supply ..................................................................................................................35
8Figure 3.6: General layout of the meter...........................................................................................35
9Figure 3.7: Flow chart of the processing block .................................................................................38
10Figure 4.1: Picture of the realized energy meter ............................................................................40

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11Figure 4.2: Energy consumed from meter reading and energy estimated for loads Ld1, Ld2 and Ld3.
.........................................................................................................................................................43

CHAPTER 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1-Background and context of the study

We have noticed that most energy consumers complain about their monthly energy bill
delivered by the energy provider after the reading the actual meter index and
subtracting the previous month index. The following factors can be considered in
looking how a consumer can think that he has receive a bill that does not correspond to
his real monthly energy consumption:
The meter index was wrongly read,
A miss up of many meters index can create confusion,
The consumer does not know his current per KWh consumed cost which varies
according to the amount of energy consumed,
The consumer does not know the taxation of his consumption

2-Problem statement

With all the above mentioned context which is common in many countries and
specially in Cameroon, there is need to introduce an energy meter which will allow the
consumer to see his monthly consumption and bill. We have decided to bring in our
contribution by means of Design and Realization of a digital device to measure
electrical energy which will help to reduce the inconveniences listed above and will
also be an introduction of the learners to the digital world by means of:

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 Being able to sense, convert and condition analog signal and digital signal ,
To insure that the obtained equipment is reliable and valid with minimum error,
Making the knowhow of the learners be useful to the society ,
Produce a device at lower cost.

3-Research question

Is our tool going to be useful, easy to use, practicable, reliable, valid and accessible
to the society? In the first place we can say yes, but at the end shall judge how far
we were true.

4-Research hypothesis

For our work, we consider the following hypothesis:

The electrical appliances are of single phase,
The device energy consumption is by far lower than the client consumption,
therefore it can be neglected,
The cost of the device should be at the client level and not be cumbersome.

5-Scope and objectives of the study

This research is aimed at designing and realizing a digital energy meter which should
display the amount of energy consumed, the monthly bill and the per KWh cost.
Therefore we are:
-To sense AC voltage and current of a load and compute the active power,
-To calculate the monthly energy consumption and its cost.

6-Achievements

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We achieve to come out with a tool in which users should be able:
-To read the monthly consumption,
-To read the monthly bill,
-To know their monthly KWh consumed energy cost

7-Overview of Dissertation

Many works have been done relevant to county energy consumption. Many types of
meter therefore exist: electromechanical meter, electronic meter …

8-Definition of terms [0]

Key words: Design, realization, digital device, electrical energy, meter

Design: A unique layout of components or controls, in accordance with good
engineering practice, esthetics, and (often) ergonomics.
Meter 1. An instrument for measuring and indicating the value of a particular quantity.
2. To supply in specific increments or by a governed amount.
Digital device 1. Pertaining to components, circuits, or systems that use signals having
an integral number of discrete levels or values, rather than signals, whose levels or
values vary over a continuous range. 2. Pertaining to a tool to a numeric readout or
display.
Electrical energy: Energy in the form of electricity. The term is often used in place of
ELECTRICITY.

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 Chapter 2: Literature review on energy meters

Introduction

For the metering of the energy consumed, many technologies have been developed. In
this chapter we present the different concepts of electrical energy metering
technologies.

I- Definition of an energy meter

An electricity meter, electric meter, or energy meter is a device that measures the
amount of electric energy consumed by a residence, business, or an electrically
powered device.
Electric utilities use electric meters installed at customer’s premises to measure
electric energy delivered to their customers for billing purposes. They are typically
calibrated in billing units, the most common one being the kilowatt hour [kWh]. They
are usually read once each billing period.
When energy savings during certain periods are desired, some meters may measure
demand, the maximum use of power in some interval. "Time of day" metering allows
electric rates to be changed during a day, to record usage during peak high-cost
periods and off-peak, lower-cost, periods. Also, in some areas meters have relays for
demand response load shedding during peak load periods.

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 1-Direct current (DC)

As commercial use of electric energy spread in the 1880s, it became increasingly

important that an electric energy meter, similar to the then existing gas meters, was
required to properly bill customers for the cost of energy, instead of billing for a fixed
number of lamps per month. Many experimental types of meter were developed.
Edison at first worked on a DC electromechanical meter with a direct reading register,
but instead developed an electrochemical metering system, which used an electrolytic
cell to totalize current consumption. At periodic intervals the plates were removed,
weighed, and the customer billed. The electrochemical meter was labor-intensive to
read and not well received by customers?

An early type of electrochemical meter used in the United Kingdom was the 'Reason'
meter. This consisted of a vertically mounted glass structure with a mercury reservoir
at the top of the meter. As current was drawn from the supply, electrochemical action
transferred the mercury to the bottom of the column. Like all other DC meters, it
recorded ampere-hours. Once the mercury pool was exhausted, the meter became an
open circuit. It was therefore necessary for the consumer to pay for a further supply of
electricity, whereupon, the supplier's agent would unlock the meter from its mounting
and invert it restoring the mercury to the reservoir and the supply.

In 1885 Ferranti offered a mercury motor meter with a register similar to gas meters;
this had the advantage that the consumer could easily read the meter and verify
consumption [1]. The first accurate, recording electricity consumption meter was a DC
meter by Dr Hermann Aron, who patented it in 1883. Hugo Hirst of the British
General Electric Company introduced it commercially into Great Britain from 1888.
Unlike their AC counterparts, DC meters did not measure energy. Instead they
measured charge in ampere-hours. Since the voltage of the supply should remain
substantially constant, the reading of the meter was proportional to actual energy
consumed. For example: if a meter recorded that 100 ampere-hours had been
consumed on a 200 volt supply, then 20 kilowatt-hours of energy had been supplied.

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Aron's meter recorded the total charge used over time, and showed it on a series of
clock dials.

2- Alternating current (AC)

The first specimen of the AC kilowatt-hour meter produced on the basis of Hungarian
Ottó Bláthy's patent and named after him was presented by the Ganz Works at the
Frankfurt Fair in 1889, and the first induction kilowatt-hour meter was already
marketed by the factory at the end of the same year. These were the first alternating-
current watt-hour meters, known by the name of Bláthy-meters.[4] The AC kilowatt
hour meters used at present operate on the same principle as Bláthy's original
invention. Also around 1889, Elihu Thomson of the American General Electric
company developed a recording watt meter (watt-hour meter) based on an ironless
commutator motor. This meter overcame the disadvantages of the electrochemical type
and could operate on either alternating or direct current.[3]

In 1894 Oliver Shallenberger of the Westinghouse Electric Corporation applied the

induction principle previously used [4] only in AC ampere-hour meters to produce a
watt-hour meter of the modern electromechanical form, using an induction disk whose
rotational speed was made proportional to the power in the circuit. The Bláthy meter
was similar to Shallenberger and Thomson meter in that they are two-phase motor
meter. Although the induction meter would only work on alternating current, it
eliminated the delicate and troublesome commutator of the Thomson design.
Shallenberger fell ill and was unable to refine his initial large and heavy design,
although he did also develop a polyphase version.

3-Unit of measurement

The most common unit of measurement on the electricity meter is the kilowatt hour
[kWh], which is equal to the amount of energy used by a load of one kilowatt over a

12
period of one hour, or 3 600 000 joules. Some electricity companies use the megajoule
instead.

Demand is normally measured in watts, but averaged over a period, most often a
quarter or half hour.
Reactive power is measured in "thousands of volt-ampere reactive-hours", (kvarh). By
convention, a "lagging" or inductive load, such as a motor, will have positive reactive
power. A "leading", or capacitive load, will have negative reactive power.
Volt-amperes measures all power passed through a distribution network, including
reactive and actual. This is equal to the product of root-mean-square volts and
amperes.

Distortion of the electric current by loads is measured in several ways. Power factor is
the ratio of resistive (or real power) to volt-amperes. A capacitive load has a leading
power factor, and an inductive load has a lagging power factor. A purely resistive load
(such as a filament lamp, heater or kettle) exhibits a power factor of 1. Current
harmonics are a measure of distortion of the wave form. For example, electronic loads
such as computer power supplies draw their current at the voltage peak to fill their
internal storage elements. This can lead to a significant voltage drop near the supply
voltage peak which shows as a flattening of the voltage waveform. This flattening
causes odd harmonics which are not permissible if they exceed specific limits, as they
are not only wasteful, but may interfere with the operation of other equipment.

II-Types of meters

Electricity meters operate by continuously measuring the instantaneous voltage (volts)

and current (amperes) to give energy used (in joules, kilowatt-hours etc.). Meters for
smaller services (such as small residential customers) can be connected directly in-line
between source and customer. For larger loads, more than about 200 ampere of load,
current transformers are used, so that the meter can be located other than in line with
the service conductors. The meters fall into two basic categories, electromechanical
and electronic.

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 1-Electromechanical meters

The most common type of electricity meter is the electromechanical induction watt-
hour meter.[5]

The electromechanical induction meter operates by counting the revolutions of a non-

magnetic, but electrically conductive, metal disc which is made to rotate at a speed
proportional to the power passing through the meter. The number of revolutions is thus
proportional to the energy usage. The voltage coil consumes a small and relatively
constant amount of power, typically around 2 watts which is not registered on the
meter. The current coil similarly consumes a small amount of power in proportion to
the square of the current flowing through it, typically up to a couple of watts at full
load, which is registered on the meter.
The disc is acted upon by two sets of coils, which form, in effect, a two phase
induction motor. One coil is connected in such a way that it produces a magnetic flux
in proportion to the voltage and the other produces a magnetic flux in proportion to the
current. The field of the voltage coil is delayed by 90 degrees, due to the coil's
inductive nature, and calibrated using a lag coil. This produces eddy currents in the
disc and the effect is such that a force is exerted on the disc in proportion to the
product of the instantaneous current, voltage and phase angle (power factor) between
them. A permanent magnet exerts an opposing force proportional to the speed of
rotation of the disc. The equilibrium between these two opposing forces results in the
disc rotating at a speed proportional to the power or rate of energy usage. The disc
drives a register mechanism which counts revolutions, much like the odometer in a
car, in order to render a measurement of the total energy used.
The type of meter described above is used on a single-phase AC supply. Different
phase configurations use additional voltage and current coils.

The disc is supported by a spindle which has a worm gear which drives the register.
The register is a series of dials which record the amount of energy used. The dials may
be of the cyclometer type, an odometer-like display that is easy to read where for each

14
dial a single digit is shown through a window in the face of the meter, or of the pointer
type where a pointer indicates each digit. With the dial pointer type, adjacent pointers
generally rotate in opposite directions due to the gearing mechanism.

The amount of energy represented by one revolution of the disc is denoted by the
symbol Kh which is given in units of watt-hours per revolution. The value 7.2 is
commonly seen. Using the value of Kh one can determine their power consumption at
any given time by timing the disc with a stopwatch.

1Figure 2.1 : Three-phase electromechanical induction meter, metering 100 A 240/415 V supply. Horizontal aluminum
rotor disc is visible in center of meter

P=3600Kh/t

Where:
t = time in seconds taken by the disc to complete one revolution,
P = power in watts.

For example, if Kh = 7.2 as above, and one revolution took place in 14.4 seconds, the
power is 1800 watts. This method can be used to determine the power consumption of
household devices by switching them on one by one.

Most domestic electricity meters must be read manually, whether by a representative

of the power company or by the customer. Where the customer reads the meter, the
reading may be supplied to the power company by telephone, post or over the internet.
The electricity company will normally require a visit by a company representative at
least annually in order to verify customer-supplied readings and to make a basic safety
check of the meter.

15
In an induction type meter, creep is a phenomenon that can adversely affect accuracy
that occurs when the meter disc rotates continuously with potential applied and the
load terminals open circuited. A test for error due to creep is called a creep test.

2-Electronic meters

Electronic meters display the energy used on an LCD or LED display, and some can
also transmit readings to remote places. In addition to measuring energy used,
electronic meters can also record other parameters of the load and supply such as
instantaneous and maximum rate of usage demands, voltages, power factor and
reactive power used etc. They can also support time-of-day billing, for example,
recording the amount of energy used during on-peak and off-peak hours.

3-Solid-state design
As in the block diagram, the meter has a power supply, a metering engine, a
processing and communication engine (i.e. a microcontroller), and other add-on
modules such as LCD display, communication ports/modules and so on.
The metering engine is given the voltage and current inputs and has a voltage
reference, samplers and quantisers followed by an ADC section to yield the digitized
equivalents of all the inputs. These inputs are then processed using a digital signal
processor to calculate the various metering parameters such as powers, energies etc.

The largest source of long-term errors in the meter is drift in the preamp, followed by
the precision of the voltage reference. Both of these vary with temperature as well, and
vary wildly because most meters are outdoors. Characterizing and compensating for
these is a major part of meter design.

The processing and communication section has the responsibility of calculating the
various derived quantities from the digital values generated by the metering engine.
This also has the responsibility of communication using various protocols and
interface with other addon modules connected as slaves to it.

16
RTC (Real Time Clock) and other add-on modules are attached as slaves to the
processing and communication section for various input/output functions. On a
modern meter most if not all of this will be implemented inside the microprocessor,
such as the real time clock (RTC), LCD controller, temperature sensor, memory and
analog to digital converters.

2Figure 2.2: Solid state electricity meter used in a home in the Netherlands.

III-Applications

1- Multiple tariff (variable rate) meters

Electricity retailers may wish to charge customers different tariffs at different times of
the day to better reflect the costs of generation and transmission. Since it is typically
not cost effective to store significant amounts of electricity during a period of low
demand for use during a period of high demand, costs will vary significantly
depending on the time of day. Low cost generation capacity (baseload) such as nuclear
can take many hours to start, meaning a surplus in times of low demand, whereas high
cost but flexible generating capacity (such as gas turbines) must be kept available to
respond at a moment's notice (spinning reserve) to peak demand, perhaps being used
for a few minutes per day, which is very expensive.
Some multiple tariff meters use different tariffs for different amounts of demand.
These are usually industrial meters.

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 2-Domestic usage

Domestic variable-rate meters generally permit two to three tariffs ("peak", "off-peak"
and "shoulder") and in such installations a simple electromechanical time switch may
be used. Historically, these have often been used in conjunction with electrical storage
heaters or hot water storage systems.
Multiple tariffs are made easier by Time Of Use (TOU) meters which incorporate or
are connected to a time switch and which have multiple registers.

Switching between the tariffs may happen via a radio-activated switch rather than a
time switch to prevent tampering with a sealed time switch to obtain cheaper
electricity.

3-Commercial usage

Large commercial and industrial premises may use electronic meters which record
power usage in blocks of half an hour or less. This is because most electricity grids
have demand surges throughout the day, and the power company may wish to give
price incentives to large customers to reduce demand at these times. These demand
surges often correspond to meal times or, famously, to advertisements interrupting
popular television programs.

4-Appliance energy meters

Plug in electricity meters (or "Plug load" meters) measure energy used by individual
appliances. There are a variety of models available on the market today but they all
work on the same basic principle. The meter is plugged into an outlet, and the
appliance to be measured is plugged into the meter. Such meters can help in energy
conservation by identifying major energy users, or devices that consume excessive
standby power. Web resources can also be used, if an estimate of the power

18
consumption is enough for the research purposes. A power meter can often be
borrowed from the local power authorities or a local public library.

5-In-home energy use displays

A potentially powerful means to reduce household energy consumption is to provide

convenient real-time feedback to users so they can change their energy using behavior.
Recently, low-cost energy feedback displays have become available. A study using a
consumer-readable meter in 500 Ontario homes by Hydro One showed an average
6.5% drop in total electricity use when compared with a similarly sized control group.
Hydro One subsequently offered free power monitors to 30,000 customers based on
the success of the pilot. Projects such as Google PowerMeter, take information from a
smart meter and make it more readily available to users to help encourage
conservation.

6-Smart meters

Smart meters go a step further than simple AMR (automatic meter reading). They offer
additional functionality including a real-time or near real-time reads, power outage
notification, and power quality monitoring. They allow price setting agencies to
introduce different prices for consumption based on the time of day and the season.

These price differences can be used to reduce peaks in demand (load shifting or peak
lopping), reducing the need for additional power plants and in particular the higher
polluting and costly to operate natural gas powered peaker plants. The feedback they
provide to consumers has also been shown to cut overall energy consumption.

Another type of smart meter uses nonintrusive load monitoring to automatically

determine the number and type of appliances in a residence, how much energy each
uses and when. This meter is used by electric utilities to do surveys of energy use. It

19
eliminates the need to put timers on all of the appliances in a house to determine how
much energy each uses.

7-Prepayment meters

The standard business model of electricity retailing involves the electricity company
billing the customer for the amount of energy used in the previous month or quarter. In
some countries, if the retailer believes that the customer may not pay the bill, a
prepayment meter may be installed. This requires the customer to make advance
payment before electricity can be used. If the available credit is exhausted then the
supply of electricity is cut off by a relay.

In the UK, mechanical prepayment meters used to be common in rented

accommodation. Disadvantages of these included the need for regular visits to remove
cash, and risk of theft of the cash in the meter.

Modern solid-state electricity meters, in conjunction with smart cards, have removed
these disadvantages and such meters are commonly used for customers considered to
be a poor credit risk. In the UK, customers can use organizations such as the Post
Office or PayPoint network, where rechargeable tokens (Quantum cards for natural
gas, or plastic "keys" for electricity) can be loaded with whatever money the customer
has available.

Recently smartcards are introduced as much reliable tokens that allows two way data
exchange between meter and the utility.

In South Africa, Sudan and Northern Ireland prepaid meters are recharged by entering
a unique, encoded twenty digit number using a keypad. This makes the tokens,
essentially a slip of paper, very cheap to produce.

Around the world, experiments are going on, especially in developing countries, to test
pre-payment systems. In some cases, prepayment meters have not been accepted by

20
customers. There are various groups, such as the Standard Transfer Specification
(STS) association, which promote common standards for prepayment metering
systems across manufacturers. Prepaid meters using the STS standard are used in
many countries.

8-Time of day metering

Time of Day metering (TOD), also known as Time of Usage (TOU) or Seasonal Time
of Day (SToD), metering involves dividing the day, month and year into tariff slots
and with higher rates at peak load periods and low tariff rates at off-peak load periods.
While this can be used to automatically control usage on the part of the customer
(resulting in automatic load control), it is often simply the customers responsibility to
control his own usage, or pay accordingly (voluntary load control). This also allows
the utilities to plan their transmission infrastructure appropriately. See also Demand-
side Management (DSM).
TOD metering normally splits rates into an arrangement of multiple segments
including on-peak, off-peak, mid-peak or shoulder, and critical peak. A typical
arrangement is a peak occurring during the day (non-holiday days only), such as from
1 pm to 9 pm Monday through Friday during the summer and from 6:30 am to 12 noon
and 5 pm to 9 pm during the winter. More complex arrangements include the use of
critical peaks which occur during high demand periods. The times of peak
demand/cost will vary in different markets around the world.
Large commercial users can purchase power by the hour using either forecast pricing
or real time pricing.

9-Power export metering

Many electricity customers are installing their own electricity generating equipment,
whether for reasons of economy, redundancy or environmental reasons. When a
customer is generating more electricity than required for his own use, the surplus may
be exported back to the power grid. Customers that generate back into the "grid"
usually must have special equipment and safety devices to protect the grid components
21
(as well as the customer's own) in case of faults (electrical short circuits) or
maintenance of the grid (say voltage on a downed line coming from an exporting
customers facility).

This exported energy may be accounted for in the simplest case by the meter running
backwards during periods of net export, thus reducing the customer's recorded energy
usage by the amount exported. This in effect results in the customer being paid for
his/her exports at the full retail price of electricity. Unless equipped with a detent or
equivalent, a standard meter will accurately record power flow in each direction by
simply running backwards when power is exported. Where allowed by law, utilities
maintain a profitable margin between the price of energy delivered to the consumer
and the rate credited for consumer-generated energy that flows back to the grid.
Lately, upload sources typically originate from renewable sources (e.g., wind turbines,
photovoltaic cells), or gas or steam turbines, which are often found in cogeneration
systems. Another potential upload source that has been proposed is plug-in hybrid car
batteries (vehicle-to-grid power systems). This requires a "smart grid," which includes
meters that measure electricity via communication networks that require remote
control and give customers timing and pricing options. Vehicle-to-grid systems could
be installed at workplace parking lots and garages and at park and rides and could help
drivers charge their batteries at home at night when off-peak power prices are cheaper,
and receive bill crediting for selling excess electricity back to the grid during high-
demand hours.

10-Location

The location of an electricity meter varies with each installation. Possible locations
include on a utility pole serving the property, in a street-side cabinet (meter box) or
inside the premises adjacent to the consumer unit / distribution board. Electricity
companies may prefer external locations as the meter can be read without gaining
access to the premises but external meters may be more prone to vandalism.

22
Current transformers permit the meter to be located remotely from the current-carrying
conductors. This is common in large installations. For example a substation serving a
single large customer may have metering equipment installed in a cabinet, without
bringing heavy cables into the cabinet.

IV-Customer drop and metering equation

Since electrical standards vary in different regions, "customer drops" from the grid to
the customer also vary depending on the standards and the type of installation. There
are several common types of connections between a grid and a customer. Each type
has a different metering equation. Blondel's theorem states that for any system with N
current-carrying conductors, that N-1 measuring elements are sufficient to measure
electrical energy. This indicates that different metering is needed, for example, for a
three-phase three-wire system than for a three-phase four-wire (with neutral) system.

In Europe, Asia, Africa and most other locations, single phase is common for
residential and small commercial customers. Single phase distribution is less-
expensive, because one set of transformers in a substation normally serve a large area
with relatively high voltages (usually 220V) and no local transformers. These have a
simple metering equation: Watts = Volts x Amps, with Volts measured from the
neutral to the phase wire. In the United States, Canada, and parts of Central and South
America similar customers are normally served by three-wire single phase. Three-wire
single-phase requires local transformers, as few as one per ten residences, but provides
lower, safer voltages at the socket (usually 120V), and provides two voltages to
customers: neutral to phase (usually 120V), and phase to phase (usually 240v).
Additionally, three-wire customers normally have neutral wired to the zero side of the
generator's windings, which gives earthing that can be easily measured to be safe.
These meters have a metering equation of Watts = 0.5 x Volts x (Amps of phase A -
Amps of phase B), with Volts measured between the phase wires.

Industrial power is normally supplied as three phase power. There are two forms: three
wire, or four wire with a system neutral. In "three wire" or "three wire delta," the

23
generator is wired as a triangle (or "delta"), and an earth ground is the safety ground.
The three phases have voltage only relative to each other. This distribution method has
one fewer wire, is less expensive, and is common in Asia, Africa, and many parts of
Europe. In regions that mix residences and light industry, it is common for this to be
the only distribution method. A meter for this type normally measures two of the
windings relative to the third winding, and adds the watts. One disadvantage of this
system is that if the safety earth fails, it is difficult to discover this by direct
measurement, because no phase has a voltage relative to earth.

In the four-wire three-phase system, sometimes called "four-wire wye", the safety
ground is connected to a neutral wire that is physically connected to the zero-voltage
side of the three windings of the generator. Since all power phases are relative to the
neutral in this system, if the neutral is disconnected, it can be directly measured. In the
U.S., the National Electrical Code requires neutrals to be of this type.[33] In this system,
power meters measure and sum all three phases relative to the neutral.

In North America, it is common for electricity meters to plug into a standardized

socket outdoors, on the side of a building. This allows the meter to be replaced without
disturbing the wires to the socket, or the occupant of the building. Some sockets may
have a bypass while the meter is removed for service. The amount of electricity used
without being recorded during this small time is considered insignificant when
compared to the inconvenience which might be caused to the customer by cutting off
the electricity supply.

In many other countries the supply and load terminals are in the meter housing itself.
Cables are connected directly to the meter. In some areas the meter is outside, often on
a utility pole. In others, it is inside the building in a niche. If inside, it may share a data
connection with other meters. If it exists, the shared connection is often a small plug
near the post box.

In 2014, networking to meters is rapidly changing. The most common schemes seem
to combine an existing national standard for data (e.g. ANSI C12.19 or IEC 62056)

24
operating via the internet protocol with a small circuit board for power line
communication, or a digital radio for a mobile phone network.

V-Tampering and security

Meters can be manipulated to make them under-register, effectively allowing power

use without paying for it. This theft or fraud can be dangerous as well as dishonest.

Power companies often install remote-reporting meters specifically to enable remote

detection of tampering, and specifically to discover energy theft. The change to smart
power meters is useful to stop energy theft.

When tampering is detected, the normal tactic, legal in most areas of the USA, is to
switch the subscriber to a "tampering" tariff charged at the meter's maximum designed
current. Meter readers are trained to spot signs of tampering, and with crude
mechanical meters, the maximum rate may be charged each billing period until the
tamper is removed, or the service is disconnected.
A common method of tampering on mechanical disk meters is to attach magnets to the
outside of the meter. Strong magnets saturate the magnetic fields in the meter so that
the motor portion of a mechanical meter does not operate. Lower power magnets can
add to the drag resistance of the internal disk resistance magnets. Magnets can also
saturate current transformers or power-supply transformers in electronic meters,
though countermeasures are common.
Rectified DC loads cause mechanical (but not electronic) meters to under-register. DC
current does not cause the coils to make eddy currents in the disk, so this causes
reduced rotation and a lower bill.

Some combinations of capacitive and inductive load can interact with the coils and
mass of a rotor and cause reduced or reverse motion.

25
All of these effects can be detected by the electric company, and many modern meters
can detect or compensate for them.

The owner of the meter normally secures the meter against tampering. Revenue
meters' mechanisms and connections are sealed. Meters may also measure VAR-hours
(the reflected load), neutral and DC currents (elevated by most electrical tampering),
ambient magnetic fields, etc. Even simple mechanical meters can have mechanical
flags that are dropped by magnetic tampering or large DC currents.

Newer computerized meters usually have counter-measures against tampering. AMR

(Automated Meter Reading) meters often have sensors that can report opening of the
meter cover, magnetic anomalies, extra clock setting, glued buttons, inverted
installation, reversed or switched phases etc.

Some tampers bypass the meter, wholly or in part. Safe tampers of this type normally
increase the neutral current at the meter. Most split-phase residential meters in the
United States are unable to detect neutral currents. However, modern tamper-resistant
meters can detect and bill it at standard rates.[6]

Disconnecting a meter's neutral connector is unsafe because shorts can then pass
through people or equipment rather than a metallic ground to the generator or earth.

A phantom loop connection via an earth ground is often much higher resistance than
the metallic neutral connector. Even if an earth ground is safe, metering at the
substation can alert the operator to tampering. Substations, inter-ties, and transformers
normally have a high-accuracy meter for the area served. Power companies normally
investigate discrepancies between the total billed and the total generated, in order to
find and fix power distribution problems. These investigations are an effective method
to discover tampering.

26
 Conclusion:

In this chapter we have presented the existing technologies of electrical energy meters.
In the following chapter, we will present the basis of designing an energy meter.

Chapter 3: Material and methods

Introduction
In the electricity company as in any other business, the quantity of product used by
consumers must be evaluated. The design of an energy meter needs careful attention
on the way the electrical variables are sensed and processed. In this chapter we present
in detail the materials used in the design of the energy meter.

I-Block diagram

DC Supply

Electrical Transducing Conditioning Processing Displaying

installation
3Figure 3.1: Block diagram of the system

1-Blocks description

a- Electrical installation

27
The electrical installation is a single phase installation which consumes electrical
energy and the monthly consumption is monthly checked with the monthly bill; the
operator should be able to read the monthly energy consumption and the cost in the
local currency. We consider an installation which maximum current drawn is 20A.

b- Transducing

This block transduces the electrical parameters used in the computation of the power
that is voltage and current. For that, the voltage being 220V rms must be broken down
to 2.5 V by means of voltage divider. The current is transduced using a current
transformer in order to have an image that is proportional to the installation drawn
current.
The low level voltage obtained from the current transformer is then conditioned to
meet the processing block constraints.

c- DC supply

The DC supply is used to provide the DC source at low voltage level needed by the
conditioning, processing and displaying blocks.

d- Conditioning

Once, the installation raw variables have been transduced, the output must be reset in
order to meet the processing block input constraint. That is non-negative value should
enter it for further internal analog to digital conversion. Therefore, an offset dc voltage
is added to it so that the resulting signal is made positive at every time.

28
 e- Processing

In this block, the digitalization of the input voltage and current are done by mean of
ADC included in the microcontroller. The active power is then compute using the
RMS approach as follows:

= for analog signal,

As our signal is digitalized,

We shall use but the formula to compute the active power from discreet values of v
and i.

Where V and I are the voltage and current respectively ( the voltage divider, the
current amplification and other parameter of the transducing and conditioning blocks
are cancel so that the real processed voltage and current are the real installation
values).
The consumed energy is then deduced using the formula

Where N, and M are the maximum counts for specific time period. are the time
step size for sample j switch the measured power is .
The microcontroller is used in this block, we use the PIC16F86A because it has an
ADC module incorporated, external oscillator, frequency 4MHz (4MHz > 2x50Hz ),
two analog inputs, two digital input, 3 digital outputs for the LCD display.

f- Displaying

This block is used to display the last month energy index, the new index, the
consumed energy and the cost. Use the LCD NOKIA 3310 to display the required
information: energy consumed, cost and tariff.

29
 2- Block calculation

a- Sensing and conditioning

The installation is 220 V rms single phase, so the voltage divider should help in
braking it down to low level values.

a.1- The voltage divider

We use resistors to break down the line voltage:

4Figure 3.2: Voltage divider

The voltage conditioning

30
5Figure 3.3: Voltage conditioning block

= , equ.1

= , Equ.2

Let’s call I the current flowing through R6; it it’s the same current flowing through R5
due to high input impedance of the operational amplifier.

= ; Eq.3

;Eq.4

+ , Eq.5

+ , Eq.6

From equations 1, 2 and 6, we deduce

+ ; eq.7

To make sure that the analog input signal of the ADC is in between 0 and 5V positive,
VoV parameters must be set so that this condition is satisfied.
As Vac oscillates between -311V and +311V , by taking

= 2.5/311 ,eq.8

oscillates in between -2.5V and +2.5V.

If R1=1K , R2 will be equal to 120K ;

For R5=R6=1K , VDD=5V,
VoV oscillates in between 0 and +5V if we take an offset voltage
= . to cancel the negative part of

31
So, we take R4=1K , R3=3K
Finally, the expression of VoV is
.5 ; eq.9
Or simply
( ) , eq.10

a.2 Current transducer

We use the current transformer to transduce the installation drawn current.

When the current flows ina space delimited by a coil, an induced emf appears across
its terminals. When an external load is connected to it, a current flows from it.
The induced emf is proportional to the primary current, therefore, by calibration, one
can deduce the transformation coefficient k.
Induced emf:
E=k.i ; eq.11
Or By measurement of I and E, one can determine the value of k which is related to
the ratio of the transformer windings turns and its construction.

6Figure 3.4: Current conditioning

This diagram is analogous to that of the ac voltage conditioning; we have the
following correspondences:

32
E VA;
R7 R5
R10 R6
R8 R3
R9 R4
VC VB

= ; eq.12

So, from the work done under voltage transducer, we deduce from equation 6

+ , eq.13

From equations 12 and 13, we have

+ , eq.14

But E=ki
So
.
+ ; eq.15

In order to keep in between -2.5V and +2.5V, we will choose as in the case of the
voltage R9=R4=1K , R8=R3=3K
Let’s fix the maximum current of the installation to be 20A (maximum value that the
meter will handle effectively).
.
will be the maximum current voltage image in the range of -2.5 to +2.5 V.

That is
.
= . ; eq.16

Therefore

33
 .
= ; eq.17
.

If we take = , then k=0.088 V/A

And
. + . ; eq.18

Or simply
. + . ; eq.19

Microcontroller protection

To protect the microcontroller from overcurrent, protective resistances are usedto limit
the drawn current within safe limits. To filter the input signals, capacitor of 10 nF are
used.
We shall use a microcontroller which has at least the following characteristics: 2
analog inputs, external oscillator, 4MHz frequency, at least 8 digital I/O. for
monitoring and display communication.

3-DC supply

The primary energy being an ac while the electronic components use but 5Vdc supply,
there is a need to create a dc supply from the existing ac by means of transformation,
rectification and regularization. A 220V/2x12V potential transformer is used to break
down the voltage. This 2x12Vac voltage is then rectified using diodes (24VRPM, 1A) as
shown on figure 3.5. The capacitor C1 and C2 as C3 and C4 are used the damper the
fluctuation of the voltage and eliminate noise respectively. Their values are as shown
on the figure. The 7805 regulator is used to output a 5Vdc regulated voltage with
maximum current of 1A to supply the microcontroller and any other 5Vdc component.

34
7Figure 5: 3.5 Vdc supply

4- General layout of the circuit

8Figure 3.6: General layout of the meter

5-List of materials

1Table 3.1: list of materials

Item Designation Quantity Features
1 Potential transformer 1 220V/12Vx2

35
2 Current transformer 1 20A, k=0.088
3 resistors 16 Ceramic, 50mW, (resistances as in
chapter 3)
4 AOP 2 LM358
5 Variable resistor 1 Ceramic, 1 K , 50mW
6 Capacitors 5 (electrolytic) 6.3V, capacitances as presented in
chapter 3
7 signal 6.3V, capacitances as presented in
chapter 3
7 Quartz 1 4MHz
8 Diode 1 Led 5V, 10mA, red
3 ordinary VRPM=24V, 1A
diode
9 Regulator 1 5Vdc, 1A
10 Display 1 NOKIA 3310 LCD,4 lines
11 Button 5 Push button 20mA, 5V
12 microcontroller 1 PIC16F876A
13 ICSP 1 5 pins

36
II- Data processing flow chart

Start

Special registers
configuration

Read current and

voltage

Compute the active power

then the energy consumed

Store the energy in a

permanent memory

Display the energy

indexes, energy
consumed, tariff and cost

No
Is the current
month over?

Yes

Add the consumption to

the old index and store it
37
9Figure 3.7: Flow chart of the processing block

Conclusion

In this chapter, we have presented the material and methods used in the design of an
energy meter. The next chapter deals with the presentation of the realization and
analysis of results.

38
 CHAPTER 4: REALIZATION AND RESULTS ANALYSIS

Introduction
In the previous chapter, we have presented the theoretical calculations relative to an
energy meter. Those calculations lead us in the choice of our components. In this
chapter, we present the list of materials, the realized device and the analysis of results.

I-Realized device

The energy meter realized picture is presented on the figure 4.1 below:

(a) The printed circuit board

39
 (b) The inside view of the meter

Wh consummed

Cost

Actual index

B1 B2 B3
Meter display

(c) The front view of the meter

10Figure 4.1: Picture of the realized energy meter

B1: used to display the old energy consumption data,

B2: used to display the actual energy consumption data,
B3: used to save the actual energy consumption data.
After approximately each 10mins, the meter automatically saves the energy
consumption data.

II-Measurements done with the meter

40
 The meter has been used to measure the energy consumed by the appliances listed in
table 4.2. The data collection consists of switching on a load setting, timing the period
during what the load is supplied (use of a stop watch) and reading of the meter
displays (initial index and final index) and cost. Knowing our load rating (in Watts)
and the time during what it is loaded, we can estimate the amount of energy expected
to have been consumed then compare to the difference of read indexes.
To compute the estimate of the energy consumed during a period T (hour), we proceed
as follows:
Energy= active_power *T ; Where the energy is in Wh and the power in W.
Cost =consumed energy (Wh) x tariff (XAF/Wh),
We have taken 0.5XAF/Wh for our work but it can be changed by the end user to meet
his local tariff.(See appendix for Cameroonian tariff).
Relative error (%) = 100(Estimated-Displayed)/Estimated

As each set of appliances is used simultaneously, we consider their diversity factor to

be 1, but their utilization factors 1 both for incandescent and fluorescent lamps.
2Table 4.1: Data obtained from the testing of the meter
Estimated
Index Consumed Cost Equipment Equipment Energy Relative
Load (Wh) (Wh) Time(hr) (XAF) type rating(W) (Wh) error (%)
Ld1 37,12 0 0 0 0
Incandescent -
Ld1 99,15 62,03 0,606042 31,01 Lamp 100 60,60 2,35

Ld2 208,3 0 0 0 0
Incandescent
&
Fluorescent
Ld2 283,3 75 0,620681 37,50 Lamps 122 75,72 0,95

41
Ld3 267,9 0 0 0 0
Fluorescent -
Ld3 274,25 6,35 0,288264 3,17 Lamp 22 6,34 0,13

70

60 Ld1
Wh

50

40
Wh displayed
30 Wh Estimated
20

10

0
Time(hr)
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7
(a)
80
70
Wh

60
Ld2

50
40 Wh displayed

30 Wh Estimated

20
10
0
Time(hr)
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7
(b)

42
 7

6
Wh

Ld3
5

4
Wh displayed
3 Wh Estimated
2

0 Time(hr)
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35
(c)
11Figure 4.2: Energy consumed from meter reading and energy estimated for loads Ld1, Ld2 and Ld3.

III-Comment of the results

From figure 4.2(a) we observe that both the estimated energy curve and the
consumption from the meter have constant slope, therefore the meter behavior is linear
for a constant load. The slope of the displayed energy is
62,03Wh/0,606042h=102.03W which is closer to the real equipment power rating of
100W. Therefore the small difference between the two curves is related to the power
computed by the meter. The extra power 102.03W-100W=2.03W can be attributed to
both the error of the voltage and current transducers, the meter consumption and the
incandescent lamp resistance which decrease as it temperature increases (therefore its
power increases).
From this analysis, the relative error between the estimated and the display energy
being 100(Estimated-Displayed)/Estimated =2.35% (see table 4.1). We can say our
results are satisfactory and the cost is 31,01 XAF (that is energy consumed times
a tariff of 0.5XAF/Wh which can be reprogrammed by the end user to meet his local
setting; we just entered a tariff value for a presentation purpose)
From figure 4.2(b) we observe that both the estimated energy curve and the
consumption from the meter have constant slope, therefore the meter behavior is linear
for a constant load. The slope of the displayed energy is 75Wh/0,620681h=120.83W
which is closer to the real equipment power rating of 122W. Therefore the small

43
difference between the two curves is related to the power consumed by the meter. The
extra power 122W-120.83W=1.17W can be attributed to both the error of the voltage
and current transducers, to both the meter consumption and the incandescent lamp
resistance which decrease as it temperature increases (therefore its power increases).
From this analysis, the relative error between the estimated and the display energy
being 100(Estimated-Displayed)/Estimated =0.95% (see table 4.1). We can say our
results are satisfactory and the cost is 37,50 XAF (that is energy consumed times
a tariff of 0.5XAF/Wh which can be reprogrammed by the end user to meet his local
setting; we just entered a tariff value for a presentation purpose).
From figure 4.2(c) we observe that both the estimated energy curve and the
consumption from the meter have constant slope, therefore the meter behavior is linear
for a constant load. The slope of the displayed energy is 6,35Wh/0,288264h=22,028W
which is closer to the real equipment power rating of 22W. Therefore the small
difference between the two curves is related to the power consumed by the meter. The
extra power 22W-22,028W =-0.028W can be attributed to both the error of the voltage
and current transducers, to both the meter consumption.
From this analysis, the relative error between the estimated and the display energy
being 100(Estimated-Displayed)/Estimated =0.13% (see table 4.1). We can say our
results are satisfactory and the cost is 3,17 XAF (that is energy consumed times a tariff
of 0.5XAF/Wh which can be reprogrammed by the end user to meet his local setting;
we just entered a tariff value for a presentation purpose).

IV-Possible sources of errors in measuring the energy

The meter display can be different from the real data. They are many possible sources
which can cause these errors, that is:
-The current and voltage sensing and conditioning blocks errors,
-The environmental electromagnetic field can affect the current transformer output,
therefore it should be isolated,
-The digitalization error during the ADC conversion,

44
-The electrical appliances function around their rating values, but not compulsory at
the rating ones,
-Certain loads’ power as incandescent lamps resistances changes as its temperature
increases,

V-Advantages and drawbacks of the meter

1- Meter Characteristics

The meter can handle up to 20A current at 220V, 50Hz

2- Meter advantages

The following are some advantages of the meter.

-The meter program can be altered (flexible programming),
-The meter displays the energy cost,
-The meter displays energy consumed and tariff, therefore the user knows in advance
his energy bill. This reduces the risk of error when reading meter indexes and the user
is aware of his energy ratings.

3- Meter limitations

The following are some limitations of our meter:

-Only work for single phase installation at 220V, 50Hz,
- Maximum measurable current of 20A,
-The current calibration cannot be changed,
-The meter must be reprogrammed if the tariffs are changed.

45
 Conclusion

In the aim of solving the problems related to energy meter reading and billing, we have
realized a 20A, 220V, 50Hz, single phase energy meter which gives the opportunity to
both the user and the operator to have the direct monthly consumption and cost. One of
its main limitations is the reprogramming of the tariff if it is changed by the local
company.

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Most energy consumers complain about their monthly energy bill delivered by the
energy provider after the reading the actual meter index and subtracting the previous
month index.
This work was aimed at designing and realizing a digital energy meter which should
display the amount of energy consumed, the monthly bill and the per KWh cost. The
realized energy meter was tested and the results are interesting.

Meter advantages and disadvantages

Meter advantages

The following are some advantages of the meter.

-The meter program can be altered (flexible programming),
-The meter displays the energy cost,
-The meter displays the voltage, energy consumed and tariff, therefore the user knows
in advance his energy bill. This reduces the risk of error when reading meter indexes
and the user is aware of his energy ratings.

46
Meter limitations

The following are some limitations of our meter:

-Only work for single phase installation at 220V, 50Hz,
- Maximum measurable current of 20A,
-The current calibration cannot be changed,
-The meter must be reprogrammed if the tariffs are changed.

Recommendation

This work presents the root of designing and realization of a digital energy meter of
electrical characteristics 20A, 220V, 50Hz, single phase. It can therefore be used as
palliative to the actual complaint of electric energy consumers provided energy tariff is
reprogrammed to meet their local ones. Then they can in life follow their energy
consumptions, tariff and bill without necessary waiting the local operator agents.

Suggestions for further studies

As we presented the single phase root of a digital energy meter, this work can be used
in the design and realization of three phase digital meter with the possibility of
reprogramming the meter from the network communication link or any other
technology.

Conclusion
Our main objective was to design a digital energy meter that senses ac voltage and
current of an electrical installation and compute the energy and cost of the consumed
energy. For that, after computing the energy, we had to program the billing in
accordance to the amount of energy consumed. Though the realized meter results are

47
interesting, the reprogramming of the tariff is compulsory because any time, the local
tariff can be changed. The actual tariff being the Cameroonian one, this meter can be
used to solve the limitation of the actual local meter by mean of providing directly the
monthly consumed energy and cost according to the corresponding rating cost.

References:

0- Stan Gibilisco (2001), ’ The Illustrated Dictionary of Electronics’, Eighth

Edition, McGraw-Hill
1- Graeme Gooday (2004), ‘ The morals of measurement: accuracy, irony,and
trust in late Victorian electrical practice’, Cambridge University Press, 2004
ISBN 0-521-43098-4, p 232-241
2- Eugenii Katz. "Blathy" (2008). People.clarkson.edu. Archived from the
original,. Retrieved 2009-08-04
3- W. Bernard Carlson (2003), Innovation as a Social Process: Elihu Thomson and
the Rise of General Electric, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-53312-
0, pages 1 and 258
4- Stephen A. Dyer (ed.) (2001) Survey of instrumentation and
measurementWiley-IEEE, ISBN 0-471-39484-X, page 875
5- Jehl, Francis (1941). Menlo Park Reminiscences. Kessinger Publishing.
ISBN 978-0-7661-2648-0. p.841
6- Teridian Semiconductors Application Note (2008), "Antitamper Features
Enabled by the 71M6511" The 71M6511 is a single chip metering device
widely used in computerised meters

48
 7- Kougang Guy Rostand (2012), ‘Etude De La Densification Du Reseau De
Distribution Electrique Autour De La Centrale Hydroelectrique De
Memve’ele’, ENPS, Master of Engineering.

Appendix
The energy billing for local use [7]
Table 1 : Local energy tariff for residential
segment 1 2 3 4
Monthly KWh E<=110 111<=E<=400 401<=E<=800 801<=E<=2000
Cost of 1 KWh 50 79 94 99
(FCFA)

Table 2: Local energy tariff for non-residential

segment 1 2 3
Monthly KWh E<=110 111<=E<=400 401<=E<=1000
Cost of 1 KWh 84 92 99
(FCFA)

49