Sikkim Manipal University 3rd Semester Fall 2010

Name : Dilip Kumar. G

Roll No. : 520947355

Subject : Research Methodology

Subject Code : MB0034

Program : MBA Semester III

University : Sikkim Manipal

University

Learning Centre : Shrusti Info Systems

Vijayanagar (00038)

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MBA – III SEM

Research Methodology - MB0034

SET - 1

Q. 1. Give examples of specific situations that would call for the following
types of research, explaining why – a) Exploratory research b) Descriptive
research c) Diagnostic research d) Evaluation research.

Answer: Research may be classified crudely according to its major intent or the
methods. According to the intent, research may be classified as:
Basic (aka fundamental or pure) research is driven by a scientist's curiosity or interest in
a scientific question. The main motivation is to expand man's knowledge, not to create
or invent something. There is no obvious commercial value to the discoveries that result
from basic research.

For example, basic science investigations probe for answers to questions such as:
• How did the universe begin?

• What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of?

• How do slime molds reproduce?

• What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly?

Most scientists believe that a basic, fundamental understanding of all branches of

science is needed in order for progress to take place. In other words, basic research
lays down the foundation for the applied science that follows. If basic work is done first,
then applied spin-offs often eventually result from this research. As Dr. George Smoot of
LBNL says, "People cannot foresee the future well enough to predict what's going to
develop from basic research. If we only did applied research, we would still be making
better spears."

Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world, rather
than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. One might say that the goal of the
applied scientist is to improve the human condition.

For example, applied researchers may investigate ways to:

• Improve agricultural crop production

• Treat or cure a specific disease

• Improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of transportation

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Some scientists feel that the time has come for a shift in emphasis away from purely
basic research and toward applied science. This trend, they feel, is necessitated by the
problems resulting from global overpopulation, pollution, and the overuse of the earth's
natural resources.

a) Exploratory research:- provides insights into and comprehension of an issue or

situation. It should draw definitive conclusions only with extreme caution. Exploratory
research is a type of research conducted because a problem has not been clearly
defined. Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data collection
method and selection of subjects. Given its fundamental nature, exploratory research
often concludes that a perceived problem does not actually exist
.
Exploratory research often relies on secondary research such as reviewing available
literature and/or data, or qualitative approaches such as informal discussions with
consumers, employees, management or competitors, and more formal approaches
through in-depth interviews, focus groups, projective methods, case studies or pilot
studies. The Internet allows for research methods that are more interactive in nature:
E.g., RSS feeds efficiently supply researchers with up-to-date information; major search
engine search results may be sent by email to researchers by services such as Google
Alerts; comprehensive search results are tracked over lengthy periods of time by
services such as Google Trends; and Web sites may be created to attract worldwide
feedback on any subject.
The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-making by
themselves, but they can provide significant insight into a given situation. Although the
results of qualitative research can give some indication as to the "why", "how" and
"when" something occurs, it cannot tell us "how often" or "how many."

Exploratory research is not typically generalizable to the population at large.

A defining characteristic of causal research is the random assignment of participants to
the conditions of the experiment; e.g., an Experimental and a Control Condition... Such
assignment results in the groups being comparable at the beginning of the experiment.
Any difference between the groups at the end of the experiment is attributable to the
manipulated variable. Observational research typically looks for difference among "in-
tact" defined groups. A common example compares smokers and non-smokers with
regard to health problems. Causal conclusions can't be drawn from such a study
because of other possible differences between the groups; e.g., smokers may drink
more alcohol than non-smokers. Other unknown differences could exist as well. Hence,
we may see a relation between smoking and health but a conclusion that smoking is a
cause would not be warranted in this situation. (Cp)

b) Descriptive Research:- It also known as statistical research, describes data and

characteristics about the population or phenomenon being studied. Descriptive research
answers the questions who, what, where, when and how.
Although the data description is factual, accurate and systematic, the research cannot
describe what caused a situation. Thus, descriptive research cannot be used to create a
causal relationship, where one variable affects another. In other words, descriptive
research can be said to have a low requirement for internal validity.
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The description is used for frequencies, averages and other statistical calculations.
Often the best approach, prior to writing descriptive research, is to conduct a survey
investigation. Qualitative research often has the aim of description and researchers may
follow-up with examinations of why the observations exist and what the implications of
the findings are.

In short descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted and studied. But
there are always restrictions to that. Your research must have an impact to the life of the
people around you. For example, finding the most frequent disease that affects the
children of a town. The reader of the research will know what to do to prevent that
disease thus; more people will live a healthy life.

c) Diagnostic study:- It is similar to descriptive study but with different focus. It is

directed towards discovering what is happening and what can be done about. It aims at
identifying the causes of a problem and the possible solutions for it. It may also be
concerned with discovering and testing whether certain variables are associated. This
type of research requires prior knowledge of the problem, its thorough formulation, clear-
cut definition of the given population, adequate methods for collecting accurate
information, precise measurement of variables, statistical analysis and test of
significance.

d) Evaluation Studies:- It is a type of applied research. It is made for assessing the

effectiveness of social or economic programmes implemented or for assessing the
impact of development of the project area. It is thus directed to assess or appraise the
quality and quantity of an activity and its performance and to specify its attributes and
conditions required for its success. It is concerned with causal relationships and is more
actively guided by hypothesis. It is concerned also with change over time.

Q. 2. In the context of hypothesis testing, briefly explain the difference

between a) Null and alternative hypothesis b) Type 1 and type 2 error c)
Two tailed and one tailed test d) Parametric and non-parametric tests.

Answer: Some basic concepts in the context of testing of hypotheses are explained
below –

11) Null Hypotheses and Alternative Hypothesis:- In the context of statistical

analysis, we often talk about null and alternative hypotheses. If we are to
compare the superiority of method A with that of method B and we proceed on
the assumption that both methods are equally good, then this assumption is
termed as a null hypothesis. On the other hand, if we think that method A is
superior, then it is known as an alternative hypothesis.
These are symbolically represented as:
Null hypothesis = H0 and Alternative hypothesis = Ha
Suppose we want to test the hypothesis that the population mean is equal to the
hypothesized mean (µ H0) = 100. Then we would say that the null hypothesis is that the
population mean is equal to the hypothesized mean 100 and symbolically we can
express it as: H0: µ= µ H0=100
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If our sample results do not support this null hypothesis, we should conclude that
something else is true. What we conclude rejecting the null hypothesis is known as an
alternative hypothesis. If we accept H0, then we are rejecting Ha and if we reject H0,
then we are accepting Ha. For H0: µ= µ H0=100, we may consider three possible
alternative hypotheses as follows:

Alternative To be read as follows

Hypothesis
Ha: µ≠µ H0 (The alternative hypothesis is that the population mean is not
equal to 100 i.e., it may be more or less 100)

Ha: µ>µ H0 (The alternative hypothesis is that the population mean is greater
than 100)
Ha: µ< µ H0 (The alternative hypothesis is that the population mean is less
than 100)

The null hypotheses and the alternative hypotheses are chosen before the sample is
drawn (the researcher must avoid the error of deriving hypotheses from the data he
collects and testing the hypotheses from the same data). In the choice of null
hypothesis, the following considerations are usually kept in view:

1a. The alternative hypothesis is usually the one, which is to be proved, and
the null hypothesis is the one that is to be disproved. Thus a null
hypothesis represents the hypothesis we are trying to reject, while the
alternative hypothesis represents all other possibilities.
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3b. If the rejection of a certain hypothesis when it is actually true involves
great risk, it is taken as null hypothesis, because then the probability of
rejecting it when it is true is α (the level of significance) which is chosen
very small.
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5c. The null hypothesis should always be a specific hypothesis i.e., it should
not state an approximate value.

Generally, in hypothesis testing, we proceed on the basis of the null hypothesis, keeping
the alternative hypothesis in view. Why so? The answer is that on the assumption that
the null hypothesis is true, one can assign the probabilities to different possible sample
results, but this cannot be done if we proceed with alternative hypotheses. Hence the
use of null hypotheses (at times also known as statistical hypotheses) is quite frequent.

12) The Level of Significance:- This is a very important concept in the

context of hypothesis testing. It is always some percentage (usually 5%),
which should be chosen with great care, thought and reason. In case we
take the significance level at 5%, then this implies that H0 will be rejected
when the sampling result (i.e., observed evidence) has a less than 0.05
probability of occurring if H0 is true. In other words, the 5% level of

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significance means that the researcher is willing to take as much as 5%

risk rejecting the null hypothesis when it (H0) happens to be true. Thus the
significance level is the maximum value of the probability of rejecting H0
when it is true and is usually determined in advance before testing the
hypothesis.
2
33) Decision Rule or Test of Hypothesis:- Given a hypothesis Ha and an
alternative hypothesis H0, we make a rule, which is known as a decision
rule, according to which we accept H0 (i.e., reject Ha) or reject H0 (i.e.,
accept Ha). For instance, if H0 is that a certain lot is good (there are very
few defective items in it), against Ha, that the lot is not good (there are
many defective items in it), then we must decide the number of items to be
tested and the criterion for accepting or rejecting the hypothesis. We might
test 10 items in the lot and plan our decision saying that if there are none
or only 1 defective item among the 10, we will accept H0; otherwise we will
reject H0 (or accept Ha). This sort of basis is known as a decision rule.

44) Type I & II Errors:- In the context of testing of hypotheses, there are
basically two types of errors that we can make. We may reject H0 when
H0 is true and we may accept H0 when it is not true. The former is known
as Type I and the latter is known as Type II. In other words, Type I error
means rejection of hypotheses, which should have been accepted, and
Type II error means accepting of hypotheses, which should have been
rejected. Type I error is denoted by α (alpha), also called as level of
significance of test; and Type II error is denoted by β(beta).

Decision
Accept H0 Reject H0
H0 (true) Correct decision Type I error (α
error)
Ho (false) Type II error (β error) Correct decision

The probability of Type I error is usually determined in advance and is understood as the
level of significance of testing the hypotheses. If type I error is fixed at 5%, it means
there are about 5 chances in 100 that we will reject H0 when H0 is true. We can control
type I error just by fixing it at a lower level. For instance, if we fix it at 1%, we will say
that the maximum probability of committing type I error would only be 0.01.

But with a fixed sample size n, when we try to reduce type I error, the probability of
committing type II error increases. Both types of errors cannot be reduced
simultaneously, since there is a trade-off in business situations. Decision makers decide
the appropriate level of type I error by examining the costs of penalties attached to both
types of errors. If type I error involves time and trouble of reworking a batch of chemicals
that should have been accepted, whereas type II error means taking a chance that an
entire group of users of this chemicals compound will be poisoned, then in such a

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situation one should prefer a type I error to a type II error. As a result, one must set a
very high level for type I error in one’s testing techniques of a given hypothesis. Hence,
in testing of hypotheses, one must make all possible efforts to strike an adequate
balance between Type I & Type II error.

15) Two Tailed Test & One Tailed Test:- In the context of hypothesis testing, these two
terms are quite important and must be clearly understood. A two-tailed test rejects the
null hypothesis if, say, the sample mean is significantly higher or lower than the
hypothesized value of the mean of the population. Such a test is inappropriate when we
have H0: µ= µ H0 and Ha: µ≠µ H0 which may µ>µ H0 or µ<µ H0. If significance level is
5 % and the two-tailed test is to be applied, the probability of the rejection area will be
0.05 (equally split on both tails of the curve as 0.025) and that of the acceptance region
will be 0.95. If we take µ = 100 and if our sample mean deviates significantly from µ, in
that case we shall accept the null hypothesis. But there are situations when only a one-
tailed test is considered appropriate. A one-tailed test would be used when we are to
test, say, whether the population mean is either lower or higher than some hypothesized
value.
2
Parametric statistics is a branch of statistics that assumes data come from a type
of probability distribution and makes inferences about the parameters of the
distribution most well known elementary statistical methods are parametric.
Generally speaking parametric methods make more assumptions than non-parametric
methods. If those extra assumptions are correct, parametric methods can produce more
accurate and precise estimates. They are said to have more statistical power. However,
if those assumptions are incorrect, parametric methods can be very misleading. For that
reason they are often not considered robust. On the other hand, parametric formulae are
often simpler to write down and faster to compute. In some, but definitely not all cases,
their simplicity makes up for their non-robustness, especially if care is taken to examine
diagnostic statistics.
Because parametric statistics require a probability distribution, they are
not distribution-free.

Non-parametric models differ from parametric models in that the model structure is not
specified a priori but is instead determined from data. The term nonparametric is not
meant to imply that such models completely lack parameters but that the number and
nature of the parameters are flexible and not fixed in advance.
Kernel density estimation provides better estimates of the density than histograms.
Nonparametric regression and semi parametric regression methods have been
developed based on kernels, splines, and wavelets.

Data Envelopment Analysis provides efficiency coefficients similar to those obtained

by Multivariate Analysis without any distributional assumption.

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Q. 3. Explain the difference between a causal relationship and correlation,

with an example of each. What are the possible reasons for a correlation
between two variables.
Answer: Correlation:- The correlation is knowing what the consumer wants, and
providing it. Marketing research looks at trends in sales and studies all of the variables,
i.e. price, color, availability, and styles, and the best way to give the customer what he or
she wants. If you can give the customer what they want, they will buy, and let friends
and family know where they got it. Making them happy makes the money.

Casual relationship Marketing was first defined as a form of marketing developed from
direct response marketing campaigns, which emphasizes customer retention and
satisfaction, rather than a dominant focus on sales transactions.

As a practice, Relationship Marketing differs from other forms of marketing in that it

recognizes the long term value of customer relationships and extends communication
beyond intrusive advertising and sales promotional messages.

With the growth of the internet and mobile platforms, Relationship Marketing has
continued to evolve and move forward as technology opens more collaborative and
social communication channels. This includes tools for managing relationships with
customers that goes beyond simple demographic and customer service data.
Relationship Marketing extends to include Inbound Marketing efforts (a combination of
search optimization and Strategic Content), PR, Social Media and Application
Development.

Just like Customer relationship management(CRM), Relationship Marketing is a broadly

recognized, widely-implemented strategy for managing and nurturing a company’s
interactions with clients and sales prospects. It also involves using technology to,
organize, synchronize business processes (principally sales and marketing activities)
and most importantly, automate those marketing and communication activities on
concrete marketing sequences that could run in autopilot (also known as marketing
sequences). The overall goals are to find, attract, and win new clients, nurture and retain
those the company already has, entice former clients back into the fold, and reduce the
costs of marketing and client service. Once simply a label for a category of software
tools, today, it generally denotes a company-wide business strategy embracing all client-
facing departments and even beyond. When an implementation is effective, people,
processes, and technology work in synergy to increase profitability, and reduce
operational costs

Reasons for a correlation between two variables:- Chance association, (the

relationship is due to chance) or causative association (one variable causes the other).

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The information given by a correlation coefficient is not enough to define the

dependence structure between random variables. The correlation coefficient completely
defines the dependence structure only in very particular cases, for example when the
distribution is a multivariate normal distribution. (See diagram above.) In the case of
elliptic distributions it characterizes the (hyper-) ellipses of equal density, however, it
does not completely characterize the dependence structure (for example, a multivariate
t-distribution's degrees of freedom determine the level of tail dependence).

Distance correlation and Brownian covariance / Brownian correlation [8] [9] were
introduced to address the deficiency of Pearson's correlation that it can be zero for
dependent random variables; zero distance correlation and zero Brownian correlation
imply independence.

The correlation ratio is able to detect almost any functional dependency, or the entropy-
based mutual information/total correlation which is capable of detecting even more
general dependencies. The latter are sometimes referred to as multi-moment correlation
measures, in comparison to those that consider only 2nd moment (pairwise or quadratic)
dependence.

The polychoric correlation is another correlation applied to ordinal data that aims to
estimate the correlation between theorized latent variables.

One way to capture a more complete view of dependence structure is to consider a

copula between them.

Q. 4. Briefly explain any two factors that affect the choice of a sampling
technique. What are the characteristics of a good sample?
Answer: The difference between non-probability and probability sampling is that non-
probability sampling does not involve random selection and probability sampling does.
Does that mean that non-probability samples aren't representative of the population?
Not necessarily. But it does mean that non-probability samples cannot depend upon the
rationale of probability theory. At least with a probabilistic sample, we know the odds or
probability that we have represented the population well. We are able to estimate
confidence intervals for the statistic. With non-probability samples, we may or may not
represent the population well, and it will often be hard for us to know how well we've
done so. In general, researchers prefer probabilistic or random sampling methods over
non probabilistic ones, and consider them to be more accurate and rigorous. However,
in applied social research there may be circumstances where it is not feasible, practical
or theoretically sensible to do random sampling. Here, we consider a wide range of non-
probabilistic alternatives.

We can divide non-probability sampling methods into two broad types:

 Accidental or purposive:-

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Most sampling methods are purposive in nature because we usually approach

the sampling problem with a specific plan in mind. The most important distinctions
among these types of sampling methods are the ones between the different types of
purposive sampling approaches.

Accidental, Haphazard or Convenience Sampling:-

One of the most common methods of sampling goes under the various titles listed
here. I would include in this category the traditional "man on the street" (of course, now
it's probably the "person on the street") interviews conducted frequently by television
news programs to get a quick (although non representative) reading of public opinion. I
would also argue that the typical use of college students in much psychological research
is primarily a matter of convenience. (You don't really believe that psychologists use
college students because they believe they're representative of the population at large,
do you?). In clinical practice, we might use clients who are available to us as our
sample. In many research contexts, we sample simply by asking for volunteers. Clearly,
the problem with all of these types of samples is that we have no evidence that they are
representative of the populations we're interested in generalizing to -- and in many
cases we would clearly suspect that they are not.

Purposive Sampling:-
In purposive sampling, we sample with a purpose in mind. We usually would have
one or more specific predefined groups we are seeking. For instance, have you ever run
into people in a mall or on the street who are carrying a clipboard and who are stopping
various people and asking if they could interview them? Most likely they are conducting
a purposive sample (and most likely they are engaged in market research). They might
be looking for Caucasian females between 30-40 years old. They size up the people
passing by and anyone who looks to be in that category they stop to ask if they will
participate. One of the first things they're likely to do is verify that the respondent does in
fact meet the criteria for being in the sample. Purposive sampling can be very useful for
situations where you need to reach a targeted sample quickly and where sampling for
proportionality is not the primary concern. With a purposive sample, you are likely to get
the opinions of your target population, but you are also likely to overweight subgroups in
your population that are more readily accessible.
All of the methods that follow can be considered subcategories of purposive
sampling methods. We might sample for specific groups or types of people as in modal
instance, expert, or quota sampling. We might sample for diversity as in heterogeneity
sampling. Or, we might capitalize on informal social networks to identify specific
respondents who are hard to locate otherwise, as in snowball sampling. In all of these
methods we know what we want -- we are sampling with a purpose.

 Modal Instance Sampling:-

In statistics, the mode is the most frequently occurring value in a distribution. In
sampling, when we do a modal instance sample, we are sampling the most frequent
case, or the "typical" case. In a lot of informal public opinion polls, for instance, they
interview a "typical" voter. There are a number of problems with this sampling approach.
First, how do we know what the "typical" or "modal" case is? We could say that the

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modal voter is a person who is of average age, educational level, and income in the
population. But, it's not clear that using the averages of these is the fairest (consider the
skewed distribution of income, for instance). And, how do you know that those three
variables -- age, education, income -- are the only or even the most relevant for
classifying the typical voter? What if religion or ethnicity is an important discriminator?
Clearly, modal instance sampling is only sensible for informal sampling contexts.

 Expert Sampling:-
Expert sampling involves the assembling of a sample of persons with known or
demonstrable experience and expertise in some area. Often, we convene such a
sample under the auspices of a "panel of experts." There are actually two reasons you
might do expert sampling. First, because it would be the best way to elicit the views of
persons who have specific expertise. In this case, expert sampling is essentially just a
specific sub case of purposive sampling. But the other reason you might use expert
sampling is to provide evidence for the validity of another sampling approach you've
chosen. For instance, let's say you do modal instance sampling and are concerned that
the criteria you used for defining the modal instance are subject to criticism. You might
convene an expert panel consisting of persons with acknowledged experience and
insight into that field or topic and ask them to examine your modal definitions and
comment on their appropriateness and validity. The advantage of doing this is that you
aren't out on your own trying to defend your decisions -- you have some acknowledged
experts to back you. The disadvantage is that even the experts can be, and often are,
wrong.

 Quota Sampling:-
In quota sampling, you select people non-randomly according to some fixed quota.
There are two types of quota sampling: proportional and non proportional.
In proportional quota sampling you want to represent the major characteristics
of the population by sampling a proportional amount of each. For instance, if you know
the population has 40% women and 60% men, and that you want a total sample size of
100, you will continue sampling until you get those percentages and then you will stop.
So, if you've already got the 40 women for your sample, but not the sixty men, you will
continue to sample men but even if legitimate women respondents come along, you will
not sample them because you have already "met your quota." The problem here (as in
much purposive sampling) is that you have to decide the specific characteristics on
which you will base the quota. Will it be by gender, age, education race, religion, etc.?
Non-proportional quota sampling is a bit less restrictive. In this method, you
specify the minimum number of sampled units you want in each category. Here, you're
not concerned with having numbers that match the proportions in the population.
Instead, you simply want to have enough to assure that you will be able to talk about
even small groups in the population. This method is the non-probabilistic analogue of
stratified random sampling in that it is typically used to assure that smaller groups are
adequately represented in your sample.

 Heterogeneity Sampling:-

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We sample for heterogeneity when we want to include all opinions or views, and we
aren't concerned about representing these views proportionately. Another term for this is
sampling for diversity. In many brainstorming or nominal group processes (including
concept mapping), we would use some form of heterogeneity sampling because our
primary interest is in getting broad spectrum of ideas, not identifying the "average" or
"modal instance" ones. In effect, what we would like to be sampling is not people, but
ideas. We imagine that there is a universe of all possible ideas relevant to some topic
and that we want to sample this population, not the population of people who have the
ideas. Clearly, in order to get all of the ideas, and especially the "outlier" or unusual
ones, we have to include a broad and diverse range of participants. Heterogeneity
sampling is, in this sense, almost the opposite of modal instance sampling.

 Snowball Sampling:-
In snowball sampling, you begin by identifying someone who meets the criteria for
inclusion in your study. You then ask them to recommend others who they may know
who also meet the criteria. Although this method would hardly lead to representative
samples, there are times when it may be the best method available. Snowball sampling
is especially useful when you are trying to reach populations that are inaccessible or
hard to find. For instance, if you are studying the homeless, you are not likely to be able
to find good lists of homeless people within a specific geographical area. However, if you
go to that area and identify one or two, you may find that they know very well whom the
other homeless people in their vicinity are and how you can find them.

Characteristics of good Sample:- The decision process is a complicated one. The

researcher has to first identify the limiting factor or factors and must judiciously balance
the conflicting factors. The various criteria governing the choice of the sampling
technique are:

11. Purpose of the Survey: What does the researcher aim at? If he intends to
generalize the findings based on the sample survey to the population, then an
appropriate probability sampling method must be selected. The choice of a
particular type of probability sampling depends on the geographical area of
the survey and the size and the nature of the population under study.
2
32. Measurability:- The application of statistical inference theory requires
computation of the sampling error from the sample itself. Only probability
samples allow such computation. Hence, where the research objective
requires statistical inference, the sample should be drawn by applying simple
random sampling method or stratified random sampling method, depending
on whether the population is homogenous or heterogeneous.

4
53. Degree of Precision:- Should the results of the survey be very precise, or
could even rough results serve the purpose? The desired level of precision is
one of the criteria for sampling method selection. Where a high degree of
precision of results is desired, probability sampling should be used. Where

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even crude results would serve the purpose (E.g., marketing surveys,
readership surveys etc), any convenient non-random sampling like quota
sampling would be enough.
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74. Information about Population:- How much information is available about
the population to be studied? Where no list of population and no information
about its nature are available, it is difficult to apply a probability sampling
method. Then an exploratory study with non-probability sampling may be
done to gain a better idea of the population. After gaining sufficient knowledge
about the population through the exploratory study, an appropriate probability
sampling design may be adopted.

85. The Nature of the Population:- In terms of the variables to be studied, is the
population homogenous or heterogeneous? In the case of a homogenous
population, even simple random sampling will give a representative sample. If
the population is heterogeneous, stratified random sampling is appropriate.

96. Geographical Area of the Study and the Size of the Population :- If the
area covered by a survey is very large and the size of the population is quite
large, multi-stage cluster sampling would be appropriate. But if the area and
the size of the population are small, single stage probability sampling methods
could be used.

107. Financial Resources:- If the available finance is limited, it may become

necessary to choose a less costly sampling plan like multistage cluster
sampling, or even quota sampling as a compromise. However, if the
objectives of the study and the desired level of precision cannot be attained
within the stipulated budget, there is no alternative but to give up the proposed
survey. Where the finance is not a constraint, a researcher can choose the
most appropriate method of sampling that fits the research objective and the
nature of population.

118. Time Limitation:- The time limit within which the research project should be
completed restricts the choice of a sampling method. Then, as a compromise,
it may become necessary to choose less time consuming methods like simple
random sampling, instead of stratified sampling/sampling with probability
proportional to size; or multi-stage cluster sampling, instead of single-stage
sampling of elements. Of course, the precision has to be sacrificed to some
extent.

129. Economy:- It should be another criterion in choosing the sampling method.

It means achieving the desired level of precision at minimum cost. A sample is
economical if the precision per unit cost is high, or the cost per unit of
variance is low. The above criteria frequently conflict with each other and the
researcher must balance and blend them to obtain a good sampling plan. The
chosen plan thus represents an adaptation of the sampling theory to the
available facilities and resources. That is, it represents a compromise between
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idealism and feasibility. One should use simple workable methods, instead of
unduly elaborate and complicated techniques.

Q. 5. Select any topic for research and explain how you will use both
secondary and primary sources to gather the required information.
Answer: Primary Sources of Data:-
Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher directly collects data
that has not been previously collected, e.g., collection of data directly by the researcher
on brand awareness, brand preference, and brand loyalty and other aspects of
consumer behavior, from a sample of consumers by interviewing them. Primary data is
first hand information collected through various methods such as surveys, experiments
and observation, for the purposes of the project immediately at hand.
The advantages of primary data are –
 It is unique to a particular research study.

 It is recent information, unlike published information that is already

available

The disadvantages are –

 It is expensive to collect, compared to gathering information from available
sources.

 Data collection is a time consuming process.

 It requires trained interviewers and investigators.

Secondary Sources of Data:-

These are sources containing data, which has been collected and compiled for
another purpose. Secondary sources may be internal sources, such as annual reports,
financial statements, sales reports, inventory records, minutes of meetings and other
information that is available within the firm, in the form of a marketing information
system. They may also be external sources, such as government agencies (e.g. census
reports, reports of government departments), published sources (annual reports of
currency and finance published by the Reserve Bank of India, publications of
international organizations such as the UN, World Bank and International Monetary
Fund, trade and financial journals, etc.), trade associations (e.g. Chambers of
Commerce) and commercial services (outside suppliers of information).

Methods of Data Collection:-

The researcher directly collects primary data from its original sources. In this
case, the researcher can collect the required data precisely according to his research
needs and he can collect them when he wants and in the form that he needs it. But the
collection of primary data is costly and time consuming. Yet, for several types of social
science research, required data is not available from secondary sources and it has to be
directly gathered from the primary sources.
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Primary data has to be gathered in cases where the available data

is inappropriate, inadequate or obsolete. It includes: socio economic surveys, social
anthropological studies of rural communities and tribal communities, sociological studies
of social problems and social institutions, marketing research, leadership studies,
opinion polls, attitudinal surveys, radio listening and T.V. viewing surveys, knowledge-
awareness practice (KAP) studies, farm management studies, business management
studies etc.
There are various methods of primary data collection, including surveys, audits
and panels, observation and experiments.
1. Survey Research:-
A survey is a fact-finding study. It is a method of research involving collection of
data directly from a population or a sample at a particular time. A survey has certain
characteristics:
 It is always conducted in a natural setting. It is a field study.

 It seeks responses directly from the respondents.

 It can cover a very large population.

 It may include an extensive study or an intensive study

 It covers a definite geographical area.

A survey involves the following steps -

 Selection of a problem and its formulation

 Preparation of the research design

 Operation concepts and construction of measuring indexes and scales

 Sampling

 Construction of tools for data collection

 Field work and collection of data

 Processing of data and tabulation

 Analysis of data

 Reporting

There are four basic survey methods, which include:

 Personal interview

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 Telephone interview

 Mail survey and

 Fax survey

2. Personal Interview:-
Personal interviewing is one of the prominent methods of data collection. It
may be defined as a two-way systematic conversation between an investigator and
an informant, initiated for obtaining information relevant to a specific study. It involves
not only conversation, but also learning from the respondent’s gestures, facial
expressions and pauses, and his environment.
Interviewing may be used either as a main method or as a supplementary one in
studies of persons. Interviewing is the only suitable method for gathering information
from illiterate or less educated respondents. It is useful for collecting a wide range of
data, from factual demographic data to highly personal and intimate information relating
to a person’s opinions, attitudes, values, beliefs, experiences and future intentions.
Interviewing is appropriate when qualitative information is required, or probing is
necessary to draw out the respondent fully. Where the area covered for the survey is
compact, or when a sufficient number of qualified interviewers are available, personal
interview is feasible.
Interview is often superior to other data-gathering methods. People are usually
more willing to talk than to write. Once rapport is established, even confidential
information may be obtained. It permits probing into the context and reasons for
answers to questions.
Interview can add flesh to statistical information. It enables the investigator to grasp the
behavioral context of the data furnished by the respondents. It permits the investigator to
seek clarifications and brings to the forefront those questions, which for some reason or
the other the respondents do not want to answer. Interviewing as a method of data
collection has certain characteristics. They are:
1. The participants – the interviewer and the respondent – are
strangers; hence, the investigator has to get himself/herself
introduced to the respondent in an appropriate manner.

2. The relationship between the participants is a transitory one. It has

a fixed beginning and termination points. The interview proper is a
fleeting, momentary experience for them.

3. The interview is not a mere casual conversational exchange, but a

conversation with a specific purpose, viz., obtaining information
relevant to a study.

4. The interview is a mode of obtaining verbal answers to questions

put verbally.

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5. The interaction between the interviewer and the respondent need

not necessarily be on a face-to-face basis, because the interview
can also be conducted over the telephone.

6. Although the interview is usually a conversation between two

persons, it need not be limited to a single respondent. It can also be
conducted with a group of persons, such as family members, or a
group of children, or a group of customers, depending on the
requirements of the study.

7. The interview is an interactive process. The interaction between the

interviewer and the respondent depends upon how they perceive
each other.

8. The respondent reacts to the interviewer’s appearance, behavior,

gestures, facial expression and intonation, his perception of the
thrust of the questions and his own personal needs. As far as
possible, the interviewer should try to be closer to the social-
economic level of the respondents.

9. The investigator records information furnished by the respondent in

the interview. This poses a problem of seeing that recording does
not interfere with the tempo of conversation.

10. Interviewing is not a standardized process like that of a chemical

technician; it is rather a flexible, psychological process.
3. Telephone Interviewing:-
Telephone interviewing is a non-personal method of data collection. It may
be used as a major method or as a supplementary method. It will be useful in the
following situations:

11. When the universe is composed of those persons whose names are
listed in telephone directories, e.g. business houses, business
executives, doctors and other professionals.

12. When the study requires responses to five or six simple questions,
e.g. a radio or television program survey.

13. When the survey must be conducted in a very short period of time,
provided the units of study are listed in the telephone directory.

14. When the subject is interesting or important to respondents, e.g. a

survey relating to trade conducted by a trade association or a
chamber of commerce, a survey relating to a profession conducted
by the concerned professional association.

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15. When the respondents are widely scattered and when there are
many call backs to make.

4. Group Interviews:-
A group interview may be defined as a method of collecting primary data in
which a number of individuals with a common interest interact with each other. In
a personal interview, the flow of information is multi dimensional. The group may
consist of about six to eight individuals with a common interest. The interviewer
acts as the discussion leader. Free discussion is encouraged on some aspect of
the subject under study. The discussion leader stimulates the group members to
interact with each other. The desired information may be obtained through self-
administered questionnaire or interview, with the discussion serving as a guide to
ensure consideration of the areas of concern. In particular, the interviewers look
for evidence of common elements of attitudes, beliefs, intentions and opinions
among individuals in the group. At the same time, he must be aware that a single
comment by a member can provide important insight. Samples for group
interviews can be obtained through schools, clubs and other organized groups.

5. Mail Survey:-
The mail survey is another method of collecting primary data. This method
involves sending questionnaires to the respondents with a request to complete
them and return them by post. This can be used in the case of educated
respondents only. The mail questionnaires should be simple so that the
respondents can easily understand the questions and answer them. It should
preferably contain mostly closed-ended and multiple choice questions, so that it
could be completed within a few minutes. The distinctive feature of the mail
survey is that the questionnaire is self-administered by the respondents
themselves and the responses are recorded by them and not by the investigator,
as in the case of personal interview method. It does not involve face-to-face
conversation between the investigator and the respondent. Communication is
carried out only in writing and this requires more cooperation from the
respondents than verbal communication. The researcher should prepare a
mailing list of the selected respondents, by collecting the addresses from the
telephone directory of the association or organization to which they belong. The
following procedures should be followed –

(a). a covering letter should accompany a copy of the questionnaire. It

must explain to the respondent the purpose of the study and the importance of
his cooperation to the success of the project.

(b). Anonymity must be assured.

(c). The sponsor’s identity may be revealed. However, when such

information may bias the result, it is not desirable to reveal it. In this case, a
disguised organization name may be used.

(d). A self-addressed stamped envelope should be enclosed in the

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covering letter.

1 (e). After a few days from the date of mailing the questionnaires to the
respondents, the researcher can expect the return of completed ones from them. The
progress in return may be watched and at the appropriate stage, follow-up efforts can be
made.

The response rate in mail surveys is generally very low in developing countries like
India. Certain techniques have to be adopted to increase the response rate. They are:

11. Quality printing: The questionnaire may be neatly printed on quality light
colored paper, so as to attract the attention of the respondent.
2
32. Covering letter: The covering letter should be couched in a pleasant style, so as
to attract and hold the interest of the respondent. It must anticipate objections and
answer them briefly. It is desirable to address the respondent by name.

43. Advance information: Advance information can be provided to potential

respondents by a telephone call, or advance notice in the newsletter of the
concerned organization, or by a letter. Such preliminary contact with potential
respondents is more successful than follow-up efforts.

54. Incentives: Money, stamps for collection and other incentives are also used to
induce respondents to complete and return the mail questionnaire.

65. Follow-up-contacts: In the case of respondents belonging to an organization,

they may be approached through someone in that organization known as the
researcher.
7
86. Larger sample size: A larger sample may be drawn than the estimated sample
size. For example, if the required sample size is 1000, a sample of 1500 may be
drawn. This may help the researcher to secure an effective sample size closer to
the required size.
9
10Q. 6. Case Study: You are engaged to carry out a market survey on
behalf of a leading Newspaper that is keen to increase its circulation
in Bangalore City, in order to ascertain reader habits and interests.
Develop a title for the study; define the research problem and the
objectives or questions to be answered by the study.

Answer: Title: Newspaper reading choices

Research problem:- A research problem is the situation that causes the researcher to
feel apprehensive, confused and ill at ease. It is the demarcation of a problem area

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within a certain context involving the WHO or WHAT, the WHERE, the WHEN and the
WHY of the problem situation.

There are many problem situations that may give rise to research. Three sources
usually contribute to problem identification. Own experience or the experience of others
may be a source of problem supply. A second source could be scientific literature. You
may read about certain findings and notice that a certain field was not covered. This
could lead to a research problem. Theories could be a third source. Shortcomings in
theories could be researched.

Research can thus be aimed at clarifying or substantiating an existing theory, at

clarifying contradictory findings, at correcting a faulty methodology, at correcting the
inadequate or unsuitable use of statistical techniques, at reconciling conflicting opinions,
or at solving existing practical problems

Types of questions to be asked:- For more than 35 years, the news about
newspapers and young readers has been mostly bad for the newspaper industry. Long
before any competition from cable television or Nintendo, American newspaper
publishers were worrying about declining readership among the young.

As early as 1960, at least 20 years prior to Music Television (MTV) or the Internet, media
research scholars1 began to focus their studies on young adult readers' decreasing
interest in newspaper content. The concern over a declining youth market preceded and
perhaps foreshadowed today's fretting over market penetration. Even where circulation
has grown or stayed stable, there is rising concern over penetration, defined as the
percentage of occupied households in a geographic market that are served by a
newspaper.2 Simply put, population growth is occurring more rapidly than newspaper
readership in most communities.

This study looks at trends in newspaper readership among the 18-to-34 age group and
examines some of the choices young adults make when reading newspapers.

One of the underlying concerns behind the decline in youth newspaper reading is the
question of how young people view the newspaper. A number of studies explored how
young readers evaluate and use newspaper content.

Comparing reader content preferences over a 10-year period, Gerald Stone and Timothy
Boudreau found differences between readers ages 18-34 and those 35-plus.16 Younger
readers showed increased interest in national news, weather, sports, and classified
advertisements over the decade between 1984 and 1994, while older readers ranked
weather, editorials, and food advertisements higher. Interest in international news and
letters to the editor was less among younger readers, while older readers showed less
interest in reports of births, obituaries, and marriages.

David Atkin explored the influence of telecommunication technology on newspaper

readership among students in undergraduate media courses.17 He reported that

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computer-related technologies, including electronic mail and computer networks, were

unrelated to newspaper readership. The study found that newspaper subscribers
preferred print formats over electronic. In a study of younger, school-age children, Brian
Brooks and James Kropp found that electronic newspapers could persuade children to
become news consumers, but that young readers would choose an electronic
newspaper over a printed one.

In an exploration of leisure reading among college students, Leo Jeffres and Atkin
assessed dimensions of interest in newspapers, magazines, and books,19 exploring the
influence of media use, non-media leisure, and academic major on newspaper content
preferences. The study discovered that overall newspaper readership was positively
related to students' focus on entertainment, job / travel information, and public affairs.
However, the students' preference for reading as a leisure-time activity was related only
to a public affairs focus. Content preferences for newspapers and other print media were
related. The researchers found no significant differences in readership among various
academic majors, or by gender, though there was a slight correlation between age and
the public affairs readership index, with older readers more interested in news about
public affairs.

Methodology:-

Sample:-

Participants in this study (N=267) were students enrolled in 100- and 200-level English
courses at a mid-western public university. Courses that comprise the framework for this
sample were selected because they could fulfill basic studies requirements for all
majors. A basic studies course is one that is listed within the core curriculum required for
all students. The researcher obtained permission from seven professors to distribute
questionnaires in the eight classes during regularly scheduled class periods. The
students' participation was voluntary; two students declined. The goal of this sampling
procedure was to reach a cross-section of students representing various fields of study.
In all, 53 majors were represented.

Of the 267 students who participated in the study, 65 (24.3 percent) were male and 177
(66.3 percent) were female. A total of 25 participants chose not to divulge their genders.
Ages ranged from 17 to 56, with a mean age of 23.6 years. This mean does not include
the 32 respondents who declined to give their ages. A total of 157 participants (58.8
percent) said they were of the Caucasian race, 59 (22.1 percent) African American, 10
(3.8 percent) Asian, five (1.9 percent) African/Native American, two (.8 percent)
Hispanic, two (.8 percent) Native American, and one (.4 percent) Arabic. Most (214) of
the students were enrolled full time, whereas a few (28) were part-time students. The
class rank breakdown was: freshmen, 45 (16.9 percent); sophomores, 15 (5.6 percent);
juniors, 33 (12.4 percent); seniors, 133 (49.8 percent); and graduate students, 16 (6
percent).

Procedure:-

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After two pre-tests and revisions, questionnaires were distributed and collected by the
investigator. In each of the eight classes, the researcher introduced herself to the
students as a journalism professor who was conducting a study on students' use of
newspapers and other media. Each questionnaire included a cover letter with the
researcher's name, address, and phone number. The researcher provided pencils and
was available to answer questions if anyone needed further assistance. The average
time spent on the questionnaires was 20 minutes, with some individual students taking
as long as an hour. Approximately six students asked to take the questionnaires home to
finish. They returned the questionnaires to the researcher's mailbox within a couple of
day.

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