KRASNIQI Adrien Wednesday, December 16th 2009

Groupe n°2

Fiche de lecture
The Riddle of the Zoot, Robin D.G. Kelley

Robin Davis Gibran Kelley was born in 1962. He teaches Ethnicity and American Studies at
the University of California. His speciality is the history of America as well as that of the
African Americans and therefore, he produced many works pertaining to the construction of a
new black identity in the early twentieth century, at the time where segregation was still on in
a huge part of the United States after slavery had been abolished. Developing both a Marxist
and surrealist approach, the author generally studies the race relations by focusing on
particular aspects of the African American culture, that is to say dance (be-bop, lindy hop) or
attire. In the essay here studied, The Riddle of the Zoot, Robin D.G. Kelley describes
Malcolm Little’s (more commonly known as “Malcolm X”) teenage years since in the
author’s view, this period is the basis for Malcolm’s subsequent radicalization and
criminality. Through such an emblematic character, the writer delivers a description of the
“hipster subculture”, reminding the reader of its major characteristics, either material or
ideological.

Ralph Ellison, in 1943, had pointed out the fact that a new subculture was significantly
developing in the nineteen-forties among the black youth : the latter was that of the “Zoot
suiters”. Its members were mostly composed of rural black migrants who had moved into the
main industrial cities so they could enjoy better opportunities to get hired for the United States
were preparing to the Second World War and hence, the economy at the time was associated
with the creation of many industrial jobs. Ellison, as a witness of the development of the
“hipster culture”, could not understand the very stakes of such a movement, which explains
him developing the standpoint that much of it remained unexplained, mysterious and relying
on its leaders to clarify it. Kelley, retrospectively focusing on the period considered, chooses
the world-known leader “Malcolm X”, born Malcolm Little as a mean for intending to solve
“the riddle of the Zoot”.
Indeed, Malcolm Little was the typical example of the rural black migrants aforementioned.
Aged fifteen at his arrival in the Roxbury section of Boston, where his half-sister Ella was
settled, he was soon to face the lifestyle of urban America – more specifically of black ghettos
- which would permit him to become a symbol of the hipster subculture. At the time,
segregation was still very spread in the United States and the black population was suffering
much racism, although the First World War had paved the way for promises of democracy
and equality between blacks and whites. The struggle against segregation – especially in the
fields of work and armed forces – was consequently omnipresent, appearing through such
actions as the “Double V Campaign” and the march on Washington led by Philip Randolph.
Blacks were even discriminated by the white press : in other words, racism was the norm.
Furthermore, not only had frictions appeared for many years between the white and black
populations, but the African Americans were themselves seriously divided. Those internal
factions within the black population were especially due to the inequality of opportunities to

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get employed since African Americans who belonged to trade unions – representing about
20% of the entire black working population at the time – enjoyed better chances of getting
hired, whereas non-union ones endured permanent difficulties resulting from the work of the
Congress of Industrial Organizations. Frictions were also due to the tense relationships
between new urban residents and established ones. Yet, what is more profoundly tackled in
the essay is the opposition between the zoot suiters and the emergence of a new class amid the
black population : the black middle-class. Malcolm Little quickly realized he was opposed to
American patriotism and the idea according to which blacks were “inferior” to whites, which
had been accepted by many African Americans who consequently intended to adopt the
lifestyle and habits of white citizens. His meet with Shorty, who became one of his closest
friends, was the turning point of his teenage, that is to say the moment where he discovered
the “Zoot Suit of Life”. Although the classical attire of hipsters – whose zoot suit remains the
most famous component – was an inheritance which did not represent a political argument,
the social context of the war made it far more than a set of clothes. It embodied a precise
community among the black population which would favour “pleasure and leisure” rather
than work constraints and conformity. That strong opposition to the dominant culture had the
effect of arousing a feeling of threat within the United States and as soon as 1942, the sale of
zoot suites became illegal, thus forbidden, making such attire an explicit sign of un-American
position. The body language became a signifier of struggle and permanent opposition
exploited by the reactionary black youth, the latter opposition being fed by frequent violences
or acts of brutality by the Police towards the African Americans. The conk – despite
Malcolm’s affirmation that it hampered the hipster subculture by embodying the will of
certain blacks of having a similar hair to that of white citizens – was also a major component
of the Zoot suiters’ style, representing their rejection of both the black bourgeoisie and the
stereotypes associated to black migrants. Although finding its roots in the dominant culture,
the so-called “conk” was modified to express a firm rejection of it.
But the hipster subculture did not merely rest on clothes. The influence of music and dance
was really part of it. In the Roseland Ballroom (Boston), as well as in the Savoy (Harlem),
Malcolm Little discovered the sounds of be-bop (a particular style of music resulting from the
association of African American major musicians who had decided to leave orchestras) and
the dance steps of the lindy hop. Such activities were much different from the teenager’s jobs
in town and increased his reject of better-class black people he was confronted to while
working and that he referred to as the “Hill clowns”, arguing their pretensions did not make
sense. The lindy hop, added to the sartorial adornments, had both the effect of reinforcing the
links binding members of the hipster subculture by gathering those young black men and
women sharing common values and interests, and of developing a culture of individualism
since frequent friendly competitions were organized between them. More important, music
and dance took on the form of a mean to resist discriminations towards the African Americans
and evolved in accordance with the circumstances, which the conservative band leader Lionel
Hampton expressed by establishing the link between be-bop and reactionary black politics.
Despite the evolution of the Zoot Suiters’ way of life, the hipster subculture was also
characterized by a continuity resulting in the permanent pursuit of purposes previously
evoked and embodied in the preference for “pleasure and leisure” instead of hard work and
the dominant culture. In most hep cats’ (the term refers to the Zoot Suiters) mind, the
Selective Service – set up after the attack on Pearl Harbor – appeared as threatening that
continuity, rising the risk for every zoot suiter to be assigned to join the army. Many of
Malcolm’s friends managed to obtain a 4F Status (meaning they did not enjoy the mental or
physical capacities which would have permitted them to fight) through diverse stratagems, for
instance Shorty swallowing a mix of drugs and medicines which had effect of accelerating his
heart beats. Malcolm received his notice in October 1943 and employed various means to

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obtain the so-called 4F Status, and eventually succeeded. What is important is that many hep
cats were strictly opposed to the conflict and rejected the idea of helping the whites,
discriminating them, to succeed in what they referred to as another “white man’s war”. The
statistics of 1946 were significant : two thousand hep cats had been imprisoned for refusing to
comply with the provisions of the Selective Service. On top of that, black militaries faced
constant harsh treatments within the army, being beaten or humiliated. Those practices were
essentially suffered by jazz musicians or hep cats. They led to very tense relationships
between blacks and white servicemen, often resulting in violence and fights : for instance, in
1943, Los Angeles saw the emergence of racist attacks towards black youth.
Malcolm’s engagement in the field of illegal economy found its roots in the laissez-faire
attitude (pursuit of pleasure) that most white servicemen reproached to the zoot suiters. He
acquired the grade of “hustler”, helped in this way by some of the most famous bandits of
Harlem. However, other factors can explain hep cats practicing forbidden activities, for
instance the evident imbalance in opportunities in Northeastern cities during the war, with
low-wage and inferior positions for blacks on the one hand, well-paid jobs for whites on the
other hand. Above all, illicit economical practices, according to a certain number of
criminologists or anthropologists, were a way of avoiding alienating labour as well as low-
wage labour which represented a real source of anger among African Americans, and Shorty
referred to the blacks who accepted such jobs as “slaves”. Rejecting a work ethic, the zoot
suiters had refused to make work the criteria of their identity. “Fast money” was the goal to
reach. Hustling had led to the radicalization of a common identity among a group with
established limits, reserved to men. As for women, they were viewed as objects or reduced to
useful means of “fast money”, being financially and sexually exploited; that conception was
even expressed by jazz musicians in the nineteen-forties, talking about “living off women”
through such lyrics as “Mama, mama, please give me that gold” (Tiny Grimes). Although
white women were used as objects too, a hustler being in a relationship with one of them was
better considered, which happened when Malcolm had an affair with Sophia, a white woman.
On top of that, being involved in hustling permitted him to study white racism. In parallel of
his illegal activities, he worked for instance as a shoeshine boy which allowed him to observe
the reactions and behaviour of his fellow white citizens. He soon realized that in many whites’
mind, African Americans were seen as inferior citizens and to receive money from such white
men, the only thing to do was to “do a show”. On the one hand, Malcolm received money by
manipulating the racists’ ideology (many of them had not accepted the abolition of slavery
yet), on the other hand he made them believe that he was fully satisfied with his status and the
menial job he was tasked with. Those permanent comedies made him more radical, swearing
about clients and using drugs in an excessive way. Furthermore, he began to take part in
burglaries, for such conducts were not based on a hierarchy and did not impose strict
regulations of time. Through illicit economy, he learnt how capitalism worked, managing to
keep some free time for leisure and independence but that knowledge of capitalism also
contributed to changes in his attitude – he became more violent towards women and adopted a
far more deleterious lifestyle – which led to his imprisonment.
Malcolm X eventually rejected his teenage years after he joined the Party of Islam. Malcolm
Little, building his identity on the ghetto culture to be socially accepted more than in reaction
to the society of his teenage years, may not be such a good mean to answer the question raised
by Ellison’s quotation. Yet, the influence of the hipster culture is still omnipresent, although
not explicit : in the current African American ghettos, for instance, new styles have developed
(such as hip hop), which are reminiscent of the zoot suiters’ time. The character’s narrative
permits to understand that cultural politics can be both associated with the pursuit of pleasure
and leisure, and with an actual reactionary movement consisting in an opposition against the
dominant culture and inequalities.

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 In The Riddle of the Zoot, the author uses various literary processes to feed his historical
approach of the hipster subculture. The title itself is a reference to the quotation by Ellison,
appearing at the beginning of the essay and raising the question of the very essence of the zoot
suiters’ movement. The reader must then understand that Kelley intends to bring some
answers to that question : thus, quoting Ellison is the literary basis for his subsequent
argumentation. In order to retrospectively deliver a serious historical description of the
subculture studied, he chooses a famous character reminiscent of it : Malcolm X. The
document could be considered quite ambiguous at first sight for it is uneasy to understand if
Malcolm Little’s teenage years – described in the text – are the mean for bringing out the
main characteristics of the zoot suiters’ culture or, on the contrary, if the main components of
the latter culture are used by the writer to focus on the world-known boy’s identity more
profoundly. In reality – and Kelley’s historical approach is embodied in the following process
-, the essay points out the major characteristics of the hipster subculture by opposing
Malcolm’s vision of his teenage years developed in his autobiography to the actual political
and ideological meanings associated with the subculture Malcolm Little belonged to, in the
nineteen-forties. For instance, Kelley quotes Malcolm X referring to the zoot, the conk or the
cigarettes as “ghetto adornments” whereas such attire were significant of the development of a
reactionary movement among the “hep cats” as it has been previously mentioned, observation
made possible by the subsequent studies pertaining to African Americans at the time.
Furthermore, the author’s sources also consist in quotations by other African Americans and
contemporaries of Malcolm, either famous – Tiny Grimes, for example – or not – Shorty, a
friend of Malcolm’s, was not. In other words, the essay is not solely descriptive : it is
interesting in the sense it mixes a static description on the one hand and a biographical
character on the other hand.
In terms of historiography, the document has for main effect of challenging the idea that
Malcolm X, in the years before his imprisonment, was a symbol of the zoot suiters’ culture,
therefore able to explain the whole set of values his movement provided, and entirely grasping
its historical, sociological and political stakes. It signifies that Kelley considers the character
of Malcolm Little – although known as an emblematic figure of the hipster subculture and
used by many historians to bring out the main components of it – cannot solve the “riddle of
the zoot” pointed out by Elliston in 1943. In the writer’s view, “Red” kind of submitted the
movement he had taken part in, more than he contributed to the emergence of the zoot suiters’
ideas and principles. Although that position is explicitly expressed in the later part of the
essay, “In a Blue Haze of Inspiration, I Reach the Totality of Being”, through such sentences
as “he ultimately failed to solve Ralph Ellison’s riddle” or “the thought of recuperating the
oppositional meanings embedded in the expressive black youth cultures of his era probably
never crossed his mind”, other examples of the author’s standpoint are to be found in the
whole article : in “The Zoot suit of life”, for instance, Kelley points out the fact that
Malcolm’s position about the conk “conveniently separates the hairstyle from the subculture
of which it was a part, and the social context in which such cultural forms were created”.
Moreover, the writer reminds the reader that Malcolm X, after he joined the Nation of Islam,
described his teenage years as disgraceful ones, describing himself in his narrative as a young
newly rural migrant wishing to build his personality and being socially accepted by adopting
the urban ghetto lifestyle, but unable to “see beyond the dominant culture he mimics”. To sum
up, and in Kelley’s words, Malcolm Little was the “product of a totality of lived experiences”.
The Riddle of the Zoot also brings a useful contribution in the understanding of the history
of African Americans, for its author establishes links between sartorial attire, dances and
musical styles : indeed, Kelley uses a number of terms such as “zoot suiters”, “hep cats” or
“hipster culture” when describing the development of a strong and common identity among

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black youth. By associating such heteroclite elements, which were not assimilated before, the
author shows through his article how the culture of opposition which was the zoot suiters’
could be expressed by means of various material or artistic arguments. As for politics, the
writer considers the rejection by Malcolm X of his “zoot suiter” years as a good example for
the new black generation to distinguish between the “culture as politics” and the “culture as
pleasure”.

To conclude, one could say that The Riddle of the Zoot offers a new historical approach of
the zoot suiters’ culture, by depreciating the vision Malcolm X had of it and gathering
elements so that the riddle raised by Ellison in 1943 can be solved. It is marked out by the
demystification of an influent character, seen until then as a leader of the hipster subculture
feeding it with ideas and principles, reduced in the text to the qualification of “product of
lived experiences”. Above all, that essay paves the way for new questions pertaining to the
new poor black generation in the United States (“language, dress, music and hair styles rising
out of today’s ghettos”) : indeed, Kelley expresses the idea according to which the hipster
subculture significantly influenced the construction of a new black identity through the
twentieth century but on top of that, he develops in his final part a standpoint that current
ghetto black inhabitants could still be qualified of “hep cats” because of the dances and
musical styles associated to them. In other words, an idea is raised that the hipster subculture
could still exist nowadays and, to a further extent, that reactionary movements resulting from
the identity of particular groups are timeless, that is to say history remains the same through
ages.