Engineering

Materials

LECTURE (1)
 Engineering Materials
Final
Total
3 hrs ‫أعمال السنة‬
Behaviour
Mid Term Presentation
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Attendance
Quiz Report

100 70
15 10 5

Σ= 30
INTRODUCTION
Engineering Materials
1-Mechanical Properties of
Materials
 Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial
Δl

F
F Linear-
elastic
El ti means reversible!
Elastic ibl ! Non-Linear-
elastic
Δl
2
 Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

plastic
elastic + plastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic
Δl
plastic
3
 Common States of Stress
• Simple tension: cable
F F
Ao = cross sectional
Area (when unloaded)
F
  
Ao
Ski lift (photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
• Simple
p shear: drive shaft
M Fs Ao
Ac 
Fs
 
M Ao
2R Note:  = M/AcR here.
5
 Other Common Stress States (1)
• Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F Note: compressive
 structure member
Balanced Rock, Arches
National Park Ao (s < 0 here).
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

6
 Other Common Stress States (2)
• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson)
 > 0

z > 0  h< 0

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Stress Strain Test
Stress-Strain

specimen

machine
Tensile Strength, TS
 Stress-Strain Diagram
ultimate
tensile
g
strength 3 necking
 UTS
Strain
yield
i ld Fracture
strength Hardening
y 5
2
Elastic region
Plastic slope =Young’s (elastic) modulus
Region yield strength
Plastic region
ultimate tensile strength
g
Elastic strain hardening
σ Eε Region fracture
4
σ 1
E
ε E
σy
Strain (  ) (L/Lo)
ε 2  ε1
 Important Mechanical Properties
f
from aTTensile
il Test
T t

• Young's
Young s Modulus: This is the slope of the linear portion
of the stress-strain curve, it is usually specific to each
material; a constant, known value.
• Yield Strength: This is the value of stress at the yield
point, calculated by plotting young's modulus at a
specified percent of offset (usually offset = 0.2%).
• Ultimate Tensile Strength: This is the highest value of
stress on the
h stress-strain
i curve.
• Percent Elongation: This is the change in gauge length
di id d by
divided b the
h original
i i l gauge length.
l h
 Example 1
T il Testing
Tensile T ti off Aluminum
Al i Alloy
All

Convert the changeg in length

g data in the table to engineering
g g stress and strain
and plot a stress-strain curve.
Example
a p e 1 SO
SOLUTION
U ON
 F
Linear
e Elastic
s c Properties
ope es
• Hooke
Hooke's
s Law: =E
F
simple
p
tension
test


E
1  Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(Young's modulus)
Linear
Linear-
elastic
 Example 2:
Young’ss Modulus - Aluminum Alloy
Young
From the data in Example 1, calculate the modulus of elasticity of the
aluminum alloy.
 True Stress and True Strain

 True stress The load divided by the actual cross-sectional area of the
specimen at that load.
load

•The relation between the true stress-true

strain diagram and engineering stress-
engineering strain diagram.
diagram
•The curves are identical to the yield point.
 Brittle & Ductile Fracture

• Ductile
uc e materials
e s - eextensive
e s ve plastic
p s c deformation
de o o andd energy
e e gy
absorption (“toughness”) before fracture
• Brittle materials - little plastic deformation and low energy
absorption before fracture
Brittle vs. Ductile Fracture
Ductile Fracture
Impact
p Test: The Charpy
py Test
The ability of a material to withstand
an impact blow is referred to as notch
toughness.
The energy absorbed
Th b b d is i the
th difference
diff
in height between initial and final
position of the hammer.
hammer The material
fractures at the notch and the structure
of the cracked surface will help
indicate whether it was a brittle or
ductile fracture.
 Impact Tests: Test conditions
• The impact
p data are sensitive to test conditions. Increasingly
g y sharp
p
notches can give lower impact-energy values due to the stress
concentration effect at the notch tip

• The FCC alloys→ generally ductile fracture mode

• The HCP alloys→ generally brittle fracture mode

• Temperature is important

• The BCC alloys→ brittle modes at relatively low temperatures

and ductile mode at relatively high temperature
 Transition Temperatures
• As temperature decreases a ductile material can become
brittle - ductile
ductile-to-brittle
to brittle transition

– The transition temperature is the temp at which a

material changes from ductile-to-brittle behavior

• Alloying usually increases the ductile-to-brittle

transition temperature.
temperature FCC metals remain ductile down
to very low temperatures. For ceramics, this type of
transition occurs at much higher
g temperatures
p than for
metals.
 Ductile to Brittle Transition
The results of impact tests are absorbed energy, usually as a function of temperature. The
ABSORBED ENERGY vs. TEMPERATURE curves for many materials will show a
sharp decrease when the temperature is lowered to some point. This point is called the
ductile to brittle transition temperature.
p

A typical ductile to brittle transition as a function of temperature. The properties of BCC

carbon steel and FCC stainless steel, where the FCC crystal structure typically leads to
higher absorbed energies and no transition temperature.
 Hardness
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better
b wear properties.
i
apply known force measure size
e.g., (1 to 1000g) of indent after
10
10mm sphere
h removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
l
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
28
Hardness Testers
2-MECHANICAL FAILURE
 DUCTILE VS BRITTLE
• Classification: FAILURE
Fracture Very Moderately
Brittle
behavior: D til
Ductile D til
Ductile

Adapted from Fig. 8.1,

Callister 6e.
6e

%AR or %EL: Large Moderate Small

• Ductile Ductile: Brittle:
fracture is warning before No
desirable! fracture warningg
 Ex: Failure of a Pipe
• Ductile failure:
--one piece
--large deformation

• Brittle failure:
--many
yp pieces
--small deformation

Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A.

Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical
Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 4.1(a) and (b),
p. 66 John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987.
Used with permission.
 Fatigue
g
• Fatigue = failure under cyclic stress.
specimen
i compression on top

bearing motor counter

bearing
flex coupling
tension on bottom

• Stress
St varies
i with
ith ti
time. 
max
--key parameters are S and m S
m
min time
• Key points: Fatigue...
--can failure even though max < c.
can cause part failure,
--causes ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.
 Definitions and Concepts

• Constant amplitude
stressing
• Mean stress
• Stress amplitude (half of the
range) variation about the
mean
• Stress ratio R, Amplitude
ratio
i
• Completely reversed
stressing,
t i R=-1
R 1

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 Fatigue Design Parameters
S = stress amplitude
• Fatigue limit, Sfat: case for
--no
no fatigue if S < Sfat unsafe
f t l (typ.)
steel (t )

Sfat
safe
Adapted from Fig.
8.17(a), Callister 6e.

103 105 107 109

N = Cycles to failure
• Sometimes, the
fatigue limit is zero! S = stress amplitude
p
case for
unsafe Al (typ.)

safe Adapted from Fig.

8.17(b), Callister 6e.

103 105 107 109

N = Cycles to failure
Fatigue Limit:
•For some materials such as BCC steels and Ti alloys,
y , the S-N curves become horizontal
when the stress amplitude is decreased to a certain level.

•This stress level is called the Fatigue Limit,

Limit or Endurance Limit.
Limit

Fatigue Strength:
For materials, which do not show a fatigue limit such as Al, Cu, and Mg (non-ferrous
alloys), and some steels with a FCC structure, fatigue strength is specified as the stress level
at which failure will occur for a specified number of cycles, where 107 cycles is often used.

36
 Improving Fatigue Life
1. Impose a compressive
surface stress
(to suppress surface
cracks from growing)

--Method
M th d 1:
1 shot
h t peening
i
shot
put
surface
into
compression

2. Remove stress bad better

concentrators. Adapted from
8 23 Callister
Fi 8.23,
Fig. C lli t 6e.
6
bad better