Theoretical models of the electrical discharge machining process. I.

A
simple cathode erosion model
Daryl D. DiBitonto, Philip T. Eubank, Mukund R. Patel, and Maria A. Barrufet

Citation: J. Appl. Phys. 66, 4095 (1989); doi: 10.1063/1.343994

View online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.343994
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Published by the American Institute of Physics.

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 Theoretical models of the electrical discharge machining process. I.
A simple cathode erosion model
Daryl D. Di8itonto
Department of Physics, Texas A&M University. College Station. Texas 77843
Philip T. Eubank, Mukund R. Patel, and Maria A. Barrufet
Department a/Chemical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843
(Received 20 February 1989; accepted for publication 11 July 1989)
A simple cathode erosion model for the electrical discharge machining (EDM) process is
presented. This point heat-source model differs from previous conduction models in that it
accepts power rather than temperature as the boundary condition at the plasma/cathode
interface. Optimum pulse times are predicted to within an average of 16% over a two-decade
range after the model is tuned to a single experimental point. A constant fraction of the total
power supplied to the gap is transferred to the cathode over a wide range of currents. A
universal, dimensionless model is then presented which identifies the key parameters of
optimum pulse time factor (g) and erodibility (j) in terms of the thermophysical properties of
the cathode material. Compton's original energy balance for gas discharges is amended for
EDM conditions. Here it is believed that the high density of the liquid dielectric causes
plasmas of higher energy intensity and pressure than those for gas discharges. These
differences of macroscopic dielectric properties affect the microscopic mechanisms for energy
transfer at the cathode. In the very short time frames of EDM, our amended model uses the
photoelectric effect rather than positive-ion bombardment as the domi.nant source of energy
supplied to the cathode surface.

INTRODUCTiON During this on-time, the high-energy plasma melts both

Electrical discharge machining (EDM) has steadily electrodes by thermal conduction, but limited electrode va-
gained importance over the years because of its ability to cut porization occurs due to the high plasma pressures. Further-
and shape a wide variety of solid materials. I t is now believed more, the anode first melts rapidly due to the absorpti.on of
to account for over 2% of all machining.l Advanced materi- fast-moving electrons at the start of the pulse, but then be-
als, such as ceramics, composites, and cermets, which are gins to resolidify after a few microseconds. This is thought to
difficult to shape by conventional machining means, have be due to the expansion of the plasma radius4 at the anode
been successfully cut by EDM in our laboratories? which causes a decrease in the local heat flux at the anode
This series of pUblications is the result of a cooperative surface (qA of Fig. 1). Melting of the cathode is delayed in
effort between ourselves and the AGIE Corporation, a lead- time by one or two orders of magnitude beyond that of the
ing EDM manufacturer. This initial article is concerned anode due to the lower mobility of the positive ions. More-
with cathode erosion. Subsequent publications will deal with over, because it is emitting electrons, the plasma radius at the
anode erosion, modeling of the plasma formed in the dielec- cathode is also much smaner, thereby approximating a point
tric, and interaction between the models, for a complete de- heat source for conduction into its interior.
scription of the EDM process.

AN OVERVIEW OF THE EDI\/! PROCESS

I ANODE MELT
The elements of EDM are two electrodes, a cathode and
anode, separated by a liquid dielectric. During operation, an ANODE (+)
...... / . ······1'~....···· -
--";~:;..
CAVITY

applied voltage of ::::: 200 V across a typical gap of 40 f.lm COMPRESSED

LIQU1!l
causes the dielectric to break down. The voltage U fans to
about 25 V and the current I rises to a constant value set by SHOCK
WAVE
the operator. A plasma channel, surrounded by a vapor bub- b FRONT

ble, grows during this "on-time" t or pulse which is usually

AMBIENT
less than 100 jlS. Unlike a gas, the surrounding, dense liquid LIQUID
IlIELECTI1IC
dielectric restricts the plasma growth, concentrating the in-
put energy U!t in a very small volume. Energy densities of
CATHODE H
up to 3 J/mm3 result, causing local plasma temperatures to CATHODE MELT
CAVITY
reach as high as 40 000 K. Dynamic plasma pressures rise to
as much as 3 kbar due mainly to inertia! (density) effects.
Viscosity effects are thought to be responsible} for the plas- FIG. 1. A schematic diagram oHlle EDM process showing the circle heat
ma shape of Fig. 1. sources, plasma configuratioil, and melt cavities after a certain oll-time.

4095 J. Appl. Phys. 66 (9), i November 1969 0021-8979/89/214095-09$02.40 @ 1969 American Institute of Physics 4095

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 The temperature rise in the electrodes due to Joule heat-
ing was calculated by Van Dijck5 and it was found to be
negligible. This is because the current density decreases
strongly with increasing depth beneath the electrode sur-
face.
At the end of the on-time, a pause period t5 begins when
power is terminated to the machine. During this period, a
violent collapse of the plasma channel and the vapor bubble
occurs, causing the superheated, molten liquid on the sur-
face of both electrodes to explode into the liquid dielectric.
While some ofthi.s material is carried away by the dielectric,
the remainder ofthe melt in the cavities resolidifies in place,
waiting to be removed by a later spark. Cavities, usually less
than 100 11m in width, are left in the electrodes leaving an
ultrasmooth surface. The erosion rate is defined as the cavity
volume removed divided by the sum of the pulse and pause
times for each cycle of operation, Figure 2 illustrates, qual-
itatively, the maxima in the erosion rate versus pulse time
curves for the anode and cathode, with crossover at about O. 5
f.ls.
One can now understand the operating rationale behind
the two main types of EDM machines: (a) the diesinker
shown in Fig. 3 and (b) the wire machine shown in Fig. 4.
For diesinkers, the cathode is usually the workpiece and the
anode serves as the shaping tool, and, because we seek to
remove material from the cathode and not the anode, opti-
mum pulse times of 10-100 fts (30 f-lS in Fig. 2) are em-
ployed. Anode erosion is low due to resolidification for such
long on-times. Also, as shown by Fig. 3, any shape can be cut
into the workpiece by matching that of the (negative image)
electrode. The electrode does not come in physical contact
with the workpiece and, therefore, does not exert any force
(except via plasma pressure) upon it. Historically, heavy
hydrocarbon liquids, such as cutting oils, have been used as
dielectrics in diesinkers.
The wire machine, shown in Fig. 4, cuts and shapes like
ajigsaw. Here water is generally used as the dielectric. The
moving cathodic wire can cut at different angles into the
fixed, anodic workpiece. In accordance with Fig. 2, the pulse
CATHODE
w
~
a::
z
o
~w
Fe Cathode
ON-TIME
FIG. 2. The difference between anode and cathode erosion rates with differ-
ent on-times (not to scale). Maximum anode erosion occurs at about J #s,
whereas the maximum cathode erosion occurs at 30 us. Determined from
experimental (SIT) data at 10 A for a copper anode ~d a steel cathode.
4096 J. App\. Phys., Vol. 66, No.9, 1 November 1989
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Before EDM After EOM
FIG. 3. Schematic diagram of the diesinking machine.
times for wire machjnes are usually less than 10 tlS to allow
high erosion rates on the workpiece. Some ero"sion of the
moving cathodic wire is allowable, but high erosion results
in wire breakage, the dominant practical and economic
problem in wire EDM operation.
Since the discovery of EDM by Lazarenko6 nearly 40
years ago, considerable theoretical and experimental re-
search has been performed to identify the basic physical pro-
cess involved. Although thermal conduction and melting are
understood to be dominant mechanisms for electrode ero-
sion, the physics of the plasma bubble is not well understood.
By assuming a point heat-source model (PHSM) for the
cathode erosion, as i.s the case in this publication, the necessi-
ty of a complex plasma model to supply boundary conditions
for electrode conduction models is avoided.
Modern EDM research should recognize three neigh-
boring fields of technology; (1) the theory of gas discharges 7
including the streamer theory 8 for positive ions, (2) conduc-
tion and breakdown in liquids 9 concerned mainly with the
undesired dielectric breakdown in electrical tra~sformers,
and (3) the previously unrecognized field of underwater ex-
plosions,.lO particularly the experiments of Robinson and co-
workers I 1-13 on exploding wires, which produce cylindrical
plasmas similar to those of EDM.
ASSUMPTIONS FOR THE CATHODE MODEL
Several simplifying assumptions apply with reasonable
accuracy to cathode erosion. Therefore, a simple model may
be derived to predict the best present measurements within
experimental error. The main assumptions of the model are
i::10,A!
I
Cu Anode
;
: Wire Guide Table
Machine
Body
FiG. 4. Schematic diagram of a wirc machine. Here (I) is the wire spool,
(2) are wire tension adjusters, and (3) is the used wire spool.
DiBitonto et al. 4096
 the following: (1) There is one spark per pulse and the plas- Equation (5) also assumes constant current I during the
ma radius (a c of Fig. 1) remains small (less than 5 j.tm) pulse (as EDM machines are usually driven). At the melt
allowing the use of a PHSM. (2) Effective (average) ther- radius R,
mophysical properties of the cathodic material apply over
the temperature range from solid to liquid melt. (3) The T = Tm
Ul
= To + (-Fe- - )erfc(R)
--;:=:- , (6)
initially vaporized cavity resulting from the asymptotic tem-
21rK r R 2"jat

perature profile (at zero time, rc and Ze of Fig. 1) is ignored, which provides R (1).
both in terms of its contribution to the total volume eroded We seek the optimum pulse time topt to maximize the
and to the total pulse time. (4) A constant fraction Fc of the cutting speed:
total power U1 is lost to the cathode, independent of current . Vc
and pulse time; however, Fc may change when either elec- Vw = - - , (7)
t+&
trode or the dielectric liquid is replaced by a different materi-
aL A fifth assumption which we originally made was to ig- with the melt cavity volume Vc given by
nore the heat of fusion of the cathodic material. However, Vc = j1TR 3. (8)
the results presented here include that effect, even though Useofthecondition [aV,jat h:,u,l,o = 0, at the maximum,
the erosion rates and optimum pulse times are affected, at results in
most, by only 2%. Although assumptions (1) and (3) can
be partially justified from the previous literature, we shall
save the justification of all assumptions for until after the
3(dR)
dt top, lopt
R
+ 15
(9)

experimental comparisons. Equati?ns (6) and (9) then provide t oPt and, hence R along
with (V", )",aK for a set current 1 and pause time /5.
THE PHSM FOR CATHODE EROSION Along the interface where the phase change takes place
Figure 5 illustrates the spherical symmetry resulting ( T = T melt) the foHowing equation holds:
from the above assumptions as well as the melt front radius dVe
R (t). The governing partial differential equation for this FcUI= +pAj . - - (0)
- dt'
heat conduction problem without heat generation is
where A.t is the heat affusion. The above equation states that
aT a2 T 2 aT
1 at the interface separating the solid from the liquid phase,
"7;Tt= a? +7Tr· (1)
energy is liberated or adsorbed at a rate proportional to the
Here a=KylpCp is the thermal diffusivity. The associated volumetric rate of conversion of the material (dVJ dt), and
initial and boundary conditions for the above PDE are that energy must be balanced by the energy flow from the
IC: t = 0, 'rJr, T= To, (2) interface. For liberation of heat (solidification) the plus sign
holds; conversely for melting (heat adsorption) the minus
Be: t>O, -Ky-a;=qo,
aT for r=O, sign holds.
Our computer program stops after small increments of

- Kr -
aT = 0, for r#O, (3)
the pulse time to anow sufficient passage of heat to corre-
ar spond to f}..t i = Af P(6.Vc ,)IFr UJ, where l:.Vci is the volume
(4) melted in the previous time increment. These corrections
BC: t> 0, r = 00, T = l;.l'
cause the total pulse time to change from I,t i to I, (ti + !It; ),
where To is the ambient temperature ofthe solid and K T is the whereas the final melt volume is unchanged. The erosion
thermal conductivity. The resulting temperature distribu- rate is therefore lowered and toP! is increased.
tion is given by14
COMPARISON TO AGiE SIT DATA
(5)
These high-precision data, taken by the AGIE Corpora~
tion prior to this model development, were obtained from a
modern diesinker with steel (iron) as the cathodic work-
piece and copper as the anode. For each fixed current I and
Unsteady State Conduction
pause time /5 of Table I, numerous experiments were per-
with Spherical Symmetry formed to measure the emsion rate Vw until the characteris-
tic maximum of Table I was found. The surface roughness
I after machining was aiso measured. R" is an average rough~
--DieI9ctr~
ness (hill to vaHey), while Rmux is the maximum. Because so
many craters overlap, Rmax is the measurement that should
correspond to the theoretical melt radius R,15 if all of the
melt were removed during the pause time.
Melt front 01 With the total voltage drop U set to 25 V, we "tuned" Fe
hemi-spherical on the central data point of 12.8 A of Table I. By tuning, we
melt cavity
mean that the theoretical optimum pulse time t"pt from the
FIG. 5. Cathode erosion: the point heat-source model (PHSM). PHSM was made to agree with the measured value of 42 fts.

4097 J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 66, No.9, i November 1989 DiBitonto €It a/, 4097

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.. -•.•.••••••••••••.• -.:.;.;••••••••••••'.:.:.: •.0;.;.;•••••••;>••• >.~.~.:.:.:.:.: •••••••• •••••••
'.:.:.;.~.:.;.:.:O:' ••••••• ......-.
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TABLE I. SIT cathode technology and theoretical predictions.

topt (Vw)mox R melt

1 {j Theory SIT Theory SIT PFE Theory Ra RmaK.

(Al (J/-s) (p;s) (Ils ) (mm 3 /minl (mmJ/min) (%) (jlm) (urn) (jlm)

68 10.0 650.38 560 579.47 559 96 144.95 11.2 85

58 7.5 475.31 420 494.03 346 70 123.81 8.9 67
44 5.6 285.50 24() 373.09 246 66 95.25 7.9 60
36 4.2 195.16 180 304.56 226 74 78.47 7.9 60
2S 4.2 111.58 100 207.20 125 60 57.58 6.3 48
20 3.2 75.0S 56 164.65 89.7 54 46.81 5.0 38
12.8 3.2 42.00 42 100.33 50.5 50 33.05 4.0 30
10.0 2.4 27.88 32 77.18 32.0 41 26.50 3.5 27
8.5 2.4 23.19 24 63.79 23.2 36 23.51 3.2 24
5.3 2.4 14.22 18 35.58 8A 24 16.76 2.0 15
3.67 2.4 10.10 13 21.78 3.1 14 12.94 1.7 13
2.85 l.3 5.74 7.5 17.26 1.6 9 9.89 1.3 10
2.34 1.0 4.16 5.6 13.82 0.3 2 8.28 1.0 8

SIT = experimental data.

PFE = plasma flushing efficiency.

This resulted in a value for Fc of 0.183. These values were the value for steel (iron). As a result of these comparisons,
used as constants in computing all the theoretical values in an examination of the dimensionless groups, described be-
Table 1. The excellent agreement between experimental and low, show that the optimum pulse times are very roughly
predicted values of the optimum pulse time over a two-dec- proportional to K T • However, the procedure of tuning the
ade range shows the constancy of Fc and, hence, the validity PHSM onto a data point along with the use of an effective
of our fourth assumption. However, more detail on this will value of K T over the temperature range, from solid to molten
be provided in a later section concerning justification of liquid, effectively lumps our uncertainties together for deter-
model assumptions. mination by the machine itself. Consequently, without turn-
Considering the variation of thermophysical properties ing to data, the present cathode model should be viewed as
of steel (iron) over the temperature range from To = 298 to being only qualitatively correct and not as a general a priori
T m = 1808 K, a set of effective (average) values were used predictor.
as constants in the model calculations; these being K T = 56.1 A dimensionless, universal cathode model is now devel-
W/m K, Cp = 575Jlkg K, andp = 7545kg/m3 • As expect- oped to identify the minimum number of thermophysical
ed, the predicted maximum erosion rates are higher than the groups that would allow a few data points from a diesinker
corresponding experimental (SIT) values. The fraction of (which erodes a new cathodic workpiece) to be tuned to this
the theoretical melt volume actually removed, upon collapse model to guarantee quantitative agreement over wide ranges
of the plasma, is termed the plasma flushing efficiency of I and 8 for operation near t opt '
(PFE). As the current increases, so does the optimum pulse The coupling of Eqs. (6) and (9) results in
time. This causes the energy contained in the plasma, which
is proportional to Jt"Pt' to increase significantly. A low-ener-
41T../7"; = erfc X/X, (11)
gy plasma fails to build sufficient pressure during its relative- where X is given by
ly short pulse time to expel a significant fraction of the melt
into the dielectric. For the same reasons, the theoretical val- X 2 =ln(1 +38*lro )). (12)
ues of the terminal melt radius must be larger than the mea- 4ff3/V7~
suredR ma ,,· The dimensionless optimum pulse time 1"0 is
1"0 = t oPt /gI 2 , (13)
THE UNIVERSAL CATHODE EROSION MODEL
where g is termed the optimum pulse time factor and is given
In considering cathodic materials other than steel by
(iron), the melting temperature and, particularly, the ther-
mal conductivity are important parameters. The product pCp (Fc U )2
g= 2 3 (14)
pCp is reasonably constant for most metals over the tem- (Tm-TO}Ky
perature range from ambient solid to molten metal specially Likewise, the dimensionless pause time t)* is
since the variation with temperature ofp and Cl' are in oppo-
site directions. Also, rough comparisons of the PHSM with (j* = S/gJ 2 • (15)
fragmentary data for other cathode metals (e.g., copper, alu- Figure 6 shows the universal graph of 1"0 vs (j*, with
1"0 = 4.884x 10- for t)* = O. Furthermore, the maximum
4
minum and stainless steels) indicate that the fraction of the
power supplied to the cathode, F c ' is within a few percent of erosion rate (Vw ) max is determined from

4098 J. App!. Phys., Vol. 66, No.9, 1 November 1989 DiBitonto et al. 4098

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 20
12x 52
,.
0
!.
12

°O~~1O---2~O--~30---4-0---'0-.----.~O--~ro~~80---'-0--t~OO~~11O
x 10" o
FIG. 6. Universal relationship between the dimensionless pause time and FIG. 8. Optimum percentage pause vs dimensionless pause time.
the optimum pulse time for cathode erosion in EDM.

7, allows prediction of t opt and ( Vw Jmax for other set values

161T'X 3-;-612p c VI of I and I). To find g and j, a single data point is first measured
( Vw)max = ----------- (16) with a commercial diesinker by determination of ( Vw ) max'
3(ro +e5"')(Tm - To)pCp the maximum sink rate in the cathode, by use of a special,
which in dimensionless form is nearly noneroding anode. Such a determination of (Vw )max
V~ = (Vw ) max IjI. (17) and the corresponding toP! provides/po and, hence, 8* from
Fig. 8. The optimum pulse time factor g is then obtained
Here j is termed the erodibility and is given by from Eq. OS). Finally, Fig. 7 provides V: and, therefore,
. FeU the erodibility j from Eq. (17).
1= . (18) Values of g and j for different solids are presented in
pCp(Tm - To)
Table n. It should be noted that because these are calculated
Figure 7 is the universal graph of V!vs 8*. Finally, Fig. 8 from thermophysical properties of each of the solids at
illustrates the increase of the optimum fractional pause, giv- To = 298 K, they provide only a rough indication of the opti-
en by mum pulse times and maximum erosion rates obtainable for
I' ----
o t)*
(19',
these different cathodic workpieces. For a more thorough
JPO - t +b
1"0 - + 8* ' comparison, effective values of the thermophysical proper-
with the dimensionless pause time, t)*. ties should be used [as was dondor steel (iron) of Table I].
Exploitation of the above analysis allows the EDM ma- In general, however, because the product (pCp) and Fe may
chine to be used as its own research laboratory for determin- be treated as constants, we observe that for most metals
ation of g and j for new materials from a single data point at ga:. (Tm - TO)-2K:;:3 andjoc (Tm - TO)-I. Therefore, the
topt for a typical setting of the current and pause time. Once g melting temperature and thermal conductivity of a metal ten
and} have been determined, the PHSM, through Figs. 6 and us where to expect the optimum pulse time (see Fig. 2) and
what the magnitude of the cutting speed will be for each
metal at selected conditions (1,0). The sixth and seventh
columns of Table II provide these values for the simple case
of 8 = O. Also, typical results for I = 3 and 68 A, respective~
ly, are provided. Hean be seen that compared to steel (iron),
copper has a low value ofg and, hence, short optimum pulse
times-aU due to its higher thermal conducti.vity. However,
the lower melting temperature for copper results in an erodi-
bility that is greater than steel. The result is that copper can
be cut by EDM only by employing high currents and low
pulse times. Such is the case for aluminum too. Stainless
steel, on the other hand, requires very long pulse times to be
effectively cut by EDM. These general conclusions are sup-
ported by EDM practitioners.

THEORETICAL MODELS FOR THE CATHODE

Following Cobine,16 the original energy balance of
FIG. 7. Universal curve for dimensionless maximum stock removal rate vs Compton 17 at the cathode surface for gas discharges is
dimensionless pause time for cathode erosion in EDM. shown in Fig. 9(a) as

4099 J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 66, No.9, 1 November 1989 DiBitonto et al. 4099

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TABLE II. The optimum pulse time factor g and the erodibility j for different metals. a

j=F,U[pCp(Tm - To)]-'(mm"/minA) g=pCp (FcU)2(Tm - To )"(KT )-'(/ts/A2 )

Examples from the model

[top, I J2} b~ 0 [ Vw(max)/I]o~o I=3A; {j = 1.5 jls 1=68A; 0= lOlls

Tm KT =, 4.88X 10 -4 g = 0.22096j tcpt Vw(max) topt v.' (max)
Solid (K) (W/mK) g j (ns/A2) (mmo/min A) (fi S ) (mm 3/min) (liS) (mm3/m in)

Steel 1808 80.5 62.52 51.07 30.5l 11.28 3.00 18.0 243 672
(Iron)
Copper 1356 380.7 1.105 74.79 0.539 16.53 0.830 4.11 30.7 653
Aluminum 933 202.5 11.68 163.9 5.70 36.21 L84 30.3 79.9 2060
Brass 1228 96.9 78.37 85.11 38.1 18.81 3.53 30.4 228 1210
(70% Cu, 30% Zn)
Bronze 1292 32.4 1908 84.10 931.1 18.58 18.5 49.6 4300 1260
(96% Cu, 3% Si)
Cast iron 1450 57.l 275.9 65.57 134.6 14.49 6.70 30.8 714 966
(plain)
S. 8. 304 1700 13.8 13590 52.83 6630 11.67 73.4 34.1 30700 794
TaC 4153 22.2 381.5 20.82 186.2 4.60 7.76 10.3 917 309
Ta 3269 54.3 31.64 37.27 15044 8.24 2.85 9.88 142 509
W 3683 165.9 0.9664 29.02 0.472 6.41 0.783 1.60 264 230
Al z0 3 2318 29.0 582.4 4-1.80 284.2 9.24 9.59 21.9 1400 625

values are computed using thermophysical properties at T = 298 K. Effective properties should be used to determine more realistic optimum on4imes
a All
and erosion rates. Results should therefore be used for qualitative comparisons only.

(1 - J) (aUe +U j - <Po) the cathodic materiaL Cobine assumes a between 0.9 and 1
- /1;- - £W - ~ - (rf + C(j' + JY + Y = O. (20) for gas discharges; so we assume a to be unity for simplicity.
The cooling of the cathode due to electron emission is 11;-
Here f is the fraction of the current carried by electrons, or
[process (2)], where ¢_ is the effective work function
1= (lJl). Also, Ie + Ip = I with Ip being the current car- (1; _ < ¢o) due to the presence of a high electric field. gp is
ried by positive ions. In process (1) of Fig. 9(a), the positive
radiation/rom the cathode, '8 is evaporation, Ctf' is heat lost
ions fall through the cathode potential drop Uc and give up
by gas conduction/convection, '1§ is heat lost by conduction
the fraction a of their energy to the cathode. The fraction
to the interior of the cathode, ,~ is energy added to the
.(1 - a) is carried away by the neutralized atoms. U; is the
surface by an external source, and .7 is energy received in
ionization potential and ifJo is the normal work function of
the form of unelectrified carriers produced by electrons
moving through the cathode-fall space. In keeping with Co-
bine's analysis, :!J?, C(j', and ,;y'may be ignored. Literature
measurements discussed in the next section show that (g' /
9f) < 0.02; so evaporation losses may be neglected too.
Equation (20) then simplifies to
(1 - j) (Uc + Ui - ¢o) - !ifJ- - C(i + 5'- = O. (21)
GAS
CATHODE
While reasonable numerical estimates have been made
by Cobine 16 (note some calculational errors) and von En-
gel IS using these equations for gas discharges, their direct
application to EDM by several authors 5 ,19 is questionable.
A. Model '"r e gas discharge'S
As noted earlier, the high density of the liquid dielectric
causes EDM plasmas to possess high pressure and energy for
very short pulse times. The streamer theory8 criterion of
Ph> 2667 bars tLm is easily exceeded in EDM where the
pressure builds rapidly due to inertial effects to exceed 67
bars for b = 40 !tm, for example. Despite these narrow elec-
trode gaps, the drift velocities of positive ions,20 here as-
PLASMA
sumed to be protons, are too low to allow significant migra-
l4)
CATHODE
tion towards the cathode in the short pulse times of EDM.
Thus a streamer head is thought to form near the cathode
surface creating a high local field near the cathode surface,
which reduces the value of ¢ _. Both the field and thermionic
B. Sirnplifiea model for EOM
mechanisms are thought to aid in the electron emission, but
FIG. 9. Processes occuring at the cathode. Eq. (21) requires more.

4100 J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 66, No.9, i November 1989 DiBitonto et al. 4100

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 Withf near unity, we cannot explain cathode melting!
erosion of <ft =:iFc U = 4.3 eV. The original streamer theory!;
describes the release of secondary electrons at the cathode by
photoionization. We believe this mechanism to be dominant
under EDM conditions. With <'7 crudely replaced by h (v),
Eq. (21) for EDM applications becomes
h (v) = 4; __
where (v) represents an average frequency to provide the
correct energy supplied to the cathode by the photoelectric
effect. If the radiation is taken as monochromatic, the condi-
tion of no conduction (<ft = 0) and £P __ = £Po = 4.5 eV re-
quires a wavelength A ofO.2S pm or less, corresponding to a
plasma temperature of roughly 10 000 K or more via Wien's
displacement law. With <ft = 4.3 eV and ¢; __ = £Po, the values
are 0.14 pm or less corresponding to 20 000 K or more.
These values, while but rough approximations, show the va-
lidity of the notion that most of the energy supplied to the
cathode under EDM conditions comes from photon rather
than positive-ion bombardment. As Loeb21 has noted, the
absence ofthennal equilibrium under these short time inter-
vals makes the classical concepts of temperature. reflection,
work function, and cathode fall questionable. Unsteady-
state energy and momentum balances provide a true phys-
ical picture which is why both our cathode and anode con-
duction models accept heat fiux rather than surface
temperature as boundary conditions.
We further question two general assumptions frequent-
ly made by EDM investigators. First, Lhiaubet and Meyer22
and others5 • 19 have assumed that nearly all of the total elec-
trical energy supplied to the interelectrode gap during dis-
charge is transferred to the electrodes in the form of heat.
The sum of UA and Uc calculated by Lhiaubet and Mayer, 22
which ranged from 4.55 to 11.15 V, was later recalculated by
Benzerga, Lhiaubet, and Meyer23 to range from 1.55 to
17.60 V when the heat offusion was included in the conduc-
tion model. They compared experimental mass losses at the
electrodes with calculated molten volumes from a conduc-
tion model to indirectly calculate UA and Uc • The authors
state that these sums agree with their measured total inter-
electrode voltages, which were reported to be near 20 V.
Typical measured voltages for EDM total 20-25 V not in-
cluding the work function and do not appear to vary with
pulse time or current level, as seen from the data of Table I.
Thus it appears that a considerable fraction of the total ener-
gy (viewed at the end of a pulse) has gone into the creation of
the plasma bubble of Fig. 1 as wen as to the electrodes. Our
preliminary plasma model calculations and the measure-
ments of plasma size and energy densities of Robinson and
co~workers 11-13 support this contention. Further, the second
article of this series will show that the anode melt front ad-
vances rapidly in the first few microseconds and then re-
cedes. This resolidification of the anode melt of radius
YA >aA (Fig. 1) may cause heat transfer back to the cold
dielectric. Certainly, the expulsion of the molten metal into
the dielectric together with the energy of the collapsed plas~
rna at the end of the pulse results in raising the temperature
of the dielectric bath (typically 1 m 3 in volume) by several
degrees during continuous operation.
4101 J. Appl. Phys., Vo!. 66, No.9, 1 November i SS9
................:o;.;••••••>;.;••••~.:.;.:.~.:.;.;••~•••••••·.·.·.·.~.:·:·.·.·.·;>;·.·.·.·.·<.:·:·-;o.·.·s'.·.·.·.·.· ····;-·-.;·.v;>;·..,.·····v•••• -., •.•.•.•.••:.;.:".•.•. -; •.•••.•:.:.:.:.:.............-......;:.;.;•.•.•.•.•. -.•...•. -.-,
Downloaded 20 Dec 2012 to 128.148.252.35. Redistribution subject to AIP license or copyright; see http://jap.aip.org/about/rights_and_permissions
Second, Lhiauhet and Meyer22 assumed that all the mol-
ten metal is removed at the end of the pulse, ie., a PFE of
unity. Although their higher pulse times (32-475 p..s) and
maximum currents (72-720 A) might lead one to beleive
that this is true, a closer examination reveals otherwise.
Since they used a sinusoidal current trace rather than the
+ <ft, (22) usuall'ectangular EDM trace, their maximum currents are
multiplied by 0.6366 for equivalent plasma energies. On this
basis, only two of their 15 data points produce a higher ener-
gy than the first line of Table I where the PFE is 96%, there-
by, making their assumption erroneous.
JUSTiFICATION OF MODEL ASSUMPTIONS
Here we discuss, in order, the four assumptions listed
previously. First, the assumption of one spark per pulse has
been experimentally verified. 24 Second, we have assumed a
point heat source at the cathode with a c <; 5 pm. High-speed
photographs8 •25 of gas discharges show plasma radii to be far
smaller at the cathode than at the anode. Both radii should
be much smalier, of course, when the dielectric is a liquid.
The Kerr~cell measurements of Robinson and co-
workers 11-13 were carried out in water for electrode gaps
ranging from 6 mm to 5 cm. As a very approximate estimate,
direct scaling of the assumed cylindrical plasma size to con-
form with typical EDM gaps of 40 pm would provide radii of
the order of 10 /-tm after 5 f-ts. Therefore, the actual magni-
tude of ac is not clear for EDM. Later, as will be reported in
the second publication, we developed an expanding~circle
heat-source model (ECHSM) for anode erosion. Use of this
model for steel (iron) cathodes with ac <;5 p..m provides
changes ofless than I % in the results reported in Table I. It
is important not to confuse a c with the melt radius Yo of Fig.
1 nor with the observed crater dimensions. 15
The second assumption is concerned with the use of con-
stant, effective values of thermophysical properties for the
cathodic material. Of the three properties, p, Cp. and K T' the
product pCp is reasonably constant over the temperature
range 1',,) to T", for reasons mentioned earlier. However, the
thermal conductivity, Kz-, may increase or decrease consider-
ably with temperature. This requires the use of an effective
(average) value in order to keep the model simple. Further-
more, an assessment of its effect on the optimum pulse times
and maximum erosion rates revealed that use of extreme
values of K T resulted in physically unrealistic situations
when compared with experimental data. The use of too high
a value (such as that at To throughout) resulted in theoreti-
cal erosion rates that were lower than those measured ex-
perimentally; whereas the use of too Iowa value (such as
that at T m) yielded pulse ti.mes that were orders of magni-
tude higher than those determined experimentally. The use
of an effective value, on the other hand, along with a single,
tuned value provided predictions to within a few percent
when compared with data for steel (iron) of Table 1. Finally,
it should be noted that the effective values used were values
averaged over the entire temperature range rather than the
single values at an average temperature.
In reference to the thi.rd assumption, studies by Lhiau-
bet and Meyer22 and, later by Benzerga and co-workers 23
DiBitonto et af. 4101
along with earlier measurements by Willey26 show that the gle current measurement. The remaining power is divided
volume of the initially vaporized cavity to be about 1% of the between the anode and the dielectric (plasma). The second
final melt volume. For example, at a current of 10 A and article in this series will show the more complex relationship
corresponding conditions of Table I, the equations of Lhiau- between the anode and plasma.
bet and Meyer22 provide a vaporized cavity radius of only 2. g
!-tm for carbon steel. Furthermore, this vaporization is com- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
plete after 5.8 ns. We acknowledge the full financial support of the AGIE
While the validity of our final assumption is obvious Corporation. We also acknowledge the technical advice re-
from Table I, a more detailed study of the constancy of Fc ceived from a number of physicists and engineers, both at
with current was undertaken. Here the PHSM was tuned AGIE and Texas A&M. In particular, we thank Dr. Ivano
independently to each data point of Table I so as to provide Beltrami of AGIE and Professor J. C. Holste, Professor H.
exact agreement between the theoretical and measured opti- A. Preisig, Professor A. M. GadaUa, and Professor K. R,
mum pulse times. The results are shown in Fig. 10. The "er- Hall of Texas A&M.
ror bars" depicted correspond to values of Fe obtained by
tuning to a time value within one machine setting of the topt
of Table I for each current. Except for the last four data NOTATION
points at low currents, Fc is remarkably constant. Experi-
mental determination of Vw and, hence, t opt ' is particularly
aA = plasma radius at anode surface
difficult for the low current points due to the low erosion
(Ie = plasma radius at cathode surface
Cp = heat capacity
rates. However, a single value of Fe determines the optimum
ECHSM = expanding-circle heat~source model
on-times to within one machine setting. The higher values of
EDM = electric discharge machining
Fc at lower currents may be physically significant and an
Fc = fraction of power going to the cathode
alternate mechanism may be prevalent for these short time
g = optimum pulse time factor [Eq. (14))
frames.
I = current (A)
Finally, it must be noted that the above model was de-
j = erodibility (Eq. (18)]
veloped by assuming one spark per pulse, which is the case
PFE = plasma ft.ushing efficiency
for metal electrodes with a uniform structure. However, for
PHSM = point heat-source model
graphite electrodes formed from powders of varying grain
qA = heat flux at anode surface
size, multiple sparks are observed. 27 In such cases, the model
qc = heat flux at cathode surface
is still applicable once the current has been renormalized to
r = radial coordinate
account for the number of sparks per pulse.
R = radius at melt temperature
t = time (f.ls)
CONCLUSIONS
1"0 = dimensionless optimum pulse time [Eq. (13)]
We have presented, for the EDM process, a simple cath- T = temperature
ode erosion model which captures the dominant physical U = voltage
effects. This point heat-source model does not require de- Vc = volume of eroded cavity
tailed information about its boundary condition from the Vw = erosion rate (mm 3 /min)
plasma bubble. Only the constancy of the fraction of power a = thermal diffusivity
supplied to the cathode is assumed and obtained from a sin- fj = pause time or time between sparks
K T = thermal conductivity
Af = heat of fusion
p = density of solid material
Superscripts
* = dimensionless quantity
030
Subscripts
A,a = relative to the anode
02.
C = relative to the cathode
i,i + b.; = time counter
0.20
m = melting conditions
""~'j
max = maximum conditions

j ,.
. ' : •• : •• _ : • • • • • • • • _ ••••••••••• « •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 00 • • • •

:~~
o = initial time or at ambient conditions
1, 1 opt = optimum conditions

10 20 :;:0 4C 00 70
, (amperes)
II. Beltrami (private communication, 1986).
FI G. 10. Fraction of power supplied to the cathode vs current as detennined 2"Research into Electric Discharge Machining," Texas Engineering Ex~
from the experimental data. The dashed line represent~ the constant value periment Station Report, First Quarter, to AGlE Corp., Cullege Station,
of Fc = 0.183 used in the PHSM. TX, September 1986.

4102 J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 66, No.9, 1 November 1989 DiBitonto et al. 4102

Downloaded 20 Dec 2012 to 128.148.252.35. Redistribution subject to AIP license or copyright; see http://jap.aip.org/about/rights_and_permissions
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