Operational Reactor Safety

22.091/22.903
Professor Andrew C. Kadak
Professor of the Practice
Spring 2008

Overview

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 1
 Course Learning Objectives
The course will focus on understanding the
complete nuclear reactor system including the
balance of plant, support systems and resulting
interdependencies affecting the overall safety of
the plant and regulatory oversight.

• Reactor Physics
• Power Conversion
• Safety Functions and Systems
• Risk Assessment
• Simulator Exercises
• Technical Specifications
• Safety Culture
Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008
Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 2
 Course Overview

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 3
Source unknown. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons
license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.
 Course Overview Cont’d

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 4
Source unknown. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons
license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.
 Grading Components

Homework 15%
Quiz #1 20%
Quiz #2 20%
Quiz # 3 20%

Final Exam 25%

Late Homework will receive up to 1/2 full credit

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 5
 Lecture 1:
Overview of Nuclear Reactors
Learning Objectives:

Gain broad understanding of PWRs, BWRs, HTGRs

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 6
 Nuclear Fuel Cycle

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 7
Figures © Hemisphere. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license.
For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.
 Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008
Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 8
Source unknown. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license.
For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.
Calvert Cliffs - MD
Robinson - SC
Indian Point - NY

Diablo Canyon

Prairie Island site - MN Surry - VA

Prairie Island - MN

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 9
Source unknown. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license.
For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.
 Objectives to Make Electricity

1. Make heat
2. Remove heat using a fluid or gas
3. Pass the fluid or gas through a turbine
4. Turning an electric generator to make
Electricity

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 10
 Removing Heat
• Fluid (water or liquid metal) or gas is pumped through the
core to remove heat generated in fuel due to fissioning.
• Pumps needed to circulate coolant
• Transfer directly to turbines or to steam generators
(PWRs)
• Condense steam to recirculate back to the core to provide
cooling

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 11
 Basics of Power Conversion

Replaces
fossil
Boiler
but no
smokestack Just like a coal
oil or natural gas
Boiling Water Reactor plant

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 12
Source unknown. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license.
For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.
Power Reactor Types

– Pressurized Water Reactor

– Boiling Water Reactor
– Natural Uranium Heavy Water Cooled Reactor (CANDU)
– RBMK - Russian Chernobyl Like - Water Cooled
– Fast Reactors - Liquid Metal (Sodium)
– Gas Reactors (CO2 or Helium Cooled)
– Molten Salt Cooled Reactors (Organic Coolants)

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 13
 Making Heat

• Use the fissioning of uranium atoms (or plutonium) to release

200 Million electron volts per fission.
• Need to enrich natural uranium to 3 to 4 weight percent U-235
(from 0.7% found in nature.
• Need to fabricate uranium into pellets clad in zironium fuel
assemblies which are placed into the reactor core.

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 14
 Fission Event
FF1

n U-235 n
n

FF2 n

Release of excess neutrons creates the potential for chain

reaction.
The energy (mostly as kinetic energy of the fission fragments) is
substantial.

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 15
Source unknown. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license.
For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.
 Energy Release

1 fission = 200 Mev

1 gram U-235 fissioned = 8.6x1010 joules = 24,000 kwh

(Equivalent to lighting a small city for overnight)

24,000 kwh requires 3.2 tons of coal

12.6 bbls oil

Energy Density (energy / mass)

Energy Density of U-235 = 28,000 times energy density of coal

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 16
 Pellets

Inserting
pellets
into pins

Fuel Pins Fuel Assembly

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 17
Source unknown. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license.
For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.
 Creating the Reactor Core

• Need to model uranium fuel

• Reactor internals

• Coolant flow

• Apply Reactor Physics

• Develop neutron flux solutions

• Yields power distributions

Reactor Core
• Creates heat that must be removed

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 18
Figures © Hemisphere. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license.
For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.
 Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008
Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 19
Source unknown. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license.
For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.
Important Factors in Design
• Reactor Core Design

– Fuel Design

• Reactor Physics - Core Power Distribution

• Reactivity Control - Ability to shutdown plant
• Safety Analysis - no fuel failure or melting
• Core Heat Removal

– Coolant - Heat Transfer

– Safety Systems (Emergency)

• Confinement of Radioactivity

• Electricity Production

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 20
 Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008
Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 21
Source unknown. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license.
For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.
 Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008
Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 22
Source unknown. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license.
For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.
 Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008
Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 23
Source unknown. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license.
For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.
 Boiling Water Reactors

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 24
 BWR Power Cycle

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 25
Source unknown. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license.
For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.
 Schematic Arrangement of a BWR

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 26
Source unknown. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license.
For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse. A.V. Nero, Jr., A Guidebook to Nuclear Reactors, 1979
BWR Fuel Assembly

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 27
Figures © Hemisphere. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license.
For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.
 BWR Core Lattice

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 28
Source unknown. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license.
For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse. “BWR/6: General Description of a BWR,” GE, 1980.
Pilgrim Nuclear Plant

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 29
Source unknown. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license.
For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.
 Pressurized Water Reactors

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 30
Schematic of Pressurized Water Reactor

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 31
Source unknown. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license.
For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.
 Pressurized Water Reactor Schematic
Concrete and Steel Primary Side Secondary Side
Containment

Pressurizer
Steam to Turbine
6.9 MPa Electric Grid
285ÞC Turbine
Generator
Primary
Concrete
Shield Turbine Bypass
15.5 MPa

Control Steam Condenser

Rods Generator
-40ÞC
-15ÞC
324ÞC
Cooling
Reactor Tower
Core

292ÞC High-Pressure Low-Pressure

Primary Primary Heaters Heaters
Vessel Coolant Pump
Feed Condensate
Pump Pump

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 32
Source unknown. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license.
For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.
 Typical Four-Loop Reactor Core

Cross Section (193 Fuel Parameters

Assemblies) Total heat output ~3250-3411 MWT
Heat generated in fuel 97.4%
Nominal system pressure 2250 psia
Total coolant flow rate ~138.4 x 106 lb/hr
Coolant Temperature
Nominal inlet 557.5˚F
Average rise in vessel 61.0˚F
Outlet from vessel 618.5˚F
Equivalent core diameter 11.06 ft
Core length, between fuel ends 12.0 ft
Fuel weight, uranium (first core) 86,270 kg
Number of fuel assemblies 193

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 33
Source unknown. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license.
For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse. Masche, G., Systems Summary: W PWR NPP, 1971
 PWR Fuel Assembly

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 34
Figures © Hemisphere. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license.
For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.
The Byron plant (photo courtesy Commonwealth Edison) is typical of a large US Pressurized
Water Reactor plant. Each reactor is 1105 MWe and they came into commercial service in 1985
and 1987 respectively.

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 35
 Gas Cooled Reactors

Fort St. Vrain - 330 MWe

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 36
 Power Cycle - Brayton

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 37
Source unknown. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license.
For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.
 Ceramic Fuel
Pyrolytic Carbon
Silicon Carbide
Porous Carbon Buffer
Uranium Oxycarbide

TRISO Coated fuel particles (left) are formed into fuel

rods (center) and inserted into graphite fuel elements
(right).

PARTICLES COMPACTS FUEL ELEMENTS

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 38
L-029(5) Source unknown. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license.
4-14-94 For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.
 Modular Pebble Bed Reactor

Thermal Power 250 MW

Core Height 10.0 m
Core Diameter 3.5 m
Fuel UO2
Number of Fuel Pebbles 360,000
Microspheres/Fuel Pebble 11,000
Fuel Pebble Diameter 60 mm
Microsphere Diameter ~ 1mm

Coolant Helium

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 39
Source unknown. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license.
For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.
 Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008
Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 40
Source unknown. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license.
For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.
 Reading and Homework
Assignment
1. Read Knief Chapter 1
Problems: 1.9, 1.10, 1.12
2. Read Knief Chapter 2
Problems: 2.7, 2.12
3. Read Knief Chapter 4

Prof. Andrew C. Kadak, 2008

Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering Page 41
MIT OpenCourseWare
http://ocw.mit.edu

22.091 Nuclear Reactor Safety

Spring 2008

For information about citing these materials or our Terms of Use, visit: http://ocw.mit.edu/terms.