Solar Energy 198 (2020) 124–138

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Solar Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/solener

Assessment of energy and cost analysis of packed bed and phase change T
material thermal energy storage systems for the solar energy-assisted drying
process
Halil Atalay
Yozgat Bozok University Engineering Faculty Mechanical Engineering Department, Yozgat 66000, Turkey

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this study, an evaluation of energy and economic analysis of two different energy storage systems for the
Thermal storage drying process was presented. These systems were the packed bed (PBTES) and phase change material (PCM)
Solar dryer thermal energy storage systems, respectively. Pebble stones were utilized as energy storage material in PBTES,
Pebble stone while paraffin wax with a melting temperature of 55–60 °C was used in PCM. The main objective of this study
Paraffin wax
was to compare two energy storage materials whose physical and chemical properties were completely different,
Dried lemon slices
in terms of performance and costs and to determine the ideal energy storage medium for the solar energy-
assisted drying process. For this purpose, two different energy storage mediums of similar capacity were de-
veloped and examined experimentally. When the systems were investigated in terms of energy analysis, it was
determined that the maximum thermal energy stored during the charging period was 52.59 MJ and 49.52 MJ for
PBTES and PCM, respectively. With this energy stored during the discharge period, average 5 mm thick lemon
slices were dried and the drying process lasted an average of 6.27 h in PBTES and 6.23 h in the PCM. During the
drying process, the moisture content of the lemon slices was reduced from 94.8% to 10% on wet basis. As a result
of the experimental studies, the average energy efficiencies were detected as 68.2% and 68.55% for PBTES and
PCM, respectively. When the systems were considered economically, it was observed that PBTES had a 10.47%
lower initial investment cost compared to PCM.

1. Introduction
One of the most important factors that prevent the degradation of
fresh fruits and vegetables is drying these products. Because drying is a
process requiring high energy, various drying systems are developed in
order to increase energy efficiency. Solar dryers are high energy saving
systems compared to other drying technologies. However, since the use
of these systems is limited to sunlight, solar energy is stored as heat
energy so as to maintain the drying process during the absence of
sunshine. Considering this situation, the importance of energy storage
mediums in industrial drying processes is increasing day by day. Hence,
it is observed that studies on the development of such systems are also
rapidly increased in the literature. In these researches, the use of phase
change materials as the energy storage material usually comes into
prominence.
Some studies have been carried out in the literature about solar
dryers in which energy storage systems are adapted. In particular, it is
observed that there are many studies about solar dryers integrated with
energy storage mediums used phase change materials. Generally, the
energy and exergy performance of the systems were emphasized in the
studies. Moreover, simulation and modeling studies of the systems were
carried out and compared with experimental data (Asgrahan and
Baniasadi, 2019; Iranmanesh et al., 2019). Experimental studies were
carried out in different parts of the world under different climatic
conditions. As a result of the studies, it was observed that energy sto-
rage mediums with phase change material have a positive effect on the
performance of solar dryers and extend the drying time (Bhardwaj
et al., 2019; Shalaby et al., 2014; Khadraoui et al., 2017; Baniasadi
et al., 2017; Rabha and Muthukumar, 2017; Reyes et al., 2014). In
addition, the economic analysis of some systems was taken into con-
sideration, and the simple payback period was determined (Jain and
Tewari, 2015). In some of the studies, dried products were also eval-
uated with regard to various food analyzes (Lakshmi et al., 2018).
Researches indicated that solar dryers with PCM energy storage
medium were also used for drying non-food products. As a sample
study, Khouya and Draoui (2019) developed a computational drying
model for a solar kiln with latent heat storage and determined the
drying characteristics of the wood. The drying kiln consisted of a solar

E-mail address: halilatalay16@gmail.com.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2020.01.051
Received 28 September 2019; Received in revised form 7 January 2020; Accepted 19 January 2020
0038-092X/ © 2020 International Solar Energy Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Atalay Solar Energy 198 (2020) 124–138

Nomenclature Tb,m Average temperature of the TES system (°C)

Tf Final temperature (°C)
A Cross sectional area of PBTES (m2) Ti Initial temperature (°C)
am Fraction melted Tm Melting temperature of paraffin wax (°C)
ar Fraction reacted Tim Air temperature at inlet to bed element (°C)
Clp Average specific het between Tm and Tf (J/kgK) Tnm Mean temperature of nth element of the bed (°C)
Cp Specific heat capacity (J/kgK) Vb Volume of the TES system (m3)
Cp,a Specific heat capacity of air(J/kgK) Vs Volume of the pebble stones (m3)
Cp,s Specific heat capacity of pebble stone (J/kgK)
Csp Average specific het between Ti and Tm (J/kgK) Greek Symbols
De Diameter of pebble stone (m)
G Mass velocity of air (kg/sm2) ε Void fraction (dimensionless)
hv Volumetric heat transfer coefficient (W/m3K) ρa Air density (kg/m3)
I Solar radiation (W/m2) ρs Pebble stone density (kg/m3)
L Length or height of the PBTES (m) Δhm Heat of fusion per unit mass (J/kg)
m Mass (kg) Δhr Endothermic heat of reaction (J/kg)
ma Air mass (kg) ΔP Pressure drop (Pa)
ṁ a Mass flow rate of air (kg/s) Δt Time difference (s)
M Mass of the paraffin wax (kg) μ λPCM Kinematic viscosity of air (kg/s m)Latent heat fusion (J/K)
N Number of species
Re Reynolds number (dimensionless) Subscripts
Q Stored thermal energy in the PCM (MJ)
Qa Available energy in the PBTES (MJ) exp Experiment
Qt Stored thermal energy in the PBTES (MJ) MR Moisture ratio
Sa Specific entropy (J/kgK) PBTES Packed bed thermal energy storage system
Sgen Entropy production (J/kgK) PCM Phase change material thermal energy storage system
Sliq Liquid entropy (J/kgK) RHamb Ambient relative humidity (%)
Ssol Solid entropy (J/kgK−1) SMER Specific moisture extraction rate
Tp Time of melting (s) Tamb Ambient temperature (°C)
T Temperature (°C) avg Average
Ta Air temperature in the system (°C) w Water
Ta,m Inlet temperature of the air to the PBTES (°C) dm Dry Matter
Tbi Initial temperature of the PBTES (°C)

air collector, cylindrical parabolic solar collector, drying cabin and
thermal energy storage unit. In addition, two mathematical drying
models were developed. The results revealed that the size of the latent
energy storage unit increased as the temperature level ascended. Con-
sequently, the integration of the thermal energy storage unit into the
solar kiln reduced the drying time by approximately 26.5%.
Also, it was observed that phase change materials having different
properties other than paraffin wax were used as energy storage material
in the literature. In one of these studies, Ndukwu et al. (2017) presented
energy and exergy analysis of a solar dryer integrated with Sodium
sulfate decahydrate and sodium chloride PCM thermal storage system.
Red chili was dried in the system. The aim of the study was to in-
vestigate the thermal energy storage performance of energy storage
materials based on exergy-sustainability indicators and energy con-
sumption.
It was observed that the researches related to the solar dryers using
pebble stones as energy storage material was quite limited, compared to
phase change materials. In a study, for the drying of camel meat in
Sahara air conditions, an indirect and direct forced convection solar
dryer integrated with a sensible heat storage medium where the pebble
stone was used as energy storage material was developed and examined
the performance analysis. In this way, the thermal efficiency of the
system increased by 11.8%. The average drying rate was determined as
18.34% in July, and 15.52% in November (Chaouch et al. (2018)). In
another study, Ayyappan et al. (2016) developed natural convection
solar dryer using different heat storage materials such as concrete, sand,
rock bed and performed energy analysis of the system. In the experi-
ments carried out on the system, the moisture content of coconut was
decreased from 52% to 7% on a wet basis. When concrete, sand, and
rock bed were used as heat storage material, the efficiency of the dryer
was found as 9.5%, 11%, and 11.65%, respectively. Nems et al. (2018)
examined the thermal and mechanical properties of a solar dryer in-
tegrated with an energy storage medium that used granite as the energy
storage material. Three different diameters of granite were utilized in
the study. In experiments on the system, the effect of granite of different
diameters on the filling and emptying process was investigated and it
was found that the drying process could be extended for two more
hours with the stored energy. Atalay (2019) conducted energy and
exergy analyses of a solar dryer that had a packed bed energy storage
system. Orange slices were dried in the experimental studies. In addi-
tion, the sustainability indexes of the system were also calculated and
all productivity factors were handled together. As a result of the ex-
periments using the packed bed energy storage system, it was observed
that the exergy efficiency of the system varied between 54% and 68%.
In this study, two different energy storage mediums (PBTES and
PCM) were developed for a large scale drying process and analyzed
with regard to performance and cost. Pebble stones and paraffin wax
were used as energy storage materials in PBTES and PCM, respectively.
The main objective of this study was to compare the two energy storage
mediums, which were completely different from each other but with
the same capacity, in terms of performance and cost, and clearly re-
vealed which energy storage system could be more suitable for a drying
process. Another aim of the study was to detect the advantages and
disadvantages that may arise if pebble stones were used as thermal
storage material instead of paraffin wax. Thus, the ideal energy storage
medium for a large scale industrial drying process was determined. In
particular, solar energy dryers, which had a product drying capacity of
4–5 kg and where phase change materials were preferred as energy
storage materials, had an important place in the literature. The use of
pebble stones for utilizing as the energy storage material was much less

125
H. Atalay
compared to phase change materials and included in only a few ap-
plications. In general, the performance analyses of the developed drying
systems were emphasized in the performed researches. However, par-
ticularly within the knowledge of the author, it was observed that a
comparison of two energy storage mediums with different physical and
chemical properties in terms of performance and cost, for drying ap-
plications was not performed before. Therefore, it is believed that this
study will make a significant contribution to the literature on behalf of
determining the appropriate energy storage medium for the drying
process and thus lead the development of low-cost drying systems with
high energy efficiency in the industrial drying process.
2. Materials and method
Two different thermal energy storage mediums with similar capa-
city were developed to ensure the continuity of the solar energy assisted
drying process in this study. One of the systems was the packed bed
(PBTES) and the other was the phase change material energy storage
systems (PCM). The schematic diagram and photographs of the PBTES
and PCM systems were shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2, respectively. In
PBTES, pebble stone was used as energy storage material and paraffin
wax was utilized as energy storage material in PCM. Both the energy
storage systems were 2 m long, 1 m wide and 1 m deep. Izoboard (heat
conduction coefficient 0.030 W/m K) with a low thermal conduction
coefficient was used as the external material in the systems. The con-
nections of izoboard material were made by using an aluminum profile.
In order to increase the heat transfer rate between the air and the
storage material in the systems, 5 perforated plates were placed with
equal distances between the energy storage materials. Approximately
500 kg of pebble stone was used in the PBTES and about 500 kg paraffin
wax was utilized in the PCM. The energy storage systems were sup-
ported with three air collectors each 2 m long and 1 m wide during the
charging period and there were two fans that provide airflow at their
inlets and outlets. In addition, the paraffin wax used as energy storage
Fig. 1. (a) Schematic diagram for PBTES system. (b) Some photographs related to PBTES.
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Solar Energy 198 (2020) 124–138
material in the PCM was divided into small pieces and each part was
placed in a heat resistant bag. Paraffin wax that had a melting tem-
perature of 55–60 °C, was used as the main material for the develop-
ment of PCM, and was preferred because of its phase change tem-
perature and relatively high latent heat capacity. The drying chamber
was 2.3 m long, 2.3 m wide and 2.3 m high and was developed properly
to the industrial drying process. Izoboard was used as the drying
chamber outer material and the connections were made with the alu-
minum profile. Also, there were two air collectors of equivalent size
(2 m long and 1 m wide) on the drying unit. In the sunlight hours, the
energy supplied from these collectors was transferred to the drying
chamber by means of a fan and thus the drying process was carried out.
The schematic diagram of the drying chamber and some photographs
related to the drying unit were shown in Fig. 3.
It is possible to explain the working principle of energy storage
systems and drying mechanism during experimental studies as follows:
The hot air coming from the three air collectors connected to the
energy storage systems entered the storage unit by means of a fan and
performed heat transfer with the energy storage materials. Thus, the
temperature in the storage unit started to increase from the bottom to
the top. During the discharging period, the stored energy was trans-
ferred from the storage unit to the drying chamber in the absence of
sunlight and the moisture of the product within the chamber was
evaporated by heat. The air whose moisture amount increased, lose its
ability to absorb moisture after a while and the air saturated with
moisture was thrown into the atmosphere through the flap on the side
of the drying unit. Experiments on the PBTES and PCM systems were
not performed simultaneously. Experimental studies were carried out
similar weather conditions on successive days.
2.1. Thermal performance of the PBTES and PCM systems
The thermal properties of pebble stone and paraffin wax were
shown in Table 1. Both systems provided the drying of lemon slices by
H. Atalay
Fig. 2. (a). Schematic diagram for PCM. (b) Some photographs about PCM system.
transferring the thermal energy stored during the charging period to the
drying chamber during the discharging period. The drying chamber and
energy storage systems were established in Izmir city in Turkey. During
the experimental studies, humidity, air velocity, temperature, and
pressure drop values were gauged with the sensors placed in the sys-
tems. Measurements were transferred to the database with a data logger
and processed to the computer. The assessment of the uncertainty of
measurement systems was given in Table 2. The highest uncertainty
was obtained in the pressure difference sensor as a value in the range
0–25 Pa. Considering the pressure loss in the energy storage system, it
was revealed to be acceptable because of the fact that this value was
below 5%. The amount of electricity consumed with the electricity
meter connected to the drying system was also determined. The
quantity of solar radiation was measured by a pyranometer. The
amounts of thermal energy stored during the charging period were
calculated, depending on the thermal properties of the energy storage
material used (mass, specific heat, latent heat, etc.) and the measured
temperatures. Also, the changes in the temperature, relative humidity
and mass flow rate of air in the drying chamber were measured with the
temperature, relative humidity sensors, and anemometer during the
discharging time and the results were shown in Fig. 4. According to the
obtained results in Fig. 4, when the PBTES was used, the maximum
values of relative humidity, mass flow rate of air and temperature in the
drying chamber were determined as 40%, 0.087 kg/s, and 55.4 °C,
respectively. Similarly, in the case of using the PCM, maximum relative
humidity, mass flow rate of air and temperature values in the drying
chamber were detected as 42%, 0.083 kg/s, and 54.3 °C, respectively.
In both systems, the temperature in the drying chamber increased
within the first 4 h after the start of the discharging period and then
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Solar Energy 198 (2020) 124–138
began to fall. Relative humidity in the drying chamber also decreased
for the first 4 h after the start of the discharging period and later started
to rise. The mass flow rate of air values showed a balanced decrease
during the drying process from the beginning of the discharging time in
both energy storage mediums and stabilized at the end of the drying
process. In the experiments, it was observed that the difference between
temperature and relative humidity values in PBTES and PCM systems
were caused by changing weather conditions. Since the experiments
were performed under similar weather conditions, the average values
obtained for both systems were shown in Fig. 4.
2.2. Theoretical analysis for the energy storage mediums
In this study, PBTES and PCM were handled in theoretical terms and
the amounts of thermal energy stored in the systems were calculated. In
the next stage, the factors causing energy losses were determined and
thus the amount of available energy was found.
In PBTES, the airflow rate was allowed to change to keep the inlet
air temperature constant during the charging time. It was assumed that
the inner part of the system was divided into N equal parts. The change
in air temperature entering the system and mean temperature of the
PBTES can be calculated by the following finite difference equations,
respectively (Singh et al., 2006):
−hv AL ⎞
Ta,m + 1 = Tb,m + (Ta,m − Tb,m )exp ⎜⎛ ⎟
⎝ N(mc p)a ⎠ (1)
where,
N=
L
ΔX (2)
H. Atalay Solar Energy 198 (2020) 124–138

Fig. 3. (a) Schematic diagrams for the drying chamber. (b) Some photographs of the drying chamber.

Tb,m(t + Δt) = Tb,m(t) + [ϕ1 (Ta,m − Ta,m + 1) − ϕ2 (Tb,m − Tamb )]Δt (3) temperature of the PBTES, and inlet air temperature (Raghav and
Nagpal, 2015):
where,
Thermal energy stored in the PBTES is expressed with Eq. (7);
(mcp )a N L
ϕ1 =
ρs AL (1 − ε ) cp, s (4) Qt = ∫0 (ρc )s (1 − ε ) A (Tnm − Tim ) dx (7)

(U ΔA)m At the start of the charging period, the air temperature at the outlet
ϕ2 = ϕ
(mcp )a 1 (5) of the PBTES remains constant for a short time, and since the energy
stored in the bed will remain the same during this time, the bed is
ε is the void ratio between the pebble stones, and was calculated as initially assumed to be at a constant temperature, and thus Eq. (7) can
follows (Singh et al., 2006) ; be expressed in the finite difference form as follows:
Vb − Vs N
ε= L⎛
Vb (6) Qt = (ρc )s (1 − ε ) A ∑ Tnm − NTbi⎞⎟
N ⎜n=1
⎝ ⎠ (8)
The average void ratio was determined as 0.45 in PBTES.
All the energy stored in the PBTES is usually stored as sensible heat. Since pebble stones are used as the energy storage material in
This amount of energy is calculated as depending on the void ratio PBTES and there is no phase change in this material, completely sen-
between the pebbles, the density and specific heat value of the pebble, sible heat is stored in the system. This stored heat is calculated de-
the area of the energy tank, the length of the packed bed, mean pending on the density of the pebble stone, its specific heat, the volume

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H. Atalay Solar Energy 198 (2020) 124–138

Table 1 in the PCM is determined by taking into account the mass and specific
Thermal and physical properties for PBTES and PCM systems. heat of the energy storage material, and the increase in temperature of
Parameter Value paraffin wax during the transition from solid-state to the liquid state.
Therefore, since the characteristics of the energy storage materials
Volume of the systems (Vb) 2 m3 for both systems are completely different from each other, the stored
The initial internal temperature of the systems (Tbi) 28 °C
sensible heat values are calculated using different equations. In PCM,
Diameter of pebble stones 50 mm
Sphericity of pebble stones 1
the quantity of sensible heat storage can be calculated with Eq. (13);
Mass of pebble stones 500 kg
Void fraction between pebble stones 0.57 Q= ∫ mCp dT = mCp (Tf − Ti ) (13)
Density of pebble stone 1920 kg/m3
Density of air 1.20 kg/m3 Latent heat storage is the heat absorption or release when a storage
Specific heat of pebble stone 835 J/kg K material usually undergoes a change of phase from solid to liquid or
Specific heat of air 1008 J/kg K
vice versa. The storage capacity of the latent heat storage system with a
Ambient temperature (Tamb) 28 °C
Air temperature coming from the collectors to the systems (Tai) 28 °C phase change material medium is figured out as follows;
Mass of paraffin wax 500 kg Tm Tf
The thermal conductivity of paraffin wax(solid phase) 0.4 W/m K Q= ∫T i
mCp dT + mam Δhm + ∫T m
mCp dT
(14)
The thermal conductivity of paraffin wax(liquid phase) 0.21 W/m K
Fusion temperature of paraffin wax 55–60 °C
Fusion heat of paraffin wax 200–220 kJ/kg Q = m [CSP (Tm − Ti ) + am Δhm + ClP (Tf − Tm)] (15)
Density of paraffin wax (solid phase) 850 kg/m
Density of paraffin wax (liquid phase) 775 kg/m Thermo-chemical energy is defined as the energy absorbed and re-
Specific heat of paraffin wax(solid phase) 2940 J/kg K leased in breaking and reforming molecular bonds in a completely re-
Specific heat of paraffin wax(liquid phase) 3890 J/kg K
versible chemical reaction. Therefore, in thermo-chemical energy sto-
rage, the heat stored depends on the amount of storage material, the
endothermic heat of reaction, and the extent of conversion. The amount
of the bed and the temperature change within the bed.
of stored thermo-chemical energy is calculated by Eq. (16); (Kant et al.,
As a pressure drop is required to pass air through the bed in PBTES,
2016)
this leads to the reduction in the stored thermal energy. For this reason,
the available energy in the system was transferred to the drying Q = ar mΔhr (16)
chamber for the drying process. Pressure drop and available energy can
be calculated using the following equations (Raghav and Nagpal, 2015; When paraffin wax melts in PCM, entropy generation occurs in the
Torab and Beasley, 1987); heat storage process. Therefore, some of the stored thermal energy is
lost. Li et al. (2012) gave the entropy generated for PCM as follows;
LG 2 1750
ΔP = (21 + ) Sgen = M (Sliq − Ssol ) + mȧ (Saout − Sain ) tp (17)
ρa De Re (9)

where The entropy change from solid to liquid for paraffin wax as (El-
Dessouky and Al-Juwayhel, Faisal, 1997);
GDe
Re = MλPCM
μ (10) M (Sliq − Ssol ) =
Tm (18)
L T
Qa = ∫0 (ρC )s (1 − ε ) A ⎡ (Tmm − Tmi ) − Tmi ln ⎛ mm ⎞ ⎤ dx
⎜ ⎟ The change in specific entropy of air passing the PCM as (Topic,
⎢ ⎝ Tmi ⎠ ⎥ (11)
⎣ ⎦ 1995);
According to finite-difference form, Eq.(11) can be expressed as Tout P
follows ; Saout − Sain = Cp ln − Rg ln out
Tin Pin (19)
Tbi ⎛ T1m T2m T3m⋯..TNm ⎞ Exergy loss of PCM system can be found by the following correla-
Qa = (ρC )s (1 − ε ) Vb ⌊ (Tbm − Tbi ) − ln ⎜ ⎟⌋
N ⎝ TbiN ⎠ (12) tion:

In the analyses performed for this study, the average pressure drop MλPCM T P
in the system was designated as 15.5 Pa. Therefore, it was observed that ExLPCM = Tamb Sgen = Tamb ⎡ + ṁ a tp ⎛Cp ln out − Rg ln out ⎞ ⎤
⎜ ⎟
⎢ Tm ⎝ Tin Pin ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
the average thermal energy loss of 13.59 MJ.
(20)
In the PCM, thermal energy is the change in the internal energy of
material in well-insulated fluids or solids and can be stored as sensible According to the results obtained from the analysis, the amount of
heat, latent heat, thermo-chemical energy or a combination of these. generated entropy in PCM during the phase change was designated to
Because of the phase change, sensible heat storage, as well as latent and be 0.55 W/m3K on average. Thus, the average thermal energy loss was
chemical heat storage, is involved. The amount of sensible heat storage found as 11.8 MJ.

Table 2
Evaluation of measurement devices with regards to uncertainty.
Measuring Apparatus Location Measurement Type Uncertainty

PLC Datalogger Output of the solar dryer Data transfer –

Anemometer Input of the drying chamber Air velocity ± 0.5 m/s
Thermocouple Input and output of the PBTES, PCM systems and drying chamber. Temperature of the airflow ± 0.2 °C
Humidity sensor Input and output of the drying chamber Relative humidity of the airflow ± 2%
Pyranometer Output of the collector Solar radiation ± 4(
W
)
m2
Presseure difference sensor Output of the PBTES system Pressure difference 0–25 Pa
Precision scale Output of the drying chamber Weight loss of the dried product 0.001 g

129
H. Atalay Solar Energy 198 (2020) 124–138

Temperature (PBTES) Temperature (PCM)

Relative Humidity (PCM) Relative Humidity(PBTES)
Mass Flow Rate of Air (PBTES) Mass Flow Rate of Air (PCM)
60 0.1
55

Mass Flow Rate of Air (kg/s)

0.09
50 0.08
45
40 0.07
35 0.06
30 0.05
25 0.04
20 0.03
15
10 0.02
5 0.01
0 -2.5E-16
17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00
Drying (Discharging) time

Fig. 4. The change of the temperature, relative humidity, and mass flow rate of air values in the drying chamber during the discharging time.

2.3. Mathematical modeling
In the experimental studies conducted to determine the perfor-
mance characteristics of energy storage systems, 5 mm thick lemon
slices were dried. Moisture ratio (MR) was one of the most important
parameters determined for lemon slices during experimental studies.
MR is a dimensionless parameter ranging from 0 to 1. After the value of
0.1, a healthy measurement cannot be taken because the drying rate is
reduced and the samples used for this process can be approved to be the
dry product. The moisture content can be figured out by the following
correlation:
M − Me
MR =
M0 − Me
In this correlation, M is the moisture content at the time of mea-
surement, the equilibrium moisture content of Me, and M0 is the initial
moisture content. Equilibrium moisture content can be taken as 0.05
gw/gdm for lemon slices (Kesbi et al., 2016; Darvishi et al., 2014). This
value is negligible as it is very small compared to the other two
moisture content values, and the moisture content can be expressed
with Eq. (22):
M were kept in the vacuum oven at 65° C until constant weighing in Petri
MR =
M0
Various correlations were developed in order to predetermine the
change of moisture rate according to drying time. Thus, it was possible
to better understand the drying behavior of the product. Therefore, a
model was developed in java language and the correlation given the
best results for lemon slices was estimated. The correlations in the lit-
erature, the correlation coefficients, and R2 and RMSE values which
were expressed as the degrees of convenience were indicated in Table 3.
The equation that gave the highest R2 and the lowest RMSE value was
chosen as the most appropriate correlation.
10 different correlations were used for this study, and it was con-
cluded that the most suitable result was obtained by Midilli Model, with
a value of 0.9988 R2 and 0.0104 RMSE. The most incompatible result
was occurred by Verma model with 0.9795 R2 and 0.0424 RMSE values.
RMSE and R2 values of the other correlations showed similar results. In
the modeling study, the equation obtained from Midilli correlation for a
50 °C constant temperature was as follows:
MR = exp( −0.000364t 0.645) − 3.89x10−6t (23)
The results obtained from this model were compared with the re-
sults obtained from the experimental data and the outcomes were in-
(21)
dicated in Fig. 5. As can be seen in Fig. 5, it was concluded that the data
obtained were very close to each other.
2.4. Food analysis of the dried product
In this study, dried lemon slices were subjected to various food
analyses such as moisture, water activity, and color. The vacuum oven
method was used for moisture determination. Samples taken as 3 g
dishes. The moisture content was calculated as a percentage on a wet
(22)
basis.
Water activity is defined as the ratio of the vapor pressure of the
product to the vapor pressure of pure water at the same temperature
and can be calculated by the following equation:
P
aw =
P0 (24)
where, P and P0 express the vapor pressure of the water in the product

Table 3
Different correlations expressed by various researchers for the thin layer drying products and R2 and RMSE values obtained from the correlations.
Model Correlation RMSE R2(-) Reference

Logarithmic MR = aexp (−kt ) + c 0.0153 0.9915 Sacilik and Elicin , 2006

Verma MR = aexp(−k1 t ) + bexp(−k2 t ) + c exp(−k3 t ) 0.0424 0.9795 Verma et al., 1985
Lewis MR = exp(−kt ) 0.0125 0.9934 Lewis, 1961
Page MR = exp(−kt n) 0.0110 0.9975 Page, 1949
Herderson and Pabis MR = aexp(kt ) 0.0136 0.9927 Henderson and Pabis, 1961
Midilli MR = exp(−kt n) + bt 0.0104 0.9988 Midilli et al., 2002
Diffusion Approximation MR = aexp(−kt ) + (1 − a)exp(−kbt ) 0.0312 0.9872 Ertekin and Yaldız, 2004
Wang and Singh MR = 1 + at + bt 2 0.0341 0.9852 Wang and Singh, 1978
Modified Henderson and Pabis MR = aexp(−k1 t ) + bexp(−k2 t ) + c exp(−k3 t ) 0.0246 0.9889 Karathanos, 1999
Two Terms MR = aexp(−k1 t ) + bexp(−k2 t ) 0.0142 0.9952 Madamba et al., 1996

130
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Fig. 5. Comparison of data obtained from experimental studies with mathematical modeling data.
and the vapor pressure of the pure water, respectively.
The water activity of the dried lemon slices was determined using a
water activity measuring device (Testo AG 400, Germany) with a sen-
sitivity of ± 0.001. For this purpose, about 3–4 g of sliced lemon sample
was placed in the stainless steel sealing chamber of the device. When
there was a change in the water activity value of less than 0.001, it was
assumed that the system reached equilibrium. The water activity value
was read from the indicator of the device.
Color values of dried lemon slices were determined by the device of
Konica Minolta Chroma Meter CR-400. Digital imaging was performed
with this device. Primarily, a random sample was selected from each
experimental study and photographed with a digital camera. Then, L*,
a *, b * values were detected by using Photoshop software. Samples
were measured before and after drying in terms of CIE (L *, a *, b *)
color parameters, the most commonly used color identification model. L
*, a *, and b* refer to brightness, redness, and yellowness, respectively.
Even the minimum change in color parameters during the drying pro-
cess enhanced the quality of the dried product.
The total color difference and chroma values from the L *, a *, b *
values were determined using the following equations and were used to
express the color changes occurring during the drying process:
The total color difference, a combination of L*, a * and b *, is a
commonly used calorimetric parameter to characterize the color change
in food during the process. The total color difference (Δ E) can be found
with Eq. (25): (Kesbi et al., 2016)
ΔE = (L0∗ − L∗)2 + (a0∗ − a∗)2 + (b0∗ − b∗)2
where, the subscript “0″ states to the color of the fresh lemon slices
accepted as reference.
Chroma value refers to the degree of saturation of the color and
varies in proportion to the strength of the color. This value can be
calculated by Eq. (26):
Chroma = (a∗2 + b∗2)0.5
2.5. Economic performance of the PBTES and PCM systems
Generally, products that dried by solar energy in a closed environ-
ment can enter a completely organic, high quality and hygienic product
group unless they require any pretreatment before the drying process.
Solar dryers have become technically and economically useful devices
for the drying processes. Therefore, the economic evaluation of solar
energy -assisted drying systems is very important (Fudholi et al., 2011;
Solar Energy 198 (2020) 124–138
Jain et al., 2004). However, the use of solar energy is limited to daylight
hours and to ensure the continuity of the drying process in the in-
dustrial area, solar energy should be stored during the daylight hours,
and when there is no sunlight, the stored energy should be transferred
to the drying unit. In this study, two separate energy storage mediums
whose energy storage materials (pebble stone and paraffin wax) were
completely different from each other were developed in order to con-
tinue the drying process without interruption. In the economic analysis,
the initial investment costs of drying and energy storage systems, op-
erating costs (raw material cost, energy consumption cost, labor cost),
and dried product unit sales price were taken into account. Thus, the
payback period of the systems and annual profit yield were determined.
If the payback period of a system decreases, the commercialization
potential of the system increases (Jain and Tewari, 2015; Seveda et al.,
2004; Sukhatme, 1998).
The total operating cost (P) for the dried product can be calculated
by:
P = Cr + Ce + Ci (27)
where, Cr refers to raw material cost, Ce energy consumption cost and Ci
annual labor cost.
The total gain (Pr) obtained on the dried product is the difference
between the total sales amount (Ps) and the total cost and can be
written as follows:
Pr = Ps − P (28)
(25) The return of capital (Rc) can be stated as the ratio of profit to the
cost of the system(C).
Pr
Rc =
C (29)
The payback value (Pb) is the investment cost per average annual
net income. The payback period can be expressed as follows;
(26) C
Pb =
Pr (30)
However, the parameters of the rate of return of the initial invest-
ment cost and the payback period are not easy to take into account the
impact on value for money (Jain and Tewari, 2015).
3. Results and discussion
In this paper, the two different energy storage mediums with similar
sizes for the drying process were examined in terms of performance,
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H. Atalay
initial investment and operating costs. In PBTES, approximately 500 kg
of pebble stones were used as the energy storage material and in the
PCM, 500 kg of paraffin wax with a melting temperature of 55–60 °C
were utilized as the energy storage material. Energy Storage systems,
for the experimental studies, were operated in successive days and si-
milar weather conditions in June 2019. The experiments were first
started with PBTES system. On the second day, PCM system was used.
In the tests, the average external temperature values during the charge
and discharge periods of the systems were gauged as 34 °C and 28 °C,
respectively. The average value of the relative humidity in the external
environment was determined for the charging and discharging periods
as 41.5% and 37%, respectively. The mass flow rates of air varied from
0.015 to 0.087 kg/s during the experiments. Accordingly, the obtained
solar radiation values ranged from 660 to 1020 W/m2. Fig. 6 and Fig. 7
indicated the ambient temperature, relative humidity, and solar ra-
diation changes during the days performed of the experimental studies
for PBTES and PCM, respectively. The obtained data revealed that the
experiments were carried out under similar weather conditions. In the
tests, the energy storage systems stored solar energy as the thermal
energy between 09:00 a.m. −17:00 p.m. The stored energy was
transferred to the drying chamber between 17:00–23:30 p.m., and it
was provided that lemon slices were dried.
In order to the drying process, 10 kg of lemon was sliced on an
average of 5 mm thick and placed in the trays. Any pre-treatment was
not applied prior to the drying process. Photos of wet and dry lemon
slices obtained from experiments were shown in Fig. 8. During the
charging period, the average outside temperature, relative humidity,
and solar radiation were measured as 35 °C, 41.5%, and 850 W/m2. As
a result of the three experimental studies in PBTES, the amounts of the
stored thermal energy were calculated as 48.57 MJ, 49.69 MJ, and
52.59 MJ, respectively. During the experiments, the mean temperature
of the packed bed and the air temperature were designated as 52.2 °C
and 54.2 °C, respectively. Total drying and discharging times for PBTES
were found as 6.27 and 7.02 h, respectively. During this time, the
moisture content of the lemon slices decreased from 94.92% to 10.12%.
Accordingly, the energy efficiency in the drying process was de-
termined as 66.57% (1st exp), 68.53% (2nd exp) and 69.52% (3rd exp).
The discharging period, at the same time, expressed to the drying time
of the lemon slices. In the tests performed using the energy stored in
PBTES, the change of drying rate according to the moisture content
based on Krischer Curve was shown in Fig. 9. During the experiments, it
was determined that the drying rate varied between 1.34 and 3.16 g
water/g dry matter h and the average drying rate was 2.401 g water/g
Tamb_exp1
Rhamb_exp1
Solar Radiation_exp1
Temperature, relative humidity (0C,%)
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
08:00 10:00 12:00
Fig. 6. The weather conditions for the experiments using PBTES as the thermal storage medium.
Solar Energy 198 (2020) 124–138
dry matter h. The obtained data clearly revealed that the drying process
which realized using the energy stored in the PBTES was successfully
completed and the dried lemon slices were properly to the drying
standards. Next- day, PCM was used as the storage medium for ex-
perimental study. The average ambient temperature, relative humidity,
and solar radiation values during the charging period were determined
as 34.8 °C, 41.4%, and 835 W/m2. During the three experimental stu-
dies in PCM, the amounts of thermal energy stored were calculated as
45.03 MJ, 47.32 MJ, and 49.52 MJ, respectively. The mean tempera-
ture of the system and the air temperature entering the system were
measured as 51.8 °C and 53.3 °C, respectively. The average drying and
discharging time of PCM was determined as 6.23 and 7.04 h, respec-
tively. Moreover, it was observed that the energy efficiency of the PCM
in the drying process was 67.13%, 68.78%, and 69.75% for exp 1, exp
2, and exp 3, respectively. In the experiments carried out using the
energy stored in PCM, the change of drying rate according to the
moisture content based on Krischer Curve was indicated in Fig. 10. As
shown in Fig. 10, the moisture content of the lemon slices was reduced
on a wet basis from 94.76% to 11.01% in experiments using PCM. In
experimental studies, it was detected that the drying rate ranged be-
tween 1.34 and 3.14 g water/g dry matter h and the average drying rate
was also 2.409 g water/g dry matter h. When the obtained data were
evaluated, similar results were obtained in the experiments conducted
with both energy storage systems in terms of drying speed and it was
observed that dried lemon slices could be accepted as a dry product
according to the standards.
During the charging period, the variation of the internal tempera-
ture of PBTES and PCM and the air temperature entering the systems
were shown in Fig. 11. When the average results in Fig. 11 were
evaluated, it was observed that the internal temperature in both energy
storage systems can be above 60 °C and the maximum difference be-
tween the inlet air temperature and the outlet air temperature was 3.3
°C and 3.6 °C for PBTES and PCM, respectively. This situation revealed
that the temperature distribution in both energy storage systems in-
dicated similar results. The change in the thermal energy stored in the
systems according to the charging time was also shown in Fig. 12.
According to the results obtained in Fig. 12, it was determined that a
similar amount of energy was stored in both systems during the ex-
periments. The maximum stored energy in PCM was 49.52 MJ while the
maximum stored energy in PBTES was 52.59 MJ. Since the experiments
were carried out under similar weather conditions, a similar amount of
thermal energy was stored in both storage units for three days due to
the fact that the solar radiation reached the maximum value around
Tamb_exp3 Tamb_exp2
Rhamb_exp2 Rhamb_exp3
Solar Radiation_exp2 Solar Radiation_exp3
1100
Solar radiation (W/m2)
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 22:00 00:01
Time of the day
132
H. Atalay
Tamb_exp1
Rhamb_exp1
Solar Radiation_exp1
50
Temperature, relative humidity (0C,%)
45
40
35
30
25
20
08:00 10:00 12:00
Fig. 7. The weather conditions for the experiments using PCM as the thermal storage medium.
13.00 p.m. and the measured temperature values were very close.
Hence, it was observed that the data gave similar results around 13.00
p.m. Furthermore, since only sensible heat was stored in PBTES, the
amount of thermal energy obtained showed much closer results to each
other. In PCM, the thermal energy stored not only as sensible heat but
also as latent and chemical heat. In addition, it was designated that the
difference between the inlet air temperature, and the mean temperature
in PCM was slightly higher than in PBTES. Therefore, it was observed
that the amount of energy stored in PCM showed slightly different re-
sults. As shown in Fig. 12, the 3rd-day of the PCM experiment was
detected that the amount of thermal energy stored was slightly higher
than the other experiments performed the two days due to the outdoor
conditions. However, considering the energy losses, it was concluded
that there was a bit much of energy loss in the PBTES compared to the
PCM, due to the pressure loss, but this did not affect the system per-
formance.
3.1. Comparison of PBTES and PCM systems in terms of energy
performance
Table 4 indicated the overall value of the stored energy, lost energy,
specific moisture extraction rate, specific energy consumption, and
available energy for both the PBTES and PCM during the charging and
discharging times. The quantity of energy stored in PBTES during the
charging period was calculated as 48.57 MJ at the end of the 1st ex-
periment, 49.69 MJ at the end of the 2nd experiment and 52.59 MJ at
the end of the 3rd experiment. The amount of stored energy in PCM was
designated as 45.03 MJ at the end of the 1st experiment and 47.32 MJ
Fig. 8. Some photos of lemon slices before and after the drying process.
Solar Energy 198 (2020) 124–138
Tamb_exp2 Tamb_exp3
Rhamb_exp2 Rhamb_exp3
Solar Radiation_exp2 Solar Radiation_exp3
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 22:00 00:01
Time of the day
at the end of the 2nd experiment and 49.52 MJ at the end of the 3rd
experiment. Since the heat loss to the environment is very low, it has
been neglected in both systems. During the experiments in PBTES,
13.75 MJ (1st exp) 13.17 MJ (2nd exp), and 13.86 MJ (3rd exp) energy
losses occurred due to the pressure loss. Thus, the amounts of energy
available were determined as 34.82 MJ, 36.52 MJ, and 38.73 MJ, re-
spectively. In PCM, 11.11 MJ (1st exp), 12.05 MJ (2nd exp), and
12.23 MJ (3rd exp) energy loss occurred due to the entropy production.
Therefore, the available energy amount was calculated as 33.92 MJ,
35.27 MJ, and 37.29 MJ, respectively. In both systems, the available
energy quantity was transferred to the drying chamber by means of a
fan during the discharging period. The specific energy consumption is
usually defined as energy utilization. In PBTES, specific energy con-
sumption was detected as 1.08, 1.14, 1.18 kWh/kg for 1st exp, 2nd exp,
and 3rd exp, respectively. According to specific energy consumption
values, specific moisture extraction rates were determined as 0.93, 0.88
and 0.85 kg/kWh. In the experiments using the stored energy trans-
ferred from PCM, the specific energy consumption amounts were cal-
culated as 1.06, 1.09 and 1.14 kWh/kg, while the specific moisture
extraction rates were calculated as 0.95, 0.92 and 0.88 kg/kWh, re-
spectively. When the results were taken into consideration, it was ob-
served that PBTES and PCM stored close amounts of energy. The
maximum difference between the stored thermal energy amounts was
specified as 5.34%. Taking into account that the temperature values in
both systems and the air temperature entering the system were close to
each other, it was determined that the main difference between the
amounts of stored thermal energy was due to the specific heat capacity
of the energy storage materials. However, the energy loss due to the
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H. Atalay
Fig. 9. Variation of drying rate according to the moisture content based on Krischer curve in experiments used PBTES as the energy storage medium.
Fig. 10. Variation of drying rate according to the moisture content based on Krischer curve in experiments used PCM as the energy storage medium.
pressure loss in PBTES was approximately 11.76% higher than the
energy loss due to entropy production in PCM. Consequently, it was
observed that the difference between the amounts of the thermal energy
transferred to the drying chamber was not very high. Also, with the
thermal energy transferred from the two systems to the drying
chamber, average of 9 kg water was evaporated from 10 kg lemon in
the drying experiments. Thus, the moisture content of the lemon slices
was reduced from 94.8% to 10%.
In addition, the average drying times of lemon slices for PBTES and
PCM were determined as 6.27 h and 6.23 h, respectively. During the
experiments, it was detected that the total discharging time for both the
energy storage mediums was 7 h on average. This also showed that the
drying process could take an average of 0.75 h longer in both energy
storage mediums. Considering that the drying time increased with
rising amount of product, it was concluded that maximum 11.3 kg of
lemon slice could be dried with each of energy storage system. In other
words, it may be possible to dry a maximum of 22.6 kg of product in
case of both energy storage systems were used together. Thus, it was
concluded that both PBTES and PCM could provide more than neces-
sary thermal energy for the drying process, and it might be possible to
dry more products with the obtained energy.
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Solar Energy 198 (2020) 124–138
3.2. The results of food analysis of the dried product
Dried lemon slices were examined for water activity, moisture, and
color. Some physical analysis results of lemon slices were shown in
Table 5. The amount of water that can be used by microorganisms in
food products is known as the water activity (aw) of the product. The
average value of water activity in dried lemon slices was designated as
0.438. The microbiological stability of foods depends on water activity.
Food products can be grouped in terms of high moisture content (aw
0.90–1.00), medium moisture content (aw 0.60–0.90) and low moisture
content (aw < 0.60). Lemon is one of the products with very high
moisture content. The main criteria for color analysis of a product can
be expressed as brightness (L*), redness (a*), yellowness (b*), the total
color difference (ΔE ), and chroma. (Khan et al., 2014; Kesbi et al.,
2016). L*, a* and b*, ΔE and chroma values were also calculated for the
samples obtained in experiments using PBTES and PCM and the results
were indicated in Table 5. The color characteristics of fresh lemon slices
were also stated in Table 5, and the total color difference and chroma
values were calculated. As a result of the analysis, it was observed that
the lowest brightness (L*) value in the samples appeared in the first
experiments for both systems. The highest brightness value was
H. Atalay
Fig. 11. The change of the internal temperature of the system and the temperature of the air entering the systems with time, during the charging period of the PBTES
and PCM systems.
obtained in the 3rd-day tests. When the products were examined in
terms of yellowness (b*), it was detected that this value ranged between
53.98 and 54.91. The results confirmed that the obtained b* values
indicated no significant loss of yellowness after the drying of the pro-
duct. The main reason for the difference was the Maillard reactions that
occurred due to hot air in the fruits and caused the product to fry (Chen
and Mujumdar, 2008). In parallel with the brightness (L) and jaundice
(b *), the redness (a *) value was determined to be around 4.28. This
clearly expressed that the drying process protected at least the green
color of the lemon slices. Consequently, the total color difference (ΔE )
changed between 27.52 and 28.63. Finally, the average chroma value of
fresh lemon is around 70. After the performed analysis, the average
chroma value of the dried lemon slices was found at around 54.5. There
was a great difference between the chroma values of fresh lemon and
dried lemon and this difference was due to the lack of stability of the
yellow color in the lemon (Darvishi et al., 2014; Kesbi et al., 2016).
In the experimental studies, it was concluded that the color analysis
results of the dried products were very close to each other. According to
the obtained data, it was found that the color values of the dried lemon
slices showed a change compared to the fresh product. In the
Fig. 12. The change of the stored thermal energy in both PBTES and PCM systems according to the charging time.
135
Solar Energy 198 (2020) 124–138
experiments, it was observed that due to the short drying time, the
product significantly reduced quality losses in terms of moisture, water
activity, and color. Moreover, it was found that the results were also
similar to other studies in the literature (Darvishi et al., 2014; Kesbi
et al., 2016; Shamekhi- Amiri et al., 2018).
3.3. Comparison of PBTES and PCM systems in terms of economic analysis
The economic evaluation of PBTES and PCM presented in this study
was quite generalized. Table 6 indicated the values of some input
parameters used in the economic assessment of PBTES and PCM sys-
tems and the solar dryer. Economic indicators were taken into account
as return on capital, payback period, annual profit and net present sales
value of the product for feasibility analysis.
The outer parts of both energy storage systems were made of the
same material and had the same dimensions. The main difference be-
tween the initial investment costs for these two systems was due to the
energy storage material used. Pebble stone unit price used in the PBTES
system was $ 0.0725/kg. The unit price of paraffin wax used in the PCM
system was $ 2.483/kg. Moreover, paraffin wax will lose its ability to
H. Atalay Solar Energy 198 (2020) 124–138

Table 4
Performance parameters for PCM and PBTES systems.
Parameters Unit PCM PBTES

Exp1 Exp2 Exp3 Exp1 Exp2 Exp3

Total Thermal Energy Stored MJ 45.03 47.32 49.52 48.57 49.69 52.59
Total Available Energy MJ 33.92 35.27 37.29 34.82 36.52 38.73
Consumed Useful Energy kWh 9.43 9.81 10.37 9.68 10.15 10.77
Dried Lemon Quantity (Discharging time) kg 10 10 10 10 10 10
Evaporated Moisture Removed kg 8.93 8.98 9.07 8.98 9.02 9.10
Specific Moisture Extraction Rate(SMER) kgw/kWh 0.95 0.92 0.88 0.93 0.88 0.85
Specific Energy Consumption kWh/kg 1.06 1.09 1.14 1.08 1.14 1.18
Average Ambient Temperature °C 28.1 28.4 28.5 28.2 28.2 28.5
Average Inlet Temperature Of Drying Cabin °C 51.42 51.88 51.95 52.05 52.10 52.20
Average Outlet Temperature Of Drying Cabin °C 43.14 43.44 43.65 44.27 44.33 44.45
Average Relative Humidity Of Drying Cabin % 41.64 42.07 42.14 41.87 42.22 42.31
Total Drying Time hour 6.1 6.25 6.33 6.15 6.30 6.37
Total Discharging Time hour 7.02 7 7.05 7.04 7.02 7.08

Table 5
Food analysis results of lemon slices.
Experiments Water Activity (aw) Moisture (%) L* (Brightness) a* (redness) b* (yellowness) ΔE Chroma

Color Values For Fresh Lemon Slices 66.00 −17.56 67.77 0 70.06
PBTES
1st-exp 0.422 7.512 54.32 4.93 54.56 28.57 54.78
2nd-exp 0.416 7.675 54.66 4.17 54.15 28.04 54.31
3rd-exp 0.461 7.749 54.85 3.91 53.98 27.85 54.12
PCM
1st-exp 0.415 7.526 54.12 4.57 54.02 28.63 54.21
2nd-exp 0.442 7.824 54.47 4.14 54.27 28.04 54.43
3rd-exp 0.474 7.882 54.91 4.01 54.76 27.52 54.91

Table 6 process, it was clearly observed that the biggest economic difference
Economic analysis parameters for PBTES and PCM systems. between the two systems was the cost of the energy storage materials.
Parameters Price($)
All other costs were approximately alike in both systems. For both
PBTES and PCM, the gain values obtained on the day, month and year
The purchase cost of the air collectors 894.43 basis were determined as $ 8.9317, $ 267.95 and $ 3215.41, respec-
The purchase cost of the fans 599.68 tively. Fig. 13 showed the change in cash flows for the system based on
The construction cost of the drying cabin 1746.75
The purchase cost of the fittings 533.86
the payback period. As can be seen in Fig. 13, PBTES had positive value
Total installation cost of the solar dryer 3774.72 as of the 37th months, while this period was determined as 41 months
Total initial investment cost of the solar dryer 7549.44 for PCM. Considering all these conditions, the payback period of a
The purchase cost of the pebble stones(500 kg) 145.00 drying system where PBTES was used as the energy storage system was
The purchase cost of the paraffin wax(500 kg) 1241.50
calculated as 37 months. Similarly, the payback period of a drying
Total installation cost of PBTES 1685.00
Total installation cost of PCM 1685.00 system where PCM was used as the energy storage medium was spe-
Total initial investment cost of PBTES 1830.00 cified as 41 months.
Total initial investment cost of PCM 2926.50
Cost of energy consumption (16.24 kWh/day) 1.2726
Cost of raw materials (Lemon 20 kg/day) 15.1 4. Conclusions
Annual total labor cost 4574.96
Total operational cost (daily) 28.44
Total operational cost (monthly) 853.09 In this study, in order to ensure that the drying process in an in-
Total operational cost (annual) 10237.07 dustrial solar dryer continues also during the times that the absence of
Annual maintenance cost 188.74 daylight, two different energy storage mediums were developed and
Daily total sales 37.37 compared in terms of performance and cost. 10 kg of lemon was dried
Monthly total sales 1121.04
in each of the experiments performed during the discharging period.
Annual total sales 13452.48
The following results were obtained in the study:
Dollar exchange rate date was taken as Sep 26, 2019. Primarily, when considering the performance of both energy storage
systems, the average amount of energy stored during the charging
store energy since its chemical structure will be spoiled after a certain period, and energy efficiency were determined as 50.28 MJ and 68.2%,
period of time (approximately 4 years). Therefore, it should be changed and 47.29 MJ and 68.55% for PBTES and PCM, respectively. The results
in certain periods. This may lead to additional costs. The pebble stones revealed that both systems indicated similar values with regard to
used in PBTES system can be used as an energy storage material for performance.
many years as there is no chemical deterioration during their operating Also, the samples obtained during the experiments were subjected
times. Energy consumption costs in the system constituted approxi- to various food analyzes, and it was observed that the outcomes ac-
mately 4.5% of the daily operating cost. This indicated that the drying corded with both the results in the literature and the standards of the
system has very high energy efficiency. Considering the energy storage dried product.
systems provide similar amounts of thermal energy for the drying According to the mathematical model developed to estimate the
moisture content of lemon slices, the optimum results were obtained

136
H. Atalay
Fig. 13. The change of the total cash flows according to the payback period.
with the Midilli Model as in other studies in the literature (Darvishi
et al., 2014; Kesbi et al., 2016). Therefore, it can be said that the Midilli
model was the most suitable correlation to estimate the moisture con-
tent of lemon slices.
Regarding the economic assessment, it was found that the operating
costs of both energy storage systems were similar, and PBTES had a
10.47% lower cost compared to PCM in terms of initial investment cost,
only depending on the energy storage material.
All the results obtained clearly demonstrated that using pebble
stones instead of paraffin wax as energy storage material for the drying
process may be more advantageous with regard to performance and
cost.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
The study was previously supported by the Republic of Turkey
Ministry of science, Industry, and Technology as a San-Tez Project, and
also Yozgat Bozok University Scientific Research and Projects Unit. In
addition, the author would like to thank the reviewers due to their
valuable and constructive comments which have been utilized to im-
prove the quality of the paper.
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