Semiconductor Diodes

Basic Electronics
Semiconductor Diodes
Objectives:
1. To determine the conductivity of junction
diodes under the conditions of forward and
reverse bias
2. To interpret voltage-current characteristic
curves for diodes
3. To determine the diode schematic symbols
4. To describe the operation of several diode
types and applications
Introduction
Diodes are among the oldest and most widely used of
electronic devices. A diode may be defined as a near
unidirectional conductor whose state of conductivity is
determined by the polarity of its terminal voltage. If we
join a section of N-type semiconductor material with a
similar section of P-type semiconductor material, we
obtain a device known as a PN JUNCTION. (The area
where the N and P regions meet is appropriately
called the junction.)
The term junction diode is often used to describe a
crystal structure made of P and N materials. A diode
is generally described as a two-terminal device.
One terminal is attached to P material and the other to
N material. The common connecting point where
these materials are joined is called a junction. A
junction diode permits current carriers to flow readily in
one direction and blocks the flow of current in the
opposite direction.
With the formation of the p and n materials

combination of electrons and holes at the junction
takes place.
Depletion Zone
When a junction diode is first formed, there is a unique
interaction between current carriers. Electrons from
the N material move readily across the junction to fill
holes in the P material. This action is commonly
called diffusion.
Diffusion is the result of high concentration of
carriers in one material and a lower concentration in
the other. Only those current carriers near the
junction take part in the diffusion process.
The diffusion of current carriers across the
junction of a diode causes a change in its structure.
Electrons leaving the N material cause positive ions
to be generated in their place. Upon entering the P
material to fill holes, these same electrons create
negative ions. The area of each side of the
junction then contains a large number of positive
and negative ions. The number of holes and
electrons in this area becomes depleted. The term
depletion zone is used to describe this area. It
represents an area that is void of majority current
carriers. All P-N junctions develop a depletion zone
when they are formed.
Barrier Potential
Before N and P materials are joined together at a
common junction they are considered to be
electrically neutral. After being joined, however,
diffusion takes place immediately. Electrons crossing
the junction to fill holes causes negative ions to
appear in the P material. This action causes the
area near the junction to take on a negative charge.
Similarly, electrons leaving the N material causes it to
produce positive ions.
This, in turn, causes the N side of the junction to take
on a net positive charge. These respective charge
creations tend to drive remaining electrons and holes
away from the junction. This action makes it
somewhat difficult for additional charge carriers to
diffuse across the junction. The end result is a
charge buildup or barrier potential appearing across
the junction.
This voltage will exist even when the crystal is not
connected to an outside source of energy. For
germanium the barrier potential is approximately 0.3
V, and 0.7 V for silicon. These voltage values cannot,
however, be measured directly. They appear only
across the space charge region of the junction. The
barrier potential of a P-N junction must be
overcome by an outside voltage source in order to
produce current conduction.
Junction Biasing
When an external source of energy is applied to a P-
N junction it is called a bias voltage or simply
biasing. This voltage either adds to or reduces the
barrier potential of the junction. Reducing the barrier
potential causes current carriers to return to the
depletion zone. Forward biasing is used to describe
this condition. Adding external voltage of the same
polarity to the barrier potential causes an increase in
the width of the depletion zone. This action hinders
current carriers from entering the depletion zone.
The term reverse biasing is used to describe this
condition.
Reverse Biasing
Leakage Current
In a reverse-biased diode some current actually flows
through the depletion zone. This is called leakage
current. Leakage current is dependent on minority
current carriers.
Forward Biasing
Load Line Analysis

The point of operation is usually called the quiescent
point (Q-pt.) to reflect its “still, unmoving” qualities as
defined by a dc network.
Diode Current-Voltage Characteristics

Diode Specifications
1. Maximum reverse voltage (VRM): The absolute
maximum or peak reverse bias voltage that can be
applied to a diode. This may also be called the peak
inverse voltage (PIV) or peak reverse voltage (PRV).
2. Reverse breakdown voltage (VBR): The
minimum steady-state reverse voltage at which
breakdown will occur.
3. Maximum forward current (IFM): The absolute
maximum repetitive forward current that can pass
through a diode at 25°C (77°F). This is reduced for
operation at higher temperatures.
4. Maximum forward surge current (IFM-surge): The
maximum current that can be tolerated for a short
interval of time. This current value is much greater
than IFM. This represents the increase in current that
occurs when a circuit is first turned on.
5. Maximum reverse current (IR): The absolute
maximum reverse current that can be tolerated at
device operating temperature.
6. Forward voltage (VF): Maximum forward voltage
drop for a given forward current at device operating
temperature.
7. Power dissipation (PD): The maximum power that
the device can safely absorb on a continuous
basis in free air at 25°C (77°F).
8. Reverse recovery time (Trr’): The maximum time
that it takes the device to switch from its on to its off
state.
Diode Packaging
Low-Power Diodes
Medium-Power Diodes
High-Power Diodes
The Ideal Diode

The symbol for the common,or rectifier, diode is
shown in Figure (a). The device has two terminals,
labeled anode (p-type) and cathode (n-type), which
makes understandable the choice of diode as its
name.
When the terminal voltage is nonnegative (vD ≥ 0), the
diode is said to be forward-biased or ‘‘on’’; the positive
current that flows (iD ≥ 0) is called forward current.
When vD < 0, the diode is said to be reverse-biased or
‘‘off,’’ and the corresponding small negative current is
referred to as reverse current.
The ideal diode is a perfect two-state device that
exhibits zero impedance when forward-biased and
infinite impedance when reverse-biased.
The ideal diode analysis procedure is as follows:
Step 1: Assume forward bias, and replace the ideal
diode with a short circuit.
Step 2: Evaluate the diode current iD, using any linear
circuit-analysis technique.
Step 3: If iD ≥ 0, the diode is actually forward-biased,
the analysis is valid, and step 4 is to be omitted.
Step 4: If iD < 0, the analysis so far is invalid. Replace
the diode with an open circuit, forcing iD = 0, and solve
for the desired circuit quantities using any method of
circuit analysis. Voltage vD must be found to have a
negative value.
Ideal Semiconductor Diode Models

Approximate Semiconductor Diode Models

Diode Terminal Characteristics

Use of the Fermi-Dirac probability function to predict
charge neutralization gives the static (non time-
varying) equation for diode junction current:
Diode Types and Applications

Types:
z Zener Diodes, Light Emitting Diodes, Varactor Diodes,
Photodiodes, Current Regulator Diodes, Schottky
Diodes, PIN Diodes, Step-Recovery Diodes, Tunnel
Didoes, LASER Diodes
Applications:
z Rectification (Half-Wave and Full-Wave), Clippers,
Clampers, Regulators
Zener Diodes
Special diodes are now designed to operate in the
reverse direction without being damaged. Zener
diodes are manufactured specifically for this purpose.
In the forward bias direction this device behaves
like an ordinary silicon diode. In the reverse bias
direction, there is practically no reverse current flow
until the breakdown voltage is reached. When this
occurs there is a sharp increase in reverse current.
Varying amounts of reverse current can pass through
the diode without damaging it. The breakdown voltage
or zener voltage (VZ) across the diode remains
relatively constant. The maximum reverse current is
limited, however, by the wattage rating of the diode.
An important difference in zener diodes and regular
silicon diodes is in the way they are used in circuits.
Because of the constant VZ characteristic of a zener
diode, it is used primarily to regulate voltages.
Zener diodes are designed to operate in reverse
breakdown. Two types of reverse breakdown in a
zener diode are avalanche and zener. The avalanche
break down occurs in both rectifier and zener diodes
at a sufficiently high reverse voltage. Zener breakdown
occurs in a zener diode at low reverse voltages.
Low voltage zeners less than 5V operate in the zener
breakdown range. Those designed to operate more
than 5 V operate mostly in avalanche breakdown
range. Zeners are commercially available with voltage
breakdowns of 1.8 V to 200 V.
Light-Emitting Diodes
It contains a P-N junction that emits light when
passing forward current.
When an LED is forward-biased, electrons cross
the junction and combine with holes. This action
causes electrons to fall out of conduction and return
to the valence band. The energy possessed by each
free electron is then released. Some of this appears
as heat energy and the rest of it is given off as light
energy. Special materials such as gallium arsenide
(GaAs) and gallium phosphide (GaP) cause this to
take place when used in a P-N junction. These
materials are purposely used because they emit
visible light energy
Varactor Diodes
A varactor diode is a specially manufactured P-N
junction with a variable concentration of impurities in
its P-N materials. In a conventional diode doping
impurities are usually distributed equally throughout
the material. Varactors have a very light dose of
impurities near the junction. Moving away from the
junction the impurity level increases. This type of
construction produces a much steeper voltage-
capacitance relationship.
Varactor diodes are normally operated in the reverse
bias direction. With an increase in reverse biasing the
depletion region increases its width. This means less
resulting capacitance. A decrease in reverse bias
voltage causes a corresponding increase in
capacitance. In effect, the capacitance of a diode
varies inversely with its bias voltage. This
relationship, however, does not change linearly.
Photodiodes
It is used to vary current by the amount of light that
strikes. It is placed in the circuit in reverse bias. As
with most diodes when in reverse bias, no current
flows when in reverse bias, but when light strikes the
exposed junction through a tiny window, reverse
current increases proportional to light intensity.
Current Regulator Diodes

It keeps a constant current value over a specified
range of forward voltages ranging from about 1.5 V to
6 V.
Schottky Diode
Also called Surface Barrier or Hot-Carrier or Hot-
Electron Diode. The Schottky diode’s significant
characteristic is it’s fast switching speed. This is
useful for high frequencies and digital applications. It
is not a typical diode in the fact that it does not have a
pn junction, instead it consists of a heavily doped n-
material and metal bound together.
PIN Diode
The pin diode is also used in mostly microwave
frequency applications. It’s variable forward series
resistance characteristic is used for attenuation,
modulation, and switching. In reverse bias, it exhibits
a nearly constant capacitance.
Step-Recovery Diode
It is also used for fast switching applications. This is
achieved by reduced doping at the junction.
Tunnel Diode
Also called Esaki Diode. It has negative resistance. It
will actually conduct well with low forward bias. With
further increases in bias it reaches the negative
resistance range where current will actually go down.
This is achieved by heavily doped p and n materials
that creates a very thin depletion region. It is used for
oscillators and amplifiers.
LASER Diode
The LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation) diode produces a
monochromatic (single color) light. Laser diodes in
conjunction with photodiodes are used to retrieve data
from compact discs.
Power Supply
The basic function of a DC power supply is to convert
an AC voltage to a smooth DC voltage.
The rectifier can be a half- or full-wave rectifier. The
rectifier convert the ac input voltage to a pulsating dc
voltage.
The filter eliminates the fluctuation in the rectified
voltage and produces a relatively smooth dc voltage.
The regulator is a circuit that maintains a constant dc
voltage for variations in the input power line voltage or
in the load.
Half-Wave Rectifier
A half wave rectifier (ideal) allows conduction for only
180° or half of a complete cycle. The output frequency
is the same as the input. The average VDC or VAVG =
Vp/π.
When the sinusoidal input voltage (Vin) goes positive,
the diode is forward-biased and conducts current
through the load resistor. The current produces an
output voltage across the load RL.
When the input voltage goes negative during the
second half of its cycle, the diode reversed-biased.
There is no current, so the voltage across the load
resistor is 0 V.
The net result is that only the positive half-cycles of
the ac input voltage appear across the load. Since the
output does not change polarity, it is pulsating dc
voltage with a frequency of 60 Hz.
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

Peak inverse voltage is the maximum voltage across
the diode when it is in reverse bias. The diode must be
capable of withstanding this amount of voltage. PIV =
Vp(in).
Half Wave Rectifier with Transformer-

Coupled Input Voltage
Transformer coupling provides two advantages. First,
it allows the source voltage to be stepped up or
stepped down as needed. Second, the ac source is
electrically isolated from the rectifier, thus preventing a
shock hazard in the secondary circuit.
Vsec = nVpri
where n = Nsec/Npri
If n>1, stepped up transformer
If n<1, Stepped down transformer
Full-Wave Rectifiers
A full-wave rectifier allows current to flow during both
the positive and negative half cycles or the full 360º.
Note that the output frequency is twice the input
frequency.
Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier

This method of rectification employs two diodes
connected to a center-tapped transformer. The peak
output is only half of the transformer’s peak secondary
voltage.
Note the current flow direction during both
alternations. Being that it is center tapped, the peak
output is about half of the secondary windings total
voltage. Each diode is subjected to a PIV of the full
secondary winding output minus one diode voltage
drop
PIV = 2Vp(out) + 0.7V
Full-Wave Rectifier Bridge Rectifier

The full-wave bridge rectifier takes advantage of the
full output of the secondary winding. It employs four
diodes arranged such that current flows in the
direction through the load during each half of the
cycle.
When the input cycle is positive, diode D1 and D2 are
forward-biased and conduct current in the direction
shown. A voltage is developed across RL which looks
like the positive half of the input cycle. During this
time, diodes D3 and D4 are reverse-biased.
When the input cycle is negative, diode D3 and D4 are
forward-biased and conduct current in the same
direction through RL as during the positive half-cycle.
During negative half-cycle, D1 and D2 are reverse-
biased. A full-wave rectified output voltage appears
across RL as a result of this action.
The PIV for a bridge rectifier is approximately half the
PIV for a center-tapped rectifier.
PIV = Vp(out) +0.7V
Filters and Regulators

A capacitor-input filter will charge and discharge such
that it fills in the “gaps” between each peak. This
reduces variations of voltage. This voltage variation is
called ripple voltage.
The advantage of a full-wave rectifier over a half-wave
rectifier is quite clear. The capacitor can more
effectively reduce the ripple when the time between
the peaks is shorter.
Ripple Factor
The ripple factor (r) is an indication of the
effectiveness of the filter and defined as
Surge Current in Capacitor-Input Filter

Being that the capacitor appears as a short during the
initial charging, the current through the diodes can
momentarily be quite high. To reduce risk of damaging
the diodes, a surge current limiting resistor is placed in
series with the filter and load.
IC Regulators
Regulation is the last step in eliminating the remaining
ripple and maintaining the output voltage to a specific
value. Typically this regulation is performed by an
integrated circuit regulator. There are many different
types used based on the voltage and current
requirements.
How well the regulation is performed by a regulator is
measured by its regulation percentage. There are two
types of regulation, line and load. Line and load
regulation percentage is simply a ratio of change in
voltage (line) or current (load) stated as a percentage.
Diode Limiters (Clippers)

Limiting circuits limit the positive or negative amount of
an input voltage to a specific value.
Diode Clampers (DC Limiters)

A diode clamper adds a DC level to an AC voltage.
The capacitor charges to the peak of the supply minus
the diode drop. Once charged, the capacitor acts like a
battery in series with the input voltage. The AC voltage
will “ride” along with the DC voltage. The polarity
arrangement of the diode determines whether the DC
voltage is negative or positive.
Voltage Multipliers
Clamping action can be used to increase peak
rectified voltage. Once C1 and C2 charges to the peak
voltage they act like two batteries in series, effectively
doubling the voltage output. The current capacity for
voltage multipliers is low.
Voltage Doubler
The full-wave voltage doubler arrangement of diodes
and capacitors takes advantage of both positive and
negative peaks to charge the capacitors giving it more
current capacity. Voltage triplers and quadruplers
utilize three and four diode-capacitor arrangements
respectively.
Voltage Multipliers – Triplers

The arrangement adds another diode/capacitor set.
+ half-cycle: C1 charges to Vp through D1,
- half-cycle: C2 charges to 2Vp through C2,
Next + half-cycle: C3 charges to 2Vp through C3.
Output is across C1 & C3.
Voltage Multipliers – Quadruplers

The arrangement adds another diode/capacitor set.
+ half-cycle: C1 charges to Vp through D1,
- half-cycle: C2 charges to 2Vp through C2,
Next + half-cycle: C3 charges to 2Vp through C3.
Next - half-cycle: C4 charges to 2Vp through C4
Quadruple Output is across C2 & C4.
QUESTIONS
Homework:
1. Find voltage vL in the circuit of shown, where D is an
ideal diode.
2. What is the average value of the half-wave rectified
voltage in Figure?
3. Sketch the output voltages of the rectifier for the
indicated input voltage, as shown in Figure. The
IN4001 is a specific rectifier diodes.
4. Determine the peak value of the output voltage for
Figure if the turns ratio is 0.5.
6. Find the average value of the full-wave rectified
voltage in Figure.
7. Show the voltage waveforms across each half of the
secondary winding and across RL when a 100 V
peak sine wave is applied to the primary winding in
Figure. Also, what minimum PIV rating must the
diodes have?
8. Determine the peak output voltage for the bridge
rectifier in Figure. Assuming the practical model,
what PIV rating is required for the diodes? The
transformer is specified to have a 12 Vrms secondary
voltage for the standard 110 V across the primary.
9. What would you expect to see displayed on an
oscilloscope connected across RL in the limiter
shown in Figure.
10. Figure shows a circuit combining a positive limiter.
Sketch the output voltage waveform.

Semiconductor Diodes

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Semiconductor Diodes

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Basic Electronics

With the formation of the p and n materials

Load Line Analysis

Diode Current-Voltage Characteristics

The Ideal Diode

Ideal Semiconductor Diode Models

Approximate Semiconductor Diode Models

Diode Terminal Characteristics

Diode Types and Applications

Current Regulator Diodes

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

Half Wave Rectifier with Transformer-

Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier

Full-Wave Rectifier Bridge Rectifier

Filters and Regulators

Surge Current in Capacitor-Input Filter

Diode Limiters (Clippers)

Diode Clampers (DC Limiters)

Voltage Multipliers – Triplers

Voltage Multipliers – Quadruplers

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