Chapter 8: Mechanical Failure

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How do flaws in a material initiate failure?
• How is fracture resistance quantified; how do different
material classes compare?
• How do we estimate the stress to fracture?
• How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature
affect the failure stress?

Ship-cyclic loading Computer chip-cyclic Hip implant-cyclic

from waves.
Adapted from chapter-opening
photograph, Chapter 8, Callister 7e. (by
Neil Boenzi, The New York Times.)
thermal loading. loading from walking.
Adapted from Fig. 22.30(b), Callister 7e. Adapted from Fig. 22.26(b),
(Fig. 22.30(b) is courtesy of National Callister 7e.
Semiconductor Corporation.)
Chapter 8 - 1
 Fracture mechanisms
• Ductile fracture
– Occurs with plastic deformation
• Brittle fracture
– Little or no plastic deformation
– Catastrophic
TS
engineering
stress

Typical response of a metal

Chapter 8 - 2
strain
 Ductile vs Brittle Failure
• Classification:
Fracture Very Moderately
Brittle
behavior: Ductile Ductile

Adapted from Fig. 8.1,

Callister 7e.

%AR or %EL Large Moderate Small

• Ductile Ductile: Brittle:
fracture is usually warning before No
desirable! fracture warning

Chapter 8 - 3
 Example: Failure of a Pipe
• Ductile failure:
--one piece
--large deformation

• Brittle failure:
--many pieces
--small deformation

Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A.

Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures
(2nd ed.), Fig. 4.1(a) and (b), p. 66 John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. Used with
permission.

Chapter 8 - 4
 Moderately Ductile Failure
• Evolution to failure:
void void growth shearing
necking and linkage fracture
nucleation at surface
σ

• Resulting 50
50mm
mm
fracture
surfaces
(steel)
100 mm
particles From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Fracture surface of tire cord wire
serve as void Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd loaded in tension. Courtesy of F.
ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley and Roehrig, CC Technologies, Dublin,
nucleation Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: P. OH. Used with permission.
sites. Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6, 1971, pp.
347-56.) Chapter 8 - 5
 Stress-Strain Behavior versus Temperature
• Ductility is reduced with temperature reduction.

So, Ambient and Operating temperatures can affect

failure mode of materials.

Such an effect shows Ductile to Brittle Transition.

Adapted from D. Johnson

choose materials with D-B transition T far away from its usage T
Chapter 8 - 6
 Ductile vs. Brittle Failure

cup-and-cone fracture brittle fracture

Adapted from Fig. 8.3, Callister 7e.

Chapter 8 - 7
Brittle Fracture Surface

Chevron marks
From brittle fracture

Origin of crack

Fan-shaped ridges
coming from crack

Adapted from D. Johnson

Chapter 8 - 8
 Brittle Fracture Surfaces
• Intergranular
(between grains)
4 mm
• Intragranular
304 S. Steel (within grains)
(metal) 316 S. Steel
Reprinted w/permission (metal)
from "Metals Handbook", Reprinted w/ permission
9th ed, Fig. 633, p. 650. from "Metals Handbook",
Copyright 1985, ASM 9th ed, Fig. 650, p. 357.
International, Materials Copyright 1985, ASM
Park, OH. (Micrograph by International, Materials
J.R. Keiser and A.R. Park, OH. (Micrograph by
Olsen, Oak Ridge D.R. Diercks, Argonne
National Lab.)
160 mm
National Lab.)

Polypropylene Al Oxide
(polymer) (ceramic)
Reprinted w/ permission Reprinted w/ permission
from R.W. Hertzberg, from "Failure Analysis of
"Defor-mation and Brittle Materials", p. 78.
Fracture Mechanics of Copyright 1990, The
Engineering Materials", American Ceramic
(4th ed.) Fig. 7.35(d), p. Society, Westerville, OH.
303, John Wiley and (Micrograph by R.M.
Sons, Inc., 1996. Gruver and H. Kirchner.)
3 mm
1 mm
(Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977, Vol.
Chapter 8 - 9
3, ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119.)
 Ideal vs Real Materials
• Stress-strain behavior (Room T):
σ perfect mat’l-no flaws
E/10 TSengineering << TS perfect
materials materials
carefully produced glass fiber

E/100 typical ceramic typical strengthened metal

typical polymer
0.1 ε
Reprinted w/
• DaVinci (500 yrs ago!) observed... permission from R.W.
Hertzberg,
-- the longer the wire, the "Deformation and
smaller the load for failure. Fracture Mechanics
of Engineering
• Reasons: Materials", (4th ed.)
Fig. 7.4. John Wiley
-- flaws cause premature failure. and Sons, Inc., 1996.

-- Larger samples contain more flaws!

Chapter 8 - 10
 Flaws are Stress Concentrators!
Results from crack propagation
• Griffith Crack
1/ 2
a 
σ m = 2σo   = K t σo
 ρt 

ρt where
ρt = radius of curvature
σo = applied stress
σm = stress at crack tip

Adapted from Fig. 8.8(a), Callister 7e.

Chapter 8 - 11
Concentration of Stress at Crack Tip

Adapted from Fig. 8.8(b), Callister 7e.

Chapter 8 - 12
 Engineering Fracture Design
• Avoid sharp corners!
σo σ
max
Stress Conc. Factor, K t = σ
o
σwmax 2.5
r, h
fillet 2.0 increasing w/h
radius
Adapted from Fig. 1.5
8.2W(c), Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.2W(c) is from G.H.
Neugebauer, Prod. Eng.
(NY), Vol. 14, pp. 82-87
1943.)
1.0 r/h
0 0.5 1.0
sharper fillet radius
Chapter 8 - 13
 Crack Propagation
Cracks propagate due to sharpness of crack tip
• A plastic material deforms at the tip, “blunting” the
crack.
deformed
region
brittle plastic

Energy balance on the crack

• Elastic strain energy-
• energy stored in material as it is elastically deformed
• this energy is released when the crack propagates
• creation of new surfaces requires energy

Chapter 8 - 14
 When Does a Crack Propagate?
Crack propagates if above critical stress
1/ 2
i.e., σm > σc  2Eγ s 
σc =  
or Kt > Kc  πa 
where
– E = modulus of elasticity
– γs = specific surface energy
– a = one half length of internal crack
– Kc = σc/σ0

For ductile => replace γs by γs + γp

where γp is plastic deformation energy
Chapter 8 - 15
 Fracture Toughness
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
100
C-C(|| fibers) 1
70 Steels
60 Ti alloys
50
40
Al alloys
30 Mg alloys Based on data in Table B5,
K Ic (MPa · m 0.5 )

Callister 7e.
20 Composite reinforcement geometry is: f
Al/Al oxide(sf) 2 = fibers; sf = short fibers; w = whiskers;
Y2 O 3 /ZrO 2 (p) 4 p = particles. Addition data as noted
10 C/C( fibers) 1 (vol. fraction of reinforcement):
Al oxid/SiC(w) 3 1. (55vol%) ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, ASM Int.,
Diamond Si nitr/SiC(w) 5 Materials Park, OH (2001) p. 606.
7 Al oxid/ZrO 2 (p) 4 2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc.,
6 Si carbide Glass/SiC(w) 6 Waltham, MA.
5 Al oxide PET 3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture
4 Si nitride Mechanics of Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum Press
PP (1986). pp. 61-73.
3 PVC 4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO.
5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development of
2 Ceramic Matrix Composites for Application in
PC
Technology for Advanced Engines Program",
ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2, ORNL, 1992.
6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. Sci.
Proc., Vol. 7 (1986) pp. 978-82.
1 <100>
Si crystal PS Glass 6
<111>
0.7 Glass -soda
0.6 Polyester
Concrete Chapter 8 - 16
0.5
 Design Against Crack Growth
• Crack growth condition:
K ≥ Kc = Yσ πa
• Largest, most stressed cracks grow first!
--Result 1: Max. flaw size --Result 2: Design stress
dictates design stress. dictates max. flaw size.
2
Kc 1  K c 
σdesign < amax <
Y πamax π  Yσdesign 
amax
σ
fracture fracture
no no
fracture amax fracture σ
Chapter 8 - 17
 Design Example: Aircraft Wing
• Material has Kc = 26 MPa-m0.5
• Two designs to consider...
Design A Design B
--largest flaw is 9 mm --use same material
--failure stress = 112 MPa --largest flaw is 4 mm
Kc --failure stress = ?
• Use... σc =
Y πamax
• Key point: Y and Kc are the same in both designs.
--Result:
112 MPa 9 mm 4 mm

(σ c amax ) = (σ
A
c amax )
B
Answer: (σc )B = 168 MPa
• Reducing flaw size pays off!
Chapter 8 - 18
 Loading Rate

• Increased loading rate... • Why? An increased rate

-- increases σy and TS gives less time for
-- decreases %EL dislocations to move past
obstacles.
σ
TS ε
σy larger

ε
TS
smaller
σy
ε
Chapter 8 - 19
 Impact Testing
• Impact loading: (Charpy)
-- severe testing case
-- makes material more brittle
-- decreases toughness
Adapted from Fig. 8.12(b),
Callister 7e. (Fig. 8.12(b) is
adapted from H.W. Hayden,
W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The
Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical
Behavior, John Wiley and Sons,
Inc. (1965) p. 13.)

final height initial height

Chapter 8 - 20
 Temperature
• Increasing temperature...
--increases %EL and Kc
• Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)...

FCC metals (e.g., Cu, Ni)

Impact Energy

BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914°C)

polymers
Brittle More Ductile

High strength materials (σ

σ y > E/150)

Adapted from Fig. 8.15,

Callister 7e.
Temperature
Ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature
Chapter 8 - 21
 Design Strategy:
Stay Above The DBTT!
• Pre-WWII: The Titanic
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(a), p. 262, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Dr. Robert D. Ballard,
The Discovery of the Titanic.)
• Problem: Used a type of steel with a DBTT ~ Room temp.
• WWII: Liberty ships
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(b), p. 262, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Earl R. Parker,
"Behavior of Engineering Structures", Nat. Acad. Sci.,
Nat. Res. Council, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY,
1957.)
Chapter 8 - 22
 Fatigue
• Fatigue = failure under cyclic stress.
specimen compression on top Adapted from Fig. 8.18,
Callister 7e. (Fig. 8.18 is
motor from Materials Science in
bearing bearing counter
Engineering, 4/E by Carl.
A. Keyser, Pearson
flex coupling Education, Inc., Upper
tension on bottom Saddle River, NJ.)

• Stress varies with time. σ

σmax
-- key parameters are S, σm, and S
frequency σm
σmin time

• Key points: Fatigue...

--can cause part failure, even though σmax < σc.
--causes ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.
Chapter 8 - 23
 Fatigue Design Parameters
• Fatigue limit, Sfat: S = stress amplitude
case for
--no fatigue if S < Sfat unsafe steel (typ.)

Sfat
safe
Adapted from Fig.
8.19(a), Callister 7e.
3 5 7 9
10 10 10 10
N = Cycles to failure
• Sometimes, the
fatigue limit is zero! S = stress amplitude
case for
unsafe Al (typ.)

safe Adapted from Fig.

8.19(b), Callister 7e.

10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure
Chapter 8 - 24
 Fatigue Mechanism
• Crack grows incrementally
typ. 1 to 6
da m
= (∆K )
dN
~ (∆σ ) a
increase in crack length per loading cycle
crack origin
• Failed rotating shaft
--crack grew even though
Kmax < Kc
--crack grows faster as
• ∆σ increases Adapted from
Fig. 8.21, Callister 7e.
• crack gets longer (Fig. 8.21 is from D.J.
• loading freq. increases. Wulpi, Understanding
How Components Fail,
American Society for
Metals, Materials Park,
OH, 1985.)

Chapter 8 - 25
 Improving Fatigue Life
1. Impose a compressive S = stress amplitude
Adapted from
surface stress Fig. 8.24, Callister 7e.

(to suppress surface Increasing

near zero or compressive σm
cracks from growing) σm moderate tensile σm
Larger tensile σm

N = Cycles to failure

--Method 1: shot peening --Method 2: carburizing

shot
C-rich gas
put
surface
into
compression

2. Remove stress bad better

concentrators. Adapted from
Fig. 8.25, Callister 7e.
bad better
Chapter 8 - 26
 Creep
Sample deformation at a constant stress (σ
σ) vs. time
σ
σ,ε

0 t

Primary Creep: slope (creep rate)

decreases with time.
Secondary Creep: steady-state
i.e., constant slope.
Adapted from
Fig. 8.28, Callister 7e.
Tertiary Creep: slope (creep rate)
increases with time, i.e. acceleration of rate. Chapter 8 - 27
 Creep
• Occurs at elevated temperature, T > 0.4 Tm

tertiary

primary
secondary

elastic

Adapted from Figs. 8.29,

Callister 7e.

Chapter 8 - 28
 Secondary Creep
• Strain rate is constant at a given T, σ
-- strain hardening is balanced by recovery
stress exponent (material parameter)
n  Qc 
ε& s = K 2σ exp −  activation energy for creep
strain rate  RT  (material parameter)
material const. applied stress

• Strain rate 200 Stress (MPa) Adapted from

Fig. 8.31, Callister 7e.
427°C (Fig. 8.31 is from Metals
increases 100 Handbook: Properties
538 °C and Selection:
for higher T, σ 40 Stainless Steels, Tool
Materials, and Special
Purpose Metals, Vol. 3,
20
649 °C 9th ed., D. Benjamin
(Senior Ed.), American
10 Society for Metals,
1980, p. 131.)
10 -2 10 -1 1
Steady state creep rate εs (%/1000hr)
Chapter 8 - 29
 Creep Failure
• Failure: • Estimate rupture time
along grain boundaries. S-590 Iron, T = 800°C, σ = 20 ksi
g.b. cavities 100
Adapted from
Fig. 8.32, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 8.32 is from F.R.
Larson and J. Miller,
applied

Stress, ksi
Trans. ASME, 74, 765
20
stress (1952).)
10

data for
From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of S-590 Iron
Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: Pergamon
1
12 16 20 24 28
Press, Inc.)
L(10 3 K-log hr) 24x103 K-log hr
• Time to rupture, tr
T ( 20 + logt r ) = L T ( 20 + logt r ) = L
temperature function of 1073K
applied stress
time to failure (rupture) Ans: tr = 233 hr
Chapter 8 - 30
 SUMMARY
• Engineering materials don't reach theoretical strength.
• Flaws produce stress concentrations that cause
premature failure.
• Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.
• Failure type depends on T and stress:
- for noncyclic σ and T < 0.4Tm, failure stress decreases with:
- increased maximum flaw size,
- decreased T,
- increased rate of loading.
- for cyclic σ:
- cycles to fail decreases as ∆σ increases.
- for higher T (T > 0.4Tm):
- time to fail decreases as σ or T increases.
Chapter 8 - 31