TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
PULCHOWK CAMPUS
PULCHOWK, LALITPUR

DRAFT ESSAY
ON

METHODOLOGICAL REVIEW OF SITAR TRADITION

IN
PLANNING

PLANNING THEORY

SUBMITTED TO:
Mr. SANJAY UPRETI

SUBMITTED BY:
ANKIT KUMAR SHAH
(074/MSUrP/003)

MAY, 2017
METHODOLOGICAL REVIEW OF SITAR TRADITION IN
PLANNING

Abstract

Planning is the process of making framework by systematic arrangement of various ideas and
techniques to achieve a set of goals within its limitations. The ‘SITAR’ tradition has been seen
developed and used since the historical era of planning aspects to the present modern contexts.
The methodology of the application of synoptic, incremental, transactive, advocacy and radical
planning has been shaping its form and modifying its application in various fields over the
passage of time and ages.

This writing will aim to review the application of the various planning theories of SITAR
tradition in the planning aspects, to understand the innovativeness, quality assurance system
governed with the SITAR principles in the methodological perspective.

Future is a blend of what we now know as present and past. No human society fully knows
what has actually happened through the historical process based on evidence alone. It requires
perception, logics, theory and analysis as to predict what might have taken place and what might
happen. These elements in their mutual relationship give rise to methodology which has a
crucial role to play in a planning perspective account to amalgamate all these dimensions.

This article makes methodological explanation on the concept of SITAR tradition, studies the
relationship of planning with idea, theory, philosophy, morality, ethics and politics (Hudson,
1979). It also studies the concept behind planning of implementation of the plans and
approaches followed in SITAR model. It then considers the stand of methods in the modern
world and attempts to seek how planning today is shaped by various planning methods.
Introduction

Theory is a generalization of concepts and are proven to be true. It is an outcome of analysis.

A theory needs to be analyzed before being proposed and there is transparency in a theory. A
theory serves as a tool of analysis in understanding, explaining and making of predictions of a
given concept. It generally deals with the logical aspects of something and tells us what it is,
though oftentimes does not include the practical aspect. It explains a phenomenon. Theories,
enjoy a logical, evidence-based and analytical platform and can be proven false with evidence.

A five-part classification of planning theories is discussed under the empirical heading of

SITAR, covering the Synoptic, Incremental, Transactive, Advocacy, and Radical schools of
planning thought. Comparison is made of their relative strengths and weaknesses, revealing
ways they are often complementary, but often strongly at odds. Contradictions among them are
not seen to be deficiencies in the theories themselves, but reflections of homologous tensions
and contradictions in society at large. Parallel application of more than one theory is usually
necessary for arriving at valid, three-dimensional perspectives on social issues and appropriate
action implications politics (Hudson, 1979).

The development of SITAR tradition in last few decades has been quite remarkable. Initially,
it considered the rational planning approaches for form based planning primarily for physical
and political purposes. The rational planning also included the economic aspects inside the
framework as the economic activities were linked with the physical aspects. These planning
were conducted from the teleological ethical perspective. As Elizabeth Howe (1990), stated that
the professional planners rarely use deontological, mostly they use teleological approach. The
environmental and social aspects were not considered much. Gradually, the social aspects and
environmental aspects were included after the World War II. The duties and rules were
governing the plans and activities. Recently, the ecological trend of methodology is adopted in
planning which includes input from multi-disciplinary fields of action.

Synoptic planning is simply the evaluation of actions against the consequences, or the means
against the ends. The priority is given to the identification and specification of goals, visions
and objectives. Here, the quantitative analysis is performed generally for the evaluation. Even
though the participatory approach was introduced in this system, due to its concept of minimal
form of participation, the attitudes and decisions were governed by a single public interest. It is
the rational paradigm of planning. It is comparatively more orthodox view of planning.

Incremental planning suggests the planning required decisions to be made incrementally. In this
approach, a certain smaller number of policy approaches are chosen which can only result
smaller number of consequences bounded by reality and uses multiple analysis and evaluation
by continuously and constantly adjusting objectives. Howe (1990) states consequences of the
involvement of public of this philosophy. It is less centralized approach by incorporating voices
other than of planners.

Transactive planning includes the central goal of participation in planning. The public are
encouraged to actively participate in the policy setting process. The role of planner mainly aims
at distribution of information and assimilating the feedbacks. The ideas are developed which
are then converted into actions. The transactive planning method brings mutual learning
between the planners and the citizens where the planners get to know about the community,
their issues, while the citizens get to know about the planning aspects.

Advocacy planning is developed with the intention to include the saying of the marginalized
groups who are the victims of inequalities of the political system. It has been developed to
minimize and to prevent the unorganized and unrepresented process of people’s participation
especially the underprivileged and seeking groups. The role of the planner is to advocate the
planning procedures from the needful people and encourage the people to be part of the process.

Radical planning aims to manage the development and planning process in a justifiable and
community-based manner. The concept of social development and a consideration of the
ecology is considered in radical planning. In 1987 John Friedman, promoted radical planning
based on decolonization and self-empowerment. Here, the primary production and manufacture
are re-localized.

The planning generally consists of master layout plan, architectural design of various proposed
activities, economic and financial analysis, potential risks associated with technical,
environmental, social and institutional including their mitigation measures including possible
construction arrangement.

As per the different planning theories of SITAR model, risk analysis of the plans is judiciously
done. The planner identifies the possible risks during project development and implementation.
Any calculation at the various stages are of preliminary nature only and will serve the purpose
to orient the stakeholders on the scope of investment, potentials for socio-economic aspects
such as revenue generation and risk. Based on the above study, the planner works on the scope
of the project, its viability from different perspectives. Moreover, the tentative requirements
with their activities are sorted out. The planner presents a conceptual ides illustrating the main
components.

The planner considers the following major aspects while planning, designing and detailing the
master layout plan and individual designs along with necessary utilities and facilities. These
aspects are governed by synoptic method of planning, incremental method, trans active method,
advocacy method, radical method or combination of any such methods (SITAR). The proposed
master layout plan and designs reflects the economic and financial analysis, potential risks
associated with technical, environmental, social and institutional including their mitigation
measures including possible arrangements for on-field works. They are planned with cost
effectiveness. The objective of planner while doing master layout plan and designs from the
traditions of SITAR implications are to make them technically sound, socio-economically and
environmentally feasible and financially viable.

Presently in this modern age, where technologies are really extensively developed and used,
the various planning theories are implemented with the methods which are updated in their
standards and forms but maintaining the approaches of the core planning theories of SITAR
model. The advancement is seen in the designs and planning. For example, the planner
considers a climate-responsive building design. The use of energy saving materials and
techniques for construction are used to decrease the energy demand. The carbon footprint,
created through the operation of the building are made small.

Due to continuous problems with the public power supply and long hours without electricity
from the public grid, the project is designed in a way that an energy autonomous operation is
possible. The building does not have to rely on conventional power back-up system (diesel
generators) in times when power supply is not available from the grid. For the building an
alternative power supply concept is applied, which uses photovoltaic cells for energy
generation (e.g. mono crystalline PV solar panels) with inverter and battery sets for power
back-up. In addition, energy saving installations (e.g. WLED lightening system, energy
efficient ceiling fans, LED street lighting) are used to reduce energy demand.

Thus these are some of the areas where the modifications are seen in the present context in
planning at the basic level of infrastructure after assessing the present context of physical,
social, economic, financial and environmental conditions. The decisions are governed by
various methods of planning.

At the past and even at the present, the planner from the rational planning approaches, they
propose alternative plans based on different concept, strategy, cost, effectiveness, energy
efficient and certain related resilient parameters. Talking about the participatory approach, the
pros and cons of planning aspects are clearly spelt out so that it would be easier for the
concerned stakeholders for making the decision. The most appropriate and cost effective
solution are adopted by hybrid solution.

Generally, a planning method is adopted while incorporating the functional requirements of the
required plans and policies. "A functional design can promote skill, economy, conveniences,
and comforts; a non-functional design can impede activities of all types, detract from quality
of care, and raise costs to intolerable levels”- Hardy and Lammers.

Modern science is an intensely social activity. The most productive and successful scientists
are intimately familiar with both the substance and style of each other's work. They display an
astonishing capacity to adopt new research approaches and tools as quickly as they become
available. Thus, science functions best when it is supported by architecture that facilitates both
structured and informal interaction, flexible use of space, and sharing of resources. A critical
consideration in designing such an environment is to establish places where people can
congregate outside their comfort to talk with one another. For example, even stairways, fire
stairs, or stairs off an atrium with built-in window seats can provide opportunities for people to
meet and exchange ideas. Planners must look for opportunities for such uses in public spaces,
making optimal use of every space.

The spatial planning practice highlighted planning's role in spatial assembling, supported by
rationalist methodologies of technical analysis and assessment designed to attain 'public
interest' goals (Boyer, 1983). This became converted into a role in ecological conflict mediation
searching for the zero-sum solution in the other pluralist situations of the later 20th century.
The method defined portrays planned spatial planning as a process of assisting community
collaboration in the creation of strategic discourse, in strategic consensus-building (Healey,
1995).

The synoptic planning approach, a rational comprehensive planning tradition, has found really
difficulties in bringing the other adjacent planning traditions along with it and has appeared to
be uneven in its application too which is the problematic part of synoptic planning (Hudson,
1979). Parallel application of more than single concept, which includes synoptic, incremental,
transactive, advocacy, radical, is generally required for arriving at valid, three-dimensional
viewpoints on social subject matters and appropriate action implications (Hudson, 1979).

The planning theories included in the SITAR tradition is more than anyone can practicably
apply in the development of day-to-day professional or issue-oriented subject matters.
Nevertheless, it can provide a working tool and technique for many possibilities, and it can
work as an indicator to recognize better where the planning methodological approach and other
people incentives are coming from.

The synoptic planning tradition of the SITAR model is more strong than others when it is
considered the scope of issues it covers and the variety of operating situations it can abide by
(Hudson, 1979). But the method has severe limitations, which can only be covered by
alternative to other planning traditions such as incremental, transactive, advocacy or radical
method. The planners with the capacity to mix and apply various methods is the only way to
assure that they can answer with acuteness to the multiplicity of problems and settings
encountered, and to the difficulty of any given situation (Hudson, 1979).

Politicizing the planning method needs the planning links be located in either or both the
executive and legislative divisions and the range of planning be widened to include all areas of
interest to the public (Davidoff, 2007). Therefore, the planners are required to be involved as
advocates to incorporate the interest of government and local people by determining policy and
right course of action for city planning. Not every planner must be expert in all the identified
and defined areas, but each planner must have a concise understanding of one or more of these
areas and he must be able to give convincing expression to his understanding (Davidoff, 2007).

Friedmann (1973) uses the term `transactive planning' because a dominant feature of his
communicative method is the face-to-face discussion of the expert knowledge of the planners
and the experiential knowledge of the local people. In certain circumstances transactive
planning is inappropriate, for instance, where expertise carries plenty of authority to act without
the benefit of communal learning (Friedmann, 2008). Without any detailed and descriptive
discussion and involvement of the dialogues with the stakeholders and clients, the planners
enjoy the one’s pride on his/her own profession and the client accepts the judgement of the
planner.

Moreover, during planning phase, the planning preparation are formulated with numbers of
professionals’ staff associated from multidisciplinary field of professionals which requires
well-coordinated communication. As the proposed services areas may be challenging
logistically and scattered in nature, the Planner realize that this demand a well-coordinated and
interdisciplinary approach to address some of the issues that may arise. The Planner's approach
is to integrate all into one team, where everybody is fully aware of their duties and required
quality of outputs. To achieve this, the Planner organizes a workshop at the beginning with
participation of the entire member for orientation.

Effective communication and coordination with and between all concerned Stakeholders of the
Project is an essential ingredient to success. The Planner develops appropriate communication
strategy and tools to ensure that the team members will have as close to “real-time” knowledge
of project status as possible.

The Planner intends to embark upon the services of the planning with the following general
methods of SITAR tradition following the deontological ethical approach in planning where
correctness of each action is considered to get the result which are depends on the rightness of
actions.
  Selection of those methods and techniques, which have been tested and proven to be
optimum in past studies of similar nature;

 Application of an optimal combination of the methods and technologies based on

practicality, Client's requirements, site-specific requirements, strategic importance and
sound professional judgment;

 Team composed for the assignment are engage in the field full-fledged form as per the
work requirement

 Clear definition of tasks and assignment of task to each team members. Progress
monitoring at regular intervals and revision of work schedule by mobilizing additional
resources.

 System analysis for appropriate data structures, database tables, output formats etc.

 Regular updating of the progress to the client and notification of change in

methodology if any Briefing of the procedures and methods to the client’s personnel
and arrangement of regular meeting with the client.

 Regular briefing to the Client and concerned personnel and authorities on the progress
of the works and problems connected thereto;

 Strict adherence to the applicable standards, guidelines, schedule etc.;

 The Planner's general management approach comprise: clearly defined roles and
responsibilities for each member of the proposed Team of the Planner; strict adherence
to the work schedule; and systematic monitoring of both processes and performance.

 Participation are assured by consulting the stakeholder and concerned authorities.

 Economy is assured by developing the future scenarios.

 Environment is least disturbed by careful treatment of each environmental component.

 Efficiency is achieved through the design and appropriate selection of concept.

In technical planning fields, the past experiences and the present experiences suggest the thrust
of the method of the Planner are to carry out the proposed services, in such a way as to complete
them in accordance with accepted professional standards utilizing sound engineering practices
and within the stipulated time and budget.

The Planner well organizes to manage the project effectively, even under adverse conditions,
so as to meet the deadline and quality of work for which the method of the Planner is
identification of objective and tasks related to the study, preparation of detailed work program
based on the overall time-frame, assessment, at regular intervals, the output (including quality)
of the individual member of the group, task-appropriate and timely action to eliminate any
situation which might negatively affect the quality and schedule of works in order to complete
the quality work on time without any cost overrun.

The rational decision making from the critical thinking perspective are done using a systematic
and analytical process to overcome obstacles so that the services are provided smoothly and
each aspects whether it is physical, social, economical, cultural or financial are closely studied.
The creative thinking thus, are procedural and follow activities: collection of information on
various aspects, function analysis, dissection of past efforts and results, creative and speculative
endeavor, evaluation of options through optimization and planning and reporting.

The planning is conducted in consonance with the client and its general philosophies and
policies particularly. The initial approach is to establish a clear project management structure,
including setting out of the responsibilities of all participants and lines of communication
towards facilitating comprehensiveness and totalities of all actions. A very careful
consideration is made in the selection of experts and supporting personnel. This is based not
only on the proven capabilities of each individual in their respective field of expertise, but also
on the enthusiasm shown by the involved personnel. Hence, the Planner approaches this job
with special considerations in order to achieve the best possible output and helps achieve the
client’s in particular goals and objectives.

The following management methods guided by SITAR tradition are pertinent and will be
adopted by the Planner during the service period, such as, clearly defined management roles
and responsibilities, in-depth knowledge of financial and management information systems at
all times, strict adherence to the activities, sufficient flexibility to respond to desired changes
and directions, systematic procedures for quality control, systematic monitoring of both
processes and performance.

In the course of planning, activities that will transfer the knowledge of Planner members to the
concerned personnel or local people so as to build on their level of experience and skills are
required. Both the formally structured and informal approaches and methods are practiced to
enhance the capability of personnel in the various stages of planning.

The activities are adopted to ensure that all stakeholders get sufficient opportunity to express their
concerns in the plans. The ideas and opinions expressed in such consultative meetings and public
hearings are used to dovetail the project to the specific needs and concerns of the people directly
or indirectly affected by the way the project is implemented in the future.
The basis of transfer of knowledge is that skills and improvement in performance cannot be
attained only by formal education but must be acquired and developed in a practical working
environment. This means that, to be effective, transfer of knowledge must be introduced as part
of planning process and be developed as an integral part of activities within the process.

To be more specific, an environment conducive to the transfer of knowledge from one party to
another by working together as a team are created to achieve the specific goal of project within
the specific time, within resources allocated, and within the specified quality standard. Besides,
for the entire period of process the planner works in close consultation to keep the client, the
affected people informed about the assigned job.

Technology transfer is both an individual and an organizational process designed to increase

the technological capabilities of an organization, and the administrative and technical skills of
that responsible for the management and operations of an organization. It is designed to assist
an organization to better discharge its stated mission. The provision of technology transfer is
an absolute obligation of every planner providing technical assistance and services to an
organization. It is a planned process, which includes the accurate identification of
organizational roles, functions associated with specific roles, and skills associated with role of
job functions.

Experiential approach to learning from which the concerned personnel are provided with the
opportunity to go through some of the important stages of process as an exercise for learning.
The experience thus gained are put into practice by working together in the field. The lessons
learned through this are shared among the wider circle of the professionals involved in the
planning process.

The Problem Solving Sessions (PSS) are organized where the planners deal with “representative
problem situation” faced by the concerned authority in carrying out their regular job
responsibilities. Such session improves the skill of personnel to deal with difficult situations that
arise during the process.

The planning requires the primary as well as secondary data, information and facts. The whole
process of the data collection, survey, design and estimation are executed with due consultation
with stakeholders. By which, planner organizes discussion sessions to orient the concerned
personnel, stakeholder and public on the process, approach, and objectives of the study activities
and their implementation, which may awareness of public about the issues and process.
The other objective of the planning approaches of SITAR model is the integration of quality and
values in the work. Professional service provider such as planners, policy makers, lawyers are
therefore driven to meet and exceed clients’ expectations for the quality and value of our work.
The goal is to provide the highest level of service possible that is responsive to clients’ needs
and public meets within the framework and boundaries confined with. It is the policy that all
work follows applicable standards of practice and international best practices.

Standardized quality assurance systems and methodologies are introduced into the
implementation process to maintain standard of quality of the project. Planner are required to
crave for innovativeness among its staff in approaching any task. Such innovativeness is not a
sheer instinct to be different from others but a sublime means to bring real value to the planning
methods of synoptic, incremental, transactive, advocacy and radical. It is about the state-of-
the-art process that adds to efficiency as well as effectiveness. It need not always be borrowed
but comes from within as an individual or collective creativity.

For successful operation and executing the process, the elements of the Quality Assurance
System of the planner, policy makers are put in place controlling its own activities which may
include Quality Assurance Manual, Quality Assurance Procedures, and Project-Specific
Quality Plan.

The quality plan takes into account the specific scope and nature of the planning and is the
means of integrating the quality assurance policies of practiced society into the work of the
project. Specific components of the tentative quality plan will include a clear identification of
the responsibilities of the Team Leader, and other team members, the organization of the
project's management system the quality check of project work and documents which is carried
out through self-check, discipline check and interface check, the quality assurance of reports
which includes a document review by specialists in the Project's Quality Control Group.

In order to perform the services in the working place successfully a back-up team will be
indispensable. The back-up team helps the planner’s team with logistic support as well as
technical support to its professionals of various disciplines to ensure prompt and efficient
delivery of qualitative services.

From the ethics view, planning theory has long been at discussion over its normative versus
descriptive/predictive nature. Is planning theory philosophically concerned toward laying out the
precise way to plan, in an ethical sense? Or is it scientifically focused on toward showing the
probable implications of undertaking numerous planning behaviors? Both traditions have always
existed, but movement seems to be away from attitude and toward science (Stiftel, 2000). The
idea of a possibility use of planning theories has convoyed this trend. In the 1970s, Hudson (1974)
printed a commonly cited article likening the planning theory universe to an Indian sitar whose
strings signifies synoptic, incremental, transactive, advocacy, and radical planning. The expert
plays the strings at proper times. Later more refined possibility tables were created signifying the
use of different planning methods under different circumstances of goal agreement, uncertainty,
consensus versus accomplishment orientation, community size, and posture toward the ideal
(Christensen 1985; Alexander 1996).

As per the SITAR model, the planning is a system which requires the following activities such
as assessment of the problems encountered at field level and to advise how best the problem
may be resolved, referral of technical problem to backstopping experts and advice the field
team to address it appropriately. Assumption of overall responsibility of quality control system
and recommend any actions for enhancement of quality of design and supervision is required.
Moreover, conducting internal value engineering workshops to enhance the value of the works
at all key stages of the delivery of services are required.

Innovative procedures and techniques have been introduced throughout the planning aspects
since history period defining the planner’s, policy maker’s approach and methodology for
delivering the needed management services for this project. The role of the planner is to
encourage a craving for innovativeness among its methods in approaching any task. Such
innovativeness is not a sheer instinct to be different from others but a sublime means to bring
real value to the process. It is about the state-of-the-art process that adds to efficiency as well
as effectiveness. It need not always be borrowed but comes from within as an individual or
collective creativity. The planner assures the Client of such innate creativity to be sufficiently
reflected in its management and other pursuits in the Project. Translated to the Project needs,
such innovativeness could be in terms of value engineering, knowledge management, transfer
of knowledge and skills, ingenuity in the application of lessons learned in the opportune
moment, tactful coordination.

Innovation is not always an idea that spurts randomly – it has procedural dimension as well.
The procedure is to ensure informed thinking with logic and creativity whenever a situation of
action arises. The planners, engineers, policy makers are encouraged to adopt following
procedures as part and parcel of their related activities: collection of information, contextual
analysis of information, perceived replicability of the information in a changed context,
creative speculation, knowledge on rules of optimization, confirmation through extensive
consultations and expert advice (resolution of doubts), etc.

Several kinds of conflicts and disturbance from various agitating groups may exist in the
horizon in the name of autonomy with political system. All the agitations and agitators are not
politically responsible. Some of these are trying to take advantage of current fluid situation,
which at times may disturb the planning activities as well. Planner’s team nevertheless comply
with risk management in such conflict situations.

The following ART requirements will be vital for the successful planning from the SITAR
perspectives.

Appreciation (A) of the reasons for the problem is the key. A planning member may feel
difficulty in continuing his work due to genuine and or perceived reasons of health, personal
safety, need of specialized attitude and skill for the work, which s/he may have failed to
develop, traumatized state of mind due to insurgent’s activities, inability to build relationship
with the local communities, appreciate their concerns etc. In such a mental state, s/he can’t be
productive. Immediate replacement is the only solution. If entangled in the nitty-gritty of the
criteria for such replacement, the core objective of performance is to be side lined as a
productive, motivated and dynamic candidate, who can deliver, for further works.

A flexible method to appreciating and accepting such turn over needs transcending the
prevailing mind set and bureaucratic hurdles.

Respecting (R) the constraints encountered by a planner and applying collective effort to
overcome such constraint are yet another pre-requisite. Planner has understanding that all team
members from all stakeholders will work in tandem respecting and recognizing the constraints/
difficulties at plans without “He/ Me” feelings.

Transaction (T) communication promoting open dialogue, positive discussions are essential
between all stakeholders to resolve constrains, problems and issues for maintaining the highest
level of transparency and harmony.

These ART requirements and in terms of each member’s anticipated responsibility,

performance level and adoptational requirements in the field are appreciated and sensitized to
all stakeholders.

There are many planner’s method towards managing risks associated with the plans, among
others. Identification and routine assessment of risks, mentioned above, and plan appropriate
action to be taken by the concerned parties at right time for its management. Timely and close
interfacing, coordination and cooperation between the members, as well as all the related
stakeholders to make them aware on the consequences due to plans risks, and plan and
implement appropriate and participatory solution for mitigating the risks. Maintain good public
relation, alternative designs for mitigation of uncertainties, be vigilant and proactive regarding
changing socio-political and economic scenarios, and recommend required actions to the
developers, seriously analyze and advise steps for ensuring a safe working environment.
Reflections

The methodological development of the SITAR tradition is remarkable in the field of planning
theory. Various modifications have been made along with the passage of time in the theories.
Each theory was developed after the limitations of the existing theory along with the change in
physical, social, economic, environmental, and other multi-disciplinary aspects. The
incorporation of the planning theory in the social and environmental aspects along with the
regime related sectors have created the methodological advancement of it in planning and other
issues.
References

Friedman, J. (1973). Retracking America: A Theory of Transactive Planning. Garden City, NJ:
Anchor Press/Doubleday

Davidoff, P. (1965). Advocacy and Pluralism in Planning. Journal of the American Institute of
Planners, 31 (4), 331–338

Howe, E. (1990). Normative Ethics in Planning. Journal of Planning Literature, Vol 5, Issue 2,
123-150.

Stiftel, B. (2000). Planning Theory. The National AICP Examination Preparation Course
Guidebook 2000, Pp 4-16.

Sager, T. (2000). Planning style and agency properties. Environment an Planning A 2001, vol
33, 509-532.

Hudson, B. M. (1979). Comparison of Current Planning Theories: Counterparts and

Contradictions. APA Journal, 387-398.

Healey, P. (1996). The communicative turn in Planning Theory and its Implications for Spatial
Strategy Formation. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, vol 23, 217-234

Friedman, J. Two Centuries of Planning Theory: An Overview. Explorations in Planning

Theory, 14-29.

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Available at: http://blog365.wixsite.com/blog/single-post/2015/11/14/Participatory-Planning-
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[Accessed 28 May 2018].