Physics Revision Guide PDF

Candidates should be able to:
(a) define the terms scalar and vector.

(b) determine the resultant of two vectors by a graphical method.
(c) list the vectors and scalars from distance, displacement, length, speed,
velocity, time, acceleration, mass and force.
(d) describe how to measure a variety of lengths with appropriate accuracy
using tapes, rules, micrometers, and calipers using a vernier as
necessary.
(e) describe how to measure a variety of time intervals using clocks and
stopwatches.
 The physical quantities which have only magnitude and no direction are called scalar
quantities.
eg: Distance, speed, time, length, mass…
 The physical quantities which have both magnitude and direction are called vector
quantities.
eg: Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force…
Vectors can be represented graphically by arrows. The length of the arrow represents
the magnitude. The arrow represents its direction.
5N
e.g. A force of 5N pointing to the right.
Vectors can be added to form a RESUNLTANT.
Simple algebraic addition when the vectors act in same line and parallel.
e.g.1
4N 4N Resultant force = 0 N
e.g.2
4N
Resultant force = 4 + 4 = 8 N to the right
4N
e.g.3
4N 9N Resultant force = 9 – 4 = 5 N to the
right
© Department of physics 2012 Page 1 of 176

When two vectors act in an angle, the resultant force will produce in between two vectors as
shown below. 4N
Resultant force
5N
In this case the parallelogram method is used to find the resultant of two vectors.
The resultant of two vectors may be represented in both magnitude and direction by the
diagonal of a parallelogram with the two given forces as adjacent sides.
In an accident, a truck goes off the road and into a ditch. Two breakdown vehicles A and B
are used to pull the truck out of the ditch, as shown below.
At one point in the rescue operation, breakdown vehicle A is exerting a force of 4000 N and
breakdown vehicle B is exerting a force of 2000 N.
Use parallelogram method and calculate the resultant force acting on a truck.
Answer:
First take a scale, for example 1cm = 1000N

Then draw the side A, that will be 4cm as shown below.
4000N (4cm) breakdown vehicle A

After that measure the angle 45° by putting protector on line A and draw line B up to 2cm as
shown below.
2000N (2cm) breakdown vehicle B
45°
Now complete the parallelogram by drawing other two sides and diagonal.
To find the resultant force measure the length of diagonal.
To find the direction of resultant force measure the angle between side A and diagonal or
angle between side B and diagonal.
2000N (2cm) breakdown vehicle B
45°
Magnitude of the resultant force = the length of diagonal is 6cm, so the resultant
force = 6 × 1000 = 6000N
Direction of resultant force = 25° from vehicle A
Very short length Diameter of a metal wire Micrometer screw gauge 0.01 mm
short length Internal and external diameter Vernier calipers 0.01 cm
of a measuring cylinder
Medium length Length of a book Meter rule 0. 1 cm
Long length Length of physics laboratory Measuring tape 0. 1 cm
When measuring the length of the object, the correct way to read the scale of a ruler and
tape are shown in the following figure. The eye must be placed vertically above the mark on
the scale. This is to avoid PARALLALAX ERROR. If you look from other position the reading
might not be accurate because of parallax error.

Vernier calipers are used for measuring the internal and external diameter of cylinders and
tubes. Inside jaws are used to measure internal diameter and external jaws are used to
measure external diameter. It can also use for determining the depth and length of a small
object.
Before taking any measurement from vernier caliper check for zero error.
Close the jaws of the vernier calipers and note the zero reading. This is to ascertain if exist
a zero error. There will be no zero error when the zero on the main scale coincides with the
zero on the vernier scale.
When the jaws are closed if the zero on main scale and zero on vernier scale does not
coincide there is zero error.
Put the measuring object between two jaws and fit the jaws tightly as shown below.

Then measure the main scale reading by looking the place of zero in the vernier scale.
Main scale reading = 3.1cm
After that measure the vernier scale reading, that is the place where the both the scale line
coincides.
Vernier scale reading = 5cm × 0.01 = 0.05 cm
To get the reading of the vernier caliper, add both main scale reading and vernier scale
reading.
Reading of vernier caliper = 3.1 + 0.05 = 3.15 cm
The diagram shows part of a vernier scale.
What is the reading on the vernier scale?
Ans: Main scale reading = 6.5cm
Vernier scale reading = 5cm × 0.01 = 0.05
Reading of the vernier caliper = 6.5 + 0.05 = 6.55cm

Micro-meter screw gauge is used to measure very short lengths like diameter of wire,
thickness of coins.
Before taking any measurement from micrometer check for zero error.
When the thimble scale of the micrometer closed, if the end of thimble scale not coincides
with zero of the main scale then it has zero error. If the end of the thimble scale coincides
with zero of the main scale then doesn't have zero error.
Put the measuring object between anvil and spindle and tight the thimble as shown below.

Now give the click on ratchet and measure the main scale reading, which is the last reading
seen on the main scale.
Main scale reading = 7.5 mm
Then measure the thimble scale reading that is the reading on the thimble scale, which
coincides with main scale line.
Thimble scale reading = 14mm × 0.01

= 0.14mm
To get the reading of the micrometer, add both main scale reading and thimble scale
reading.
Reading of micrometer = 7.5 + 0.14 = 7.64mm
The diagram shows part of a micrometer.
What is the reading on the micrometer?
Ans: Main scale reading = 6.5mm
Thimble scale reading = 13 mm × 0.01 = 0.13
Reading of the vernier caliper = 6.5 + 0.13 = 6.63 mm

Time can be measured by using stop clocks and stop watches. The SI unit of time is
seconds.
Diagrams below shows the simple pendulums
The time for one swing of a pendulum (from left to right and back again) is called
oscillation or period.
A single period is usually too short time to measure accurately. However a pendulum
swings a steady rate, so to measure time for one oscillation accurately;
We can measure time for many oscillations around 10 to 20 oscillations.

(eg; time taken for 10 oscillation is 25 s).
To get time for one oscillation divide time taken by number of oscillation.
(Time taken for 1 oscillation = 25/10 = 2.5 s)
Then repeat the same procedure two three times and find the mean value of time.

(a) state what is meant by speed and velocity.
(b) calculate average speed using distance travelled/time.
(c) state what is meant by uniform acceleration and calculate the value of an
acceleration using change in velocity/time taken.
(d) discuss non-uniform acceleration.
(e) *Plot an d*interpret speed-time and distance-time graphs.
(f) *recognize from the shape of a speed-time graph when a body is
(1) at rest,
(2) moving with uniform speed
(3) moving with uniform acceleration,
(4) moving with non-uniform acceleration,
(g) Calculate the area under a speed-time graph to determine the distance
travelled for motion with uniform speed or uniform acceleration.
(h) State that the acceleration of free-fall for a body near to the earth is constant
and is approximately 10 m/s2.
(i) describe qualitative and the motion of bodies with constant weight falling
with and without air resistance (including reference to terminal velocity).
 Distance is defined as the length of the path covered.

 SI unit is metre (m)
 It is a scalar quantity
 Displacement is defined as the distance moved in the stated direction.

 SI unit is metre (m)
 It is a vector quantity

 Speed is defined as the distance covered in unit time
 Speed is also defined as rate of change of distance.
 SI unit is metre/second (m/s)
 Speed can also be expressed in km/h
 It is a scalar quantity
A cyclist complete a 1500 m stage of a race in 37.5 s. what was his average speed?
Ans: = 40 m/s
A car driver takes a total of two hours to make a journey of 75 km. She has a coffee break
of half an hour and spends a quarter of an hour stationary in a traffic jam.
At what average speed must she travel during the rest of the time if she wants to complete
the journey in two hours?
Ans: = 60 km/h
 Velocity is defined as the distance covered in unit time in the stated direction
 Velocity also defined as rate of change of displacement
 SI unit is metre/second (m/s)
 Velocity can also be expressed in km/h

 It is defined as the change in velocity in unit time
 It also defined as the rate of change in velocity
 SI unit is metre/second squared (m/s²)
 Acceleration is positive, if the velocity increases and negative if the velocity decreases
 Negative acceleration is known as Retardation or Deceleration
An aircraft accelerates from 50 m/s to 150 m/s in 25 second. What is its acceleration?
Ans: = 4 m/s2
A car is brought to rest in 5 s from a speed of 10 m / s. What is the average deceleration of

the car?
Ans: = 2 m/s2
A body is said to be moving with uniform acceleration, if its velocity changes are equally in
equal intervals of time.
Example:
Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Changing velocity (m/s) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
The velocity of the object increasing by 5m/s in every second and the object has steady
acceleration of 5m/s2.
A body is said to be moving with non-uniform acceleration, if its velocity changes are not
equals to interval of time.
Example:
Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Changing velocity (m/s) 0 5 9 13 19 27 33

Object at rest Object increasing speed uniformly
(decelerating uniformly)
Object increasing speed non - Object decreasing speed uniformly

uniformly
(decelerating uniformly)
(accelerating non – uniformly)
Object decreasing speed non - uniformly

(decelerating non – uniformly)

Note:
 The gradient of the distance-time graph represents the speed of the object.
The graph shown below represents the distance traveled by a car plotted against time.
(a) Describe the motion of the car between point A and E.

Ans: Between A and B the speed of the car increasing non - uniformly, and between B
and C car moves with constant speed. After that between C and D the speed of the car
decreasing and between D and E car is at rest.
(b) How far has the car travelled at the end of 30seconds?
Ans: 60 m
(c) Calculate the speed of the car between point B and C?

Ans:

Object at rest Object moving with
constant speed
Object accelerating Object accelerating

uniformly non - uniformly
Object decelerating Object decelerating

uniformly non - uniformly

Note:
 the gradient of the speed-time graph is equal to the acceleration of the object.
 The area under the speed-time graph represents the distance travelled by the object.
The speed – time graph below shows the motion of a lorry.
(a) Describe the motion of the lorry.

Ans: First the lorry accelerates non – uniformly, then it moves with uniform acceleration.
After some time speed of lorry decreases and moves with constant speed, finally the lorry
decelerates uniformly to the rest.

(b) Calculate the acceleration of the lorry between 2s and 4s.
Ans: a = = = 10 m/s²
(c) Calculate distance travelled by the lorry between 5s and 7s.

Ans: A = l × b = 40 × 2 = 80m
When an object is released near to the surface of the Earth, it falls under the influence of
gravity. This is known as free fall.
 The acceleration of free fall or acceleration due to gravity is denoted by g.

 The acceleration due to gravity is 10 m/s2.
 This is true in the absence of air resistance.
The experiment below shows, all the air has been removed from the tube. Both feather and
lead ball dropped from same height and reaches bottom of the tube at the same time. This
is because all the objects in the absence of air resistance, accelerates towards the earth at
same rate that is10m/s2.
When any object falls through air, due to the gravitational force or weight the object will
exerts a resistive force. This resistive force increases as the object moves faster. Resistive
force acts in the opposite direction to which the object is moving. And after some time the
resistive force and weight of the object becomes equals, so the object moves with constant
speed, this is known as terminal velocity.
Consider a parachutist jumping from aircraft.
When the parachutist jumps from the aircraft, his

speed increase downward due to weight of his body
or gravitational force
Weight

Air resistance
As his speed increases his air resistance will also

increases in the opposite direction of fall. So the
acceleration decreases.
Weight
Air resistance
After sometime air resistance will be big enough to balance

the parachutist’s weight. At this point the forces are
balanced so his speed becomes uniform - this is called
terminal velocity.
Weight
Air resistance
When he opens his parachute the air resistance

suddenly increases and the speed decreases.
Weight
Air resistance
After some time again air resistance decreases until it

balances his weight. The parachutist has now reached a
new, lower terminal velocity.
Weight

Speed-time graph of a parachutist is shown below…
Terminal velocity reached

Speed
Parachute opens
suddenly speed decreases
down
New, lower terminal
Speed decreasing
velocity reached
Parachutist hits
Speed increases the ground
Time

(a) state Newton’s third law.
(b) describe the effect of balanced and unbalanced forces on a body.
(c) describe the ways in which a force may change the motion of a body.
(d) do calculations using the equation force = mass x acceleration.
(e) explain the effects of friction on the motion of a body.
(f) discuss the effect of friction on the motion of a vehicle in the context of tyre surface,
road conditions (including skidding), braking force, braking distance, thinking distance
and stopping distance.
(g) describe qualitatively motion in a circular path due to a constant perpendicular force,
including electrostatic forces on an electron in an atom and gravitational forces on a
satellite.
(h) discuss how ideas of circular motion are related to the motion of planets in the solar
system.
Force is a push or a pull.

Force can change the size, shape and motion of a body.
Unit of force is NEWTON (N).
Force can be measured by using spring balance (newton meter).
Examples: Friction, weight, air resistance, electrostatic force, magnetic forces.
If the forces acts on a body is balanced:

 it stay at rest or
 it moves with constant speed.

If the forces acts on the body are balanced, then the resultant force is zero.
Resultant force = 6000 − 6000 = 0 N

Resultant force = 500 − 500 = 0 N
If the forces acting on a body is balanced, then

If it is at rest, it will continue to stay at rest.
If it is moving, it will keep on moving at a constant speed in a straight line.
Unbalanced forces causes

 a stationary body to move
 a moving body to change its velocity
If the forces acts on a body are unbalanced, then there will be a resultant force.
Resultant force = 5000 − 1500 = 3500 N Resultant force = 6000 − 2000 = 4000 N
The forces act on a car is unbalance, so it The forces act on a car is unbalance, so it
accelerates because forward force is decelerates because backward force is
greater than backward force. greater than forward force.
The acceleration of the body is directly proportional to

the direction of force applied and inversely proportional A block of mass 20 kg is pushed along a road
to the mass of the body. with a force of 30 N. The frictional force is 10 N.
The greater the mass of an object, the smaller

acceleration it is given by a particular force.
The force, mass and acceleration can be combined into

the following equation:
What is the acceleration of the block?
Force = mass × acceleration Ans: F = ma
a=? a = F/m = 20/20
F = ma
F = 30 – 10 = 20N a = 1m/s2
m = 20kg
To every action there is an equal but opposite reaction.
i.e. If object A exerts a force on object B (action), then

object B will exert an equal but opposite force on object
A (reaction).
Examples: firing gun, hammering a nail, book kept on

a table and launching rocket.
Friction is the force which opposes motion. i.e., stopping

force
It always acts opposite to the direction of travel.
Friction can be reduced by adding lubricants.
e.g. lubricating oil, grease.
 Molecules in materials have a tendency to stick to each

other when materials are pressed or rubbed together.
 Nature of the surface: rough surfaces have more friction

due to up’s and down’s which catch each other.
 Friction helps us to walk

 Friction helps us to hold the objects
 Friction helps us to stop a moving object.
 Machine parts rub together and become lose

 Shoes and clothes wear and tear
 It heats up the moving parts and some energy is wasted in the form of heat.

 If the vehicle is having more tyre surface, then the frictional force acting on it will be
more.
 If tyre surface of vehicle is less, then the frictional force acting on it will be less.
 If the road is having rough surface, the frictional force will be more.
 If the road is having smooth surface, the frictional force will be less.
(How far object travels just before brake applied.)

 If the vehicle is having more tyre surface, thinking distance will be less.
 If the vehicle is having less tyre surface, thinking distance will be more.
 If the road is having rough surface, thinking distance will less.
 If the road is having smooth surface, thinking distance will be more.
 If the vehicle has more mass or loaded, thinking distance will be more.
 If the vehicle has less mass, thinking distance will be less.
 If the vehicle travels with high speed, thinking distance will be more.
(How far object travels after brake applied.)

 If the vehicle is having more tyre surface, braking distance will be less.
 If the vehicle is having less tyre surface, braking distance will be more.
 If the road is having rough surface, braking distance will less.
 If the road is having smooth surface, braking distance will be more
 If the vehicle has more mass or loaded, braking distance will be more.
 If the vehicle has less mass, braking distance will be less.
 If the vehicle travels with high speed, braking distance will be more.

(It is the amount of force applied to stop the object.)
 If the vehicle is having more tyre surface, we have to apply less braking force to stop
the vehicle.
 If the vehicle is having less tyre surface, we have to apply more braking force to stop
the vehicle.
 If the road is having rough surface, we have to apply less braking force to stop the
vehicle.
 If the road is having smooth surface, we have to apply more braking force to stop the
vehicle.
 If the vehicle has more mass or loaded, we have to apply more braking force to stop the
vehicle.
 If the vehicle has less mass, we have to apply less braking force to stop the vehicle.
 If the vehicle travels with high speed, we have to apply more braking force to stop the
vehicle.
When any object is moving in a circular path, then the object is in

circular motion.
Objects are moving in circular path due to constant force acting

towards center of the circle. This force is called centripetal force.
The centripetal force will increase

 If the mass of the object increased
 If the speed of the object increased
 If the radius of the circle reduced.
The planets are orbiting around the sun due to constant gravitational force acting towards the
sun

The satellites are orbiting around the earth due to constant gravitational force acting towards
the earth.
The electrons are orbiting around the nucleus due to constant electrostatic force acting
towards nucleus of the atom.

(a) state that mass is a measure of the amount of substance in a body.
(b) state that mass of a body resists change from its state of rest or motion.
(c) state that a gravitational field is a region in which a mass experiences a force due to
gravitational attraction.
(d) calculate weight from the equation weight = mass x gravitational field strength.
(e) explain that weights, and therefore masses, may be compared using a balance.
(f) describe how to measure mass and weight by using appropriate balances.
(g) describe how to use a measuring cylinder to measure the volume of a liquid or solid.
(h) describe how to determine the density of a liquid, of a regularly shaped solid and of an
irregularly shaped solid which sinks in water (volume by displacement).
(i) make calculations using the formula density = mass/volume.
 Mass is a measure of substance in a body.

 SI unit of mass is Kilogram (kg) and other units are gram (g), milligram (mg) and tonne.
 Mass can be measured using beam balance and electronic balance.
 Mass of the body will remain same everywhere.

 Mass of a body resists to change from its state of rest or motion, this is called inertia.
 A body is resists to change its motion due to inertia. Greater the mass greater inertia. So
that’s why the heavier objects are difficult stop when it is in motion.
 Weight of a body is attractive force exert on it due to gravity.

 SI unit of weight is newton (N).
 Weight of an object can be measured by using spring balance (newton meter).
 Weight of a body varies in different places. It depends on gravitational field strength.

 Gravitational field is a region in which a mass experiences a force due to gravitational
attraction.
 Gravitational field on the surface of the Earth is 10N/kg. This means that a gravitational
force of 10N is exerted on an object of mass 1kg. Near to the surface of the moon is
1.6 N/kg.
Weight = mass × gravitational field strength.

w = mg
On the Earth, the gravitational field strength is 10 N/kg. On the Moon, the gravitational
field strength is 1.6 N/kg.
If an object has a weight of 50 N on Earth, what is its weight on the Moon?
Ans: w = mg
m = w/g = 50/10 = 5kg
weight on the moon = mg = 5 × 1.6 =8N
 Density of a substance be defined as its mass per unit volume

 Density of an object can be calculate using formula:
 Units of density are kg/m3 and g/cm3

 If the different size of object has same density means all the objects is made up of same
material.
 First measure the mass of the object using electronic balance.

 Then measure the length, breath and height of the object and calculate volume by using
formula: V = l x b x h
 After that calculate the density using formula:
The diagram shows a material with dimensions 5 cm × 4cm × 2 cm. It has a mass of 100 g.
Ans: v = l × b × h
= 5 × 4 × 2 = 40 cm3
= 2.5 g/cm3
What is the density of the material?

 Measure the mass of the irregularly shaped stone by using electronic balance and record
the reading.
 Add the known volume of water into the measuring cylinder and record this as initial
volume of the water.
 Put the irregularly shaped object into measuring cylinder with the water.
 Measure the volume of water rise and record this as final volume.
 Calculate the volume of the stone by subtracting initial volume from final volume.
 Then calculate the density of the stone by using the formula density = mass / volume
A lump of metal has a mass of 210 g. It is lowered into a measuring cylinder containing
water. The level of the water rises from 35 cm3 to 140 cm3.
Ans: v = 140 – 35 = 105 cm3
= 2 g/cm3
What is the density of the metal?

(a) describe the moment of a force in terms of its turning effect and relate this to everyday
examples.
(b) state the principle of moments for a body in equilibrium.
(c) make calculations using moment of a force = force x perpendicular distance from the
pivot and the principle of moments.
(d) describe how to verify the principle of moments.
(e) describe how to determine the position of the centre of mass of a plane lamina.
(f) describe qualitatively the effect of the position of the centre of mass on the stability of
simple objects.
Turning effect of a force about a pivot is called moment.
Moment of a force = force x perpendicular distance from pivot to force

m=Fxd
Unit of moment is Newton meter (Nm)

 by applying higher force
 increasing perpendicular distance from pivot
A boy loses the nut using 0.25 meter long spanner. He applied 50N of force on the spanner.
Calculate the moment of a force produce.
Ans: moment = F × d
moment = 50 × 0.25 = 12.5 Nm
If an object is in equilibrium: the sum of the clockwise moments about any point is equal to
the sum of the anti-clockwise moments about that point.

When a beam is balanced, we say that is in equilibrium. If an object is in equilibrium:
 the force on it must be balanced (no resultant force)
 the turning effects of the forces on it must also be balanced (no resultant turning effect).
The diagram shows a uniform half-metre rule balanced at its mid-point.
What is the weight of the metal block?

Ans: F × d = F × d
F × 20 = 100 × 15
F = 100 × 15 / 20 = 75 N
Centre of gravity (mass) of a body is the point about which the entire weight (mass) of the
body seems to act.
¥ The centre of gravity may be regarded as the point of balance.

¥ The centre of gravity of a body is in the same position as its centre of mass.
¥ The centre of gravity of regular and uniform (made all of the same material) objects are
at their geometrical centers’.
¥ For a uniform ruler, C.G is at the centre and when supported at this point it balances
and when supported at any other point it topples.
C.G
¥ Centre of gravity of certain objects lies outside the actual material of the object.
 Cut a letter “L” out of a metal or plywood and stick on a sheet of thin paper to
complete the rectangles as shown in the figure below.

You are provide with
 Irregular lamina
 Thread and a bob
 Nail clamped in a stand
Aim: To find center of gravity of an irregularly shaped lamina.
Procedure:
 Make a hole A in the lamina and hang it so that it can swing freely on a nail clamped
in a stand. To locate the vertical line through A tie a plumb line to the nail as shown
below.
 When the plumb line comes to the rest, draw line of plumb line by using ruler and
pencil. Mark it as line AD as shown below.
 Then repeat the same procedure with point B and C, Where the line AD, BE and CF
intersect is the center of gravity of the lamina as shown below.

Ability of returning its original position after pushed and then released is stability of an
object.
 Lowering the centre of gravity of the object

 Increasing the base area of the object
Racing cars low centre of gravity and a

wider wheel base for higher stability
Which of the following glass is more stable?
A body is said to be in stable equilibrium if when slightly displaced and then released it
returns to its previous position.
A body is said to be in unstable equilibrium if when slightly displaced and then released it
moves further away from its previous position.
A body is said to be in neutral equilibrium if it stays in its new position when displaced

(a) state that a force may produce a change in size and shape of a body.
(b) *plot, draw and interpret extension-load graphs for an elastic solid and describe
the associated experimental procedure.
(c) *recognise the significance of the term “limit of proportionality” for an elastic
solid.
(d) calculate extensions for an elastic solid using proportionality.
 Materials bodies which get stretched on the application of a force and regain its
original length and shapes on the removal of the deforming force are called elastic
bodies.
 This property of the material bodies is known as elasticity.
 Length of the body before applying the stretching force is called unstretched length.
 Length of the body after applying the stretched force is called the stretched length.
 Difference between the stretched and the unstretched length of the body is known as
extension.
 The force applied to the spring is called the load.

A material obeys Hooke’s Law if, the extension is directly proportional to the stretching force
within the limit of proportionality.
If “F” is the stretching force in Newton and “e” is the extension of the body in metre, then
Force = spring constant × extension (F = Ke)
Where K is a spring constant, if stretching force (F) is divided by extension (e) within the
proportionalities values, and then the value of K is always constant.
The table below shows how the extension of s spring varies with force applied (load).
Load /N 0 1 2 3 4 5
Extension /mm 0 10 20 30 40 58
The extension – load graph shown below is plotted the information given on the table.
 OX is the region where Hooke’s law is obeyed, that is extension is directly proportional
to the stretching force.
 X is the point of limit of proportionality. (The point beyond which the extension of an
object is no longer proportional the load producing it is called limit of proportionality.)
 E is its elastic limit. Up to E, the spring behaves elastically and returns to its original
length when the load is removed. Beyond E the spring will not regain its original length
when the stretching force is removed and the spring is left permanently stretched hen
the load is removed.
A spring of original length 3.0 cm is extended to a total length of 5.0 cm by a force of 8.0 N.
(a) Calculate the spring constant of the spring.
Ans: extension = 5 – 3 = 2 cm
F = Ke
K = F/e = 8/2 = 4N/cm
(b) Assuming the limit of proportionality of the spring has not been reached; calculate the
force needed extend it to a total length of 6.0 cm.
Ans: extension = 6 – 3 = 3cm
F = Ke = 4 × 3 = 12N
You are provide with
 spring
 clamp and stand
 ruler
 100g masses and hanger
Aim: To prove Hooke’s law
Procedure:
 Select a spring.
 Fix the upper end of the spring rigidly in a clamp.
 Clamp a ruler next to the spring so that you can measure the complete length of the
spring.
 Measure the unextended length of the spring.
 Prepare a table for your results (copy the one below, but with more rows). Record your
results in your table as you go along.
 Attach a weight hanger to the lower end of the spring. Measure its new length.
 Carefully add weights to the hanger, one at a time, measuring the length of the spring
each time.
 Once you have a complete set of results, calculate the values of the extension of the
spring.
 Plot a graph of extension (y-axis) against load (x-axis) and comment on its shape.

(a) define the term pressure in terms of force and area, and do calculations using the
equation pressure = force/area.
(b) explain how pressure varies with force and area in the context of everyday
examples.
(c) describe how the height of a liquid column may be used to measure the atmospheric
pressure.
(d) explain quantitatively how the pressure beneath a liquid surface changes with depth
and density of the liquid in appropriate examples.
(e) do calculations using the equation for hydrostatic pressure p = ρgh.
(f) describe the use of a manometer in the measurement of pressure difference.
(g) describe and explain the transmission of pressure in hydraulic systems with
particular reference to the hydraulic press and hydraulic brakes on vehicles.
(h) describe how a change in volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature is
caused by a change in pressure applied to the gas.
(i) do calculations using p1V1 = p2V2.
Pressure is the force acting per unit area at right angles to a surface.
Pressure can be calculated by using the equation:
Force (N)
Pressure =
Area (m2) F
PXA
SI unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa) or N/m2 and pressure can also measure in kilopascal
(Kpa). 1kpa = 1000pa
The base for a statue rests on level ground. It is made from stone and is 2.0 m long, 2.5 m
high and 0.80 m wide. It has a weight of 96 000 N.
Ans: Base area hit the ground = l × b

= 0.2 × 0.80 = 1.6 m2
P = F/A = 96000/1.6
= 60 000 Pa

 How much force is applied to the object
If higher force applied on an object the pressure act on the object will be more.
 How big (or small) the area of the object on which force applied
If the area of the object on which force applied is more the pressure act on the object is
less and if the area of the object on which force applied is less the pressure act on the
object is more.
Increasing pressure by reducing the area
The area under the edge of the knife’s blade The end of the pin is very sharp, it provide
is small. Beneath it, the pressure is high great pressure to the objects and so easy to
enough for the blade to push easily through put into objects
the material
Reducing pressure by increasing the area
Skis have a large area to reduce the pressure Tractors have wide tyre to reduce the pressure
on the snow so that they do not sink in too far act on the ground so that they do not sink too
far of the ground
In a liquid such as water, pressure does not simply act down wards – it equally in all
directions. This is because the molecules of the liquid move around in all directions,
causing pressure on every surface they collide with.

The pressure in a liquid depends on
 Depth of the liquid
The deeper the liquid, the higher pressure
 Density of the liquid

The more dense the liquid, the higher pressure at particular depth
Pressure in the liquid does not depend shape of the container
The pressure on the liquid can be calculated by using the following equation:
Pressure on the liquid = density of the liquid × gravitational field × depth of the liquid
P = ρgh
A rectangular storage tank is filled with paraffin to a depth of 0.8m. the density of the
paraffin is 800kg/m3. Calculate the pressure at the bottom of the tank.
Ans: P = ρgh
P = 800 × 10 × 0.8
0.8m = 6400 Pa

In some machines, the forces are transmitted by liquids under pressure rather than by
levers or cogs. Machines like this are called hydraulic machines. In hydraulic machine the
following properties of the liquids is used:
 Liquids are virtually incompressible- they cannot be squashed.

 If a trapped liquid is put under pressure, the pressure is transmitted all parts of the
liquids.
Pressure can be transmitted throughout a liquid in hydraulic presses and hydraulic brakes
on vehicles. The figure below shows a simple hydraulic system.
1
2
N
The hydraulic system shown

O above when the 15N force applied to the piston 1, it provides
pressure of 1500Pa to ithe hydraulic oil. (P = F/A = 15/0.01 = 1500Pa). This pressure flows
through the hydraulic loil and acts on piston 2. As a result the piston 2 produces the larger
output force of 150N. (P = F/A, F = P × A = 1500 × 0.1 = 150N). So sometimes hydraulic
system is also called force multiplier.
The system shown in the diagram contains a liquid.
Ans: P = F/A = 4/2 = 2Pa

P = F/A
F = P × A = 2 × 40 = 80N
A downward force of 4 N is exerted on piston L.

What will be the upward force exerted by the liquid on piston K?

The diagram below shows a braking system of a vehicle. When the brake pedal is pushed
the master piston provides the pressure on the brake fluid and this pressure transmit
through the brake fluid to slave pistons. As a result slave pistons pushed outward and
cause brake shoe to rub against the brake drum.
Simple mercury barometer is used to measure the atmospheric pressure. The barometer
contains liquid metal mercury. Atmospheric pressure has pushed mercury up the tube
because the space at the top of the tube has no air in it. It is a vacuum. Normally the
height of the mercury column found to be about 760 millimetres of mercury (760mmHg).
Since the value of the mercury column reflects the value of the atmospheric pressure,
atmospheric pressure can be express in terms of the height of the column of the mercury.
Standard atmospheric pressure

The pressure that will support a column of mercury 760mm high is
known as standard atmospheric pressure or 1 atmosphere (1atm).
Its value in a pascals can be found by calculating the pressure due
to a such column.
Height of the mercury column (h) = 760mm that is 0.76m.
Gravitational field strength (g) = 10N/kg
Density of the mercury (ρ) = 13590kg/m3
So standard atmospheric pressure or 1atm = ρgh
Standard atmospheric pressure or 1atm = 13590 x 10 x 0.76
= 101 300Pa, in calculators for simplicity, you can assume
that 1atm = 100 000Pa

Manometer is an instrument used to measures pressure difference. The gas supplied tube
is filled with mercury. The height difference shows the extra pressure that the gas supply
has in addition to atmospheric pressure. This extra pressure is called excess pressure. To
find the actual pressure of the gas supply, add atmospheric pressure to this pressure.
Standard atmospheric pressure is 1 atm.
 First measure the height difference of the liquid column.

(Height difference of the liquid column= 60 – 30 = 30mm or 0.03m)
 Then calculate the pressure difference of the liquid column.
(Pressure difference of the liquid column = ρgh = 13590 × 10 × 0.03 = 4077Pa)
 Pressure of the gas supply = pressure difference of the liquid column + atmospheric
pressure.
(Pressure of the gas supply = 4077 + 100 000 = 104077Pa)
The diagram below shows a syringe fill with air and end of the syringe is connected with
pressure gauge. When the piston of the syringe is pushed inward the volume of the air
trapped inside the syringe decreases but pressure of the air increases. The pressure
increases because the air molecules hit the wall of the syringe more frequently.

For a fixed mass of a gas at a constant temperature, pressure of the gas is inversely
proportional to the volume of the gas.
Which means if the temperature of the gas is constant, when the volume of the gas is
decreased the pressure of the gas increases.
If you plot the graph pressure of the gas against the volume of the gas you will obtain a
smooth curve as shown below.
The following equation is derived from this law:

Initial pressure × initial volume = final pressure × final volume (P 1V1 = P2 V2)
The syringe shown below consist the volume of 100cm3 of gas initially and the pressure of
the gas is 1.0 × 105 Pa. The volume of the gas decreases to 80 cm3. Calculate the final
pressure of the gas.
Ans: P1V1 = P2 V2
1.0 × 105 × 100 = P2 × 80
P2 = 1.0 × 105 × 100 / 80
P2 = 125000 Pa

(a) list the different forms of energy with examples in which each form occurs.
(b) state the principle of the conservation of energy and apply this principle to the
conversion of energy from one form to another.
(c) state that kinetic energy Ek = ½mv 2 and that gravitational potential energy
EP = mgh and use these equations in calculations.
(d) list renewable and non-renewable energy sources.
(e) describe the processes by which energy is converted from one form to another,
including reference to
(1) chemical/fuel energy (are-grouping of atoms),
(2) hydroelectric generation (emphasising the mechanical energies involved),
(3) solar energy (nuclei of atoms in the Sun),
(4) nuclear energy,
(5) geothermal energy,
(6) wind energy.
(f) explain nuclear fusion and fission in terms of energy releasing processes.
(g) do calculations using the mass-energy equation E = mc2.
(h) describe the process of electricity generation and draw a block diagram of the process
from fuel input to electricity output.
(i) discuss the environmental issues associated with power generation.
(j) calculate work done from the formula work = force × distance moved in the line of
action of the force.
(k) calculate the efficiency of an energy conversion using the formula efficiency = energy
converted to the required form/total energy input.
(l) discuss the efficiency of energy conversions in common use, particularly those giving
electrical output.
(m) discuss the usefulness of energy output from a number of energy conversions.
(n) calculate power from the formula power = work done/time taken.
Everything in the world is able to do the work because of the energy.

Energy is capacity of doing work.
Energy is measure in joules (J) and kilojoule (kJ). (1kJ = 1000J)
When anything happens in the physical world, energy is somehow involved.
There are different forms of energy.

 Chemical energy
 Kinetic energy
 Potential energy
 Light energy
 Sound energy
 Thermal energy
 Electrical energy
 Nuclear energy
 Stain energy (elastic potential energy)

Fuels such as coal or petrol are stores of chemical energy. When fuel burns, the store of
energy released, usually as heat and light. Chemical energy is stored in our bodies and
batteries also.
Very hot objects glow brightly. They are giving out light energy. Light radiates outwards all
around the hot object.
Sound energy is produced due to vibrations.
A moving object has Kinetic energy (k.e.). The faster an object moves, the greater its K.e.
If you lift an object upwards, you give it gravitational potential energy (g.p.e). The higher
an object is above the ground, the greater its g.p.e.
If you get close to a hot object, you may feel thermal (heat) energy coming from it. This is
energy travelling from a hotter object to a colder object.
A close relation of chemical energy is nuclear energy. Uranium is an example of a nuclear

fuel, which is a store of nuclear energy.
An electric current is a good way of transferring energy from one place to another. It carries
electrical energy. When the current flows through a component such as a heater, it gives
up some of its energy.
If you stretch a rubber band, it becomes a store of strain energy. The band can give its
energy to a paper pellet and send it flying across the room. Strain energy is the energy
stored by an object that has been stretched or squashing in an elastic way.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed but it can change from one form to another.
When the skier is at the top of the hill there is a potential

energy and when he moves down a hill the potential energy
converted into kinetic energy.

When the person throws the stone chemical energy is changed
into kinetic energy. When the stone reaches to maximum height
it has potential energy and when it fall again changes into
kinetic energy. When it hits the ground it produces sound and
heat energy.
It takes energy to make things move. You transfer energy to a ball when you throw it or hit
it. A car uses energy form its fuel to get it moving. Elastic energy stored in a stretched
piece of rubber is needed to fire a pallet from a catapult. So moving object is a store of
energy. This is Kinetic energy (K.e.).
Kinetic energy of an object depends on two factors:

 The object’s mass m – the greater the mass, the greater its K.e.
 The object’s speed v – the greater the speed, the greater its K.e.
Kinetic energy of an object can be calculated using the formula:

Kinetic energy = ½ × mass × speed 2 (K.E = ½ mv2)
A car of mass 2000kg is travelling at 10 m/s. Calculate its kinetic energy.

Ans: K.E = ½ mv2
K.E = ½ × (2000) × (10)2

K.E = 100 000J
The Energy of Position, when a stone is dropped, it falls (accelerates) towards the ground,
until it hits the ground. If the ground is soft, the stone will make a small depression in the
ground.
In its original position, the stone had the capacity to do work, even though it is not moving
and has no kinetic energy.
When a stone is held above the ground, it has POTENTIAL ENERGY because if it is
dropped, it can do work on the ground (making the hole).

An objects gravitational potential energy depends on two factors:
 The object’s weight mg – the greater its weight, the greater its g.p.e.
 The object’s height h above ground level - the greater its height, the greater its g.p.e.
Potential energy stored in an object can be calculated using the formula:

Potential energy = mass × gravity × height (PE = mgh)
A stone of mass 5kg lifted above the ground of 2m height.

Calculate the potential energy needed to lift the stone 2m height?
Gravitational field strength is 10N/kg.
Ans: PE = mgh
PE = 5 × 10 × 2
PE = 100J
Renewable energy sources are energy sources that can be

replenished over short period of time.
eg: solar energy, wind energy, hydro-energy, geothermal energy
In hot sunny countries, solar panels are used to collect thermal (heat) and light energy from
the sun. The sun rays fall on a large solar panel and absorb energy from the sun and
converted into electrical energy.
 It is a renewable energy source

 It is environmental friendly (Non-polluting)
 Covers a large area

 Availability varies
 Amount of current produced by solar cells is usually too small to power devices that
need large amount of electricity.
Heat energy Electrical energy
Solar panel Transformer
The interior of the Earth is hot. Temperature of the earth rises with increasing depth. The
nuclear reaction which takes place in the core of the Earth produces the heat energy to
keep the rocks hot.
To make use of this energy, water is pumped down into the rocks, where it boils. High-
pressure steam return to the surface, where it can be used to drive the turbine and
generate electricity.
 It is a renewable energy source

 Generates high power electricity
 Pollutes the air by giving out steam

 Destruct the land area by digging
 This technique is a very expensive process
Mechanical energy
Geothermal KE of Electrical
of turbine &
energy steam energy
generator
Hot rocks Turbine Generator Transformer

Winds and waves are also caused by the effects of the sun. The sun heats up some parts of
atmosphere more than others. Heated air expands and starts to moves around – this is
convection current. This is the origins of wind. In remote and exposed parts of the
countries it is common to see many wind mills grouped together to form wind farms. When
wind blows turbine rotates and also generator coil rotates to create electricity.
 Renewable energy source

 Non polluting
 Wind is irregular
 They are noisy
 Occupies a lot of space
 Power generated is relatively small
KE of wind Mechanical energy of Electrical energy

turbine & generator
Wind turbine Generator Transformer

River and rain water fill up a lake behind dam. Water rushes down from the lake to turn,
turbines, which make generators spin.
 Low running cost

 It is renewable energy source
 Building large dam cause flooding of vast area of land

 High building cost
 Pollutes water and it may harm to marine life
Mechanical energy
GPE of KE of water of turbine & Electrical energy
water
generator
Dam Turbine Generator Transformer
Non - renewable energy sources are energy sources that cannot be replenished over short
period of time.
eg: coal, fossil fuels, nuclear fuels

In thermal power station electricity is produced by burning non-renewable energy sources
like coal, oil, natural gas. Thermal power stations have boiler, turbines and generator. We
use these non-renewable energy sources (coal, oil, natural gas) as a fuel for the generation
of heat energy by burning it. As the heat energy is transferred into the boiler the water in
boiler starts to boil and evaporate the high pressurized steam. These high pressure steam
passes to the turbine and it rotates as a result the generator is turned on and produce
electricity. Once steam has passed through the turbines, it is cooled and condensed (turned
back into a liquid) so that it can be fed back to the boiler and the process repeat.
 It requires less space to build up the power stations as compared to other types of
generators.
 It pollutes the atmosphere due to production of large amount of smoke and fumes.
 It is costlier in running cost as compared to other types of generators (for buying fuels).
Boiler Turbine Generator Transformer

In nuclear power stations uranium is used as a fuel. In the boiler the nuclear fuel
(uranium) does not burn. But its energy is released by nuclear reaction (nuclear fission)
which splits uranium atoms. Then the other process works as fuel power station.
 It pollutes the atmosphere due to production of large amount of smoke and fumes.
 The waste products from the power station may leads to increase the background
radiation.
Reactor Turbine Generator Transformer

Nuclear fission is the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei, when the nucleus
of an atom is bombarded with a neutron.
The energy of the neutron causes the target nucleus to split into two (or more) nuclei that
are lighter than the parent nucleus, releasing a large amount of energy during the process.
• A neutron hitting a uranium-235 nucleus, causing it to split producing strontium-90,

xenon-143 and three neutrons + energy.
Nuclear fusion is the combining of two lighter nuclei to form a heavier nucleus, releasing a
vast amount of energy during the process.
Nuclear fusion is believed to be the process by which energy is released by the Sun. When
two hydrogen-2 nuclei moving at high speeds collide, they can join together to produce
heavier nucleus (Helium). A large amount of energy is released.
Energy - mass equation E = mc2.

E is energy, m is mass and c is speed of light (3 x 108m/s)
When a nucleus of Uranium-235 absorbs a neutron, nuclear fission occurs. In a typical

reaction the total mass decreases by 3 x 10–28kg.Given that the speed of light c is
3 x 108m/s, approximately how much energy is released?
Ans: E = mc2 = (3 × 10–28) × (3 × 108)2 = 2.7 ×10–11J
Work is done whenever force is applied on an object and object move direction of force
applied. Work can only be done if the object or system has energy. When work is done
energy is transferred and this energy transfer is equals to work done.
Work done can be calculated using the following formula:
Work done = force × distance moved (W = F × d)
A crane lifts a load of 1000 N through a vertical height of 3.0 m. Calculate the work done by
the crane.
Ans: W = F × d
W = 1000 × 3
= 3000J
Power is defined as the rate of doing work or rate of transferring energy. The more powerful
a machine is, the quicker it does a fixed amount of work or transfer fixed amount of energy.
Power can be calculated using the formula:
The unit of the power is watt (W) or joules / second (J/s)
A crane lifts a concrete block of weight 12000 N through a vertical height of 8.0 m in 30s.
Calculate power develop by the crane.
Ans: W = F × d = 12000 × 8 = 96000J
P = W/t = 96000 / 30 = 3200W
An engine does useful work with some of the energy supplied to it, but the rest is wasted as
thermal energy and other forms. The more efficient the object, less energy wasted from the
object. The efficiency of an object can be calculated by using the formula:
Energy from petrol is used to operate an engine. The engine drives a generator, which
produces electrical energy.
What is the overall efficiency of the process?
Ans: 25%
(a) describe how to distinguish between good and bad conductors of heat.
(b) describe in molecular terms how heat transfer occurs in solids.
(c) describe convection in fluids in terms of density changes.
(d) describe the process of heat transfer by radiation.
(e) describe how to distinguish between good and bad emitters and good and bad
absorbers of infra-red radiation.
(f) describe how heat is transferred to or from buildings and to or from a room.
(g) state and explain the use of the important practical methods of heat insulation
for buildings.
Conduction is the process by which heat transmitted through a solid from its hotter part
to its colder part until whole solid become same temperature.
The diagrams below shows, one end of metal rod is being heating. When heat energy
reaches to the atoms inside that end, vibrates faster and heat energy transfer to the
neighbor atoms. Like this heat energy transfer to the other end of rod.

Materials which allow heat to flow through it well are called thermal conductors.
Examples: copper, Aluminum, iron, gold etc.
Materials which do not allow heat to flow through it well are called thermal insulators or
poor conductors.
Examples: Glass, Water, Plastics, Rubber, Wood etc.
Materials containing air (wool, fiberglass, plastic foam, expanded polystyrene)
The experiment below shows one way to compare different metals. The metal rods are all
the same size. Each has a blob of wax at one end. They all heated equally at the other end.
The best conductor is the metal on which the wax melts first.
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.

2. Heat the water at the top of the test tube gently to boil the water.
1. The water at the top of the test tube boils while water at the bottom of the test tube
remains cold and the ice does not melt.
2. The experiment shows that water is a bad conductor of heat.

1. All metals are good conductors of heat. So cooking pans, kettles, electric iron are made
of copper, aluminum or steel.
2. Plastic and wood are poor conductors (good insulators). Therefore handles of cooking
utensils are made of plastics or wood.
3. Air is a very good insulator. So if a substance contains a layer of trapped air, it can stop
the conduction of heat. For example, wool keeps you warm because it traps a lot of air.
The air trapped in and between our clothes and blankets keeps us warm.
4. In the same way, the air trapped in fur and feathers keeps animals warm. Birds fluff up
their feathers in winter to trap more air.
Convection is the process by which heat is transferred from the hot place to cold place by
the movements of heated particles of a gas or liquid.
Convection can only occurs in fluid (liquid and gas)
In the experiment below, the bottom of the beaker is being gently heated in one place only.
As the water above the flame become warmer, the water molecules expand and become less
dense. These less dense molecules rise upward and the cooler, dense water molecules at
the top sink and displace the less dense water. The result is a circulating stream, called
convection current. Where the water is heated, its particles circulate; they transfer energy
to the other parts of the beaker.
In the set-up shown in the diagram, smoke is been to move through the box. The candle
heats the air above it and causes less dense air to rise, setting up convection currents. The
denser colder air is force into the box.

Heated by the sun, warm air rises above the equator as it is displaced by the cooler, dense
air sinking to north and south. The result is huge convection current in the Earth’s
atmosphere. These cause winds across all oceans and continents.
During day time, in hot sunshine, the land heats up more quickly than the sea. Warm air
rises above the land, as it is displaced by cooler air moving in from the sea. This is called
day breeze.
At night, the reverse happens. The sea stays warmer than the land, which cools down
quickly. Warmer air now rises above the sea, as it is displaced by cooler air moving out
from the land. This process is called night breeze.

Cold water in the storage tank sinks down to the boiler, where it is heated. The heated
water in the boiler rises to the top of the storage tank. In this way, a supply of hot water
collects in the storage tank from the top down. The storage tank is insulated to reduce
thermal energy losses by conduction and convection. The header tank provides the
pressure to push the water out of the taps.
Cold air sinks below the freezer compartment. This sets up a circulating current of air
which cools all the food in the refrigerator.
Cold air sinks below the air conditioner and hot air at the bottom of the room rises up. This
sets up a circulating current of air which cools all air in the room.

Radiation is the process by which heat is transmitted from one place to another in the
form of electromagnetic waves (infra-red).
This process does not require any medium.
It can take place in a vacuum.
Different objects give out different amounts of radiation, depending on their temperature and
their surface.
Some surface are better at emitting (sending out) thermal radiation than others.
Good emitters of thermal radiation are also good absorbers.
Black colour is good absorber and also good emitter of thermal radiation.
White and silver colours are bad absorber and emitter of thermal radiation but good
reflector of radiation.
Put same amount of water into two cans, one is painted with black colour and another is
painted with silver colour. Cover the both cans and put thermometer to each cans and keep
both cans where there is direct sunlight for some time.
It is found that the temperature of black colour can higher than silver colour can.
This means black colour is good absorber of heat but shiny silver colour is good
reflector of heat.

Put same amount of hot water into two cans, cover both the cans and put thermometer into
each can. Keep both cans where there is no sunlight.
It is found that the reading of the thermometer in the black can falls more quickly that
silver can.
This means black colour is good emitter of thermal radiation.
A vacuum flask is cleverly designed to keep hot things hot by reducing heat losses. It also
helps to keep cold things cold for long times.
It has these features for reducing the rate at which thermal energy flows out (or in).
 An insulated stopper to reduce heat lost from conduction and convection.
 A double – walled container with a gap between the walls. Air has been removed from
the gap (vacuumed) to reduce heat lost from conduction and convection.
 Walls with silvery surfaces to reduce the heat lost from radiation.

Energy tends to escape from a hot object, spreading to its cooler surroundings by
conduction, convection and radiation. This can be a great problem. We may use a lot of
energy (and money) to heat our homes during cold weather, and the energy simply escapes.
A well-insulated house can avoid a lot of energy wastage during cold weather. The
insulation can also help to prevent the house from becoming uncomfortably hot during
warm weather.
The table below summarises that how the insulating materials helps to reduce heat lost
from a house:
Loft and under floor insulating Prevents conduction of heat through floors and
materials (Glass or mineral wool ceilings
insulation)
Cavity walls (filled with plastic Reduce heat lost by conduction through walls of
foams, beads, or mineral wool) the house
Double and triple glazing of Vacuum between glass panes cuts out heat losses
windows (two sheets of glass by conduction and convection.
with no air between them)
Thick curtains draught excluder Stops convection current, and so prevent cold air
from entering and warm air from leaving

(a) explain how a physical property which varies with temperature may be used
for the measurement of temperature and state examples of such properties.
(b) explain the need for fixed points and state what is meant by the ice point and
steam point.
(c) discuss sensitivity, range and linearity of thermometers.
(d) describe the structure and action of liquid-in-glass thermometers (including
clinical) and of a thermocouple thermometer, showing an appreciation of its
use for measuring high temperatures and those which vary rapidly.
Temperature is measure of hotness or coldness of an object.

Temperature can be measured by using thermometer.
The units of temperature are: Kelvin (K), degree Celsius (°C) and Fahrenheit (F).
Laboratory thermometer is used to measure the temperature different things while doing
experiments.
The laboratory thermometer shown below, the liquid in the bulb expands when the
temperature rises. The tube is made narrow so that a small increase in volume of liquid
produces a large movement along the tube.
So which means in laboratory thermometer the physical property varies with temperature
is volume of the liquid.

The mercury or alcohol is Thin wall of the bulb allow s conduction of heat
contain in a thin wall glass bulb quickly through the glass (a poor conductor of
heat) to the liquid.
Bulb is made small to contain a Small amount of liquid will be more responsive to
small amount of liquid. heat
The bore of capillary tube is fine The fine tube allows noticeable movement of the
and uniform liquid for small change in temperature, (i.e. good
sensitivity). The uniform tube ensures even
expansion of the liquid.
The walls of the long tube above This acts as a magnifying glass for easy reading of
the bulb are made thick and the mercury thread in the stem.
circular shape.
The size of the thermometer is The small size allows it to be portable and also
relatively small. cheap to produce.
Clinical thermometers are used to measure the temperature of human body in hospitals.
In clinical thermometer also the physical property varies with temperature is volume of the
liquid.
The glass wall of the bulb is thin Thin wall of the bulb allow s conduction of heat
quickly through the glass (a poor conductor of
heat) to the liquid.
Bulb is made small to contain a Small amount of liquid will be more responsive to
small amount of liquid. heat
The bore of capillary tube is fine The fine tube allows noticeable movement of the
and uniform liquid for small change in temperature, (i.e. good
sensitivity). The uniform tube ensures even
expansion of the liquid.
The walls of the long tube above This acts as a magnifying glass for easy reading of
the bulb are made thick and the mercury thread in the stem.
circular shape.
The scale is limited to small Since the normal body temperature is 37°C, the
range between 35°C to 42°C. short range allows for greater accuracy and the
stem can be made reasonably short.
A narrow constriction After taking temperature, it prevents contracting
mercury from flowing back into the bulb by
breaking the mercury threat at constriction.

Thermocouple thermometer is used to measure very high temperatures in industries. It
make use of physical property varies with temperature is electromotive force (e.m.f). The
thermocouple is based on the fact that any two metals in contact generate tiny voltage
(actually a tiny e.m.f). In order to measure this voltage with a voltmeter, the two metals
needed to form a circuit, which as in the diagram below, means that there must be two
junctions. If the junctions are at the same temperature, there will be no voltage because the
two voltages will cancel out, but if the junctions are different temperatures, the difference
between two voltages can be measured with a voltmeter. One junction is placed at the point
where the temperature is to be measured. The other junction is placed in a beaker of
melting ice to take it to 0°C. The thermocouple must be calibrated so that the temperature
can be deduced from voltage. This thermometer is more sensitive than liquid – in – glass
thermometers.
Sensitivity of the thermometer is the change in reading of the thermometer for a small change
in temperature.
If the reading of the thermometer has a noticeable change for a small change in
temperature, the sensitivity is HIGH.
If the reading of the thermometer shows small difference change in temperature, the
sensitivity is LOW.
To make a liquid – in – glass thermometer more sensitive, we need large bulb (so that
actual increase in volume is large), thin glass of bulb (so heat conducts quickly) and a
very narrow glass tube ((so that the changing volume causes a large movement of the
liquid up or down the tube).
The span of temperature that the thermometer can measure

Example: For laboratory thermometer, −10°C to 110°C
For clinical thermometer, 35°C to 42 °C
The liquid of the thermometer expands linearly with increase in temperature.

For the same increase in temperature, the length of mercury thread increased by the same
amount.
First put the unmarked thermometer into the ice and wait until the liquid level of the
thermometer becomes steady. When it becomes steady by using marker mark that point,
which is ice point or lower fixed point (0°C).
After that put the unmarked thermometer into the steam above the boiling water and wait
until the liquid of the thermometer becomes steady. When it becomes steady by using
marker mark that point, which is steam point or upper fixed point (100°C).
To calibrate the thermometer scale measure the distance between two fixed points and
divide that distance into 100 equal parts.
The temperature at which ice changes into water, that is (0°C)
The temperature at which pure water changes into water vapour (steam), that is (100°C)

(a) describe a rise in temperature of a body in terms of an increase in its internal
energy (random thermal energy).
(b) define the terms heat capacity and specific heat capacity.
(c) calculate heat transferred using the formula thermal energy = mass x specific heat
capacity x change in temperature.
(d) describe melting/solidification and boiling /condensation in terms of energy transfer
without a change in temperature.
(e) state the meaning of melting point and boiling point.
(f) explain the difference between boiling and evaporation.
(g) define the terms latent heat and specific latent heat.
(h) explain latent heat in terms of molecular behaviour.
(i) calculate heat transferred in a change of state using the formula thermal energy =
mass x specific latent heat.
(j) describe qualitatively the thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases.
(k) describe the relative order of magnitude of the expansion of solids, liquids and gases.
(l) list and explain some of the everyday applications and consequences of thermal
expansion.
(m) describe qualitatively the effect of a change of temperature on the volume of a gas at
constant pressure.
The total kinetic energy and potential energy of all atoms or molecules in a material is
called internal energy. When the temperature of the material increase the movement of
atoms or molecules inside the material increases and the kinetic energy of the atoms
increases, so internal energy of the material increases.
The heat capacity of a substance is amount of heat energy that is needed to raise its
temperature by 1°C.
The specific heat capacity of a substance is amount of heat energy that is needed to raise the
temperature of 1kg of the substance by 1°C.
We can use following equation to calculate the specific heat capacity of a substance.
Energy required = mass × specific heat capacity × increase in temperature
E = mc∆T
The SI unit of specific heat capacity is (J/kg°C)

A domestic hot water tank contains 200kg of water at 20°C. How much energy must be
supplied to heat this water to 70°C?
(specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J/kg°C).
Ans: E = mc∆T
= 200 × 4200 × (70−20)
= 42 000 000 J
It is the process that heat is absorbed from the surrounding to change the substance from
solid state to liquid state. The temperature of a substance remains constant until the entire
solid has change to liquid.
During the process of melting when the heat is supplied to the solid, the molecules packed
inside solid vibrate faster and faster. So as a result the attraction force between the
molecules breaks and molecules freely move and changed into liquid.
The temperature at which the solid changes to liquid is called melting point.
Boiling is the process that heat absorbed from surrounding to change the substance from
liquid state to vapor or gas state. Temperature of the substance remains constant until all the
liquid changes to gas
During the process of boiling when the heat is supplied to the liquid, the molecules in the
liquid gain more kinetic energy and moves faster. So as a result molecules in the liquid
leaves from the liquid in the form of vapour and changed into steam (gas).
The temperature at which the liquid changes to gas is called melting point.
Condensation is the process that substance changes from gas state to liquid state by
cooling it below boiling point. The temperature of the of the substance remains constant
until all the gas changes to liquid.
Solidification is the process that substance changes from liquid state to solid state by
cooling on it. The temperature of the of the substance remains constant until all the liquid
changes to solid.

When solid is heated for a sufficiently long time, it melts into liquid and eventually boils
and changes into gas. A heating curve of a solid is shown in the figure below.
When a gas is cooling for a sufficiently long time, it condense into liquid and freezes into
solid. A cooling curve of a gas is shown in the figure below.
Boiling take place at definite Evaporation takes place at any

temperature. (boiling point) temperature below the boiling point.
Boiling takes place throughout the Evaporation takes place on the surface of
liquid. the liquid.
Bubbles are formed in boiling Bubbles are not formed in evaporation.

Energy must be supplied to a substance to melt or to boil it – in other words to make it
change state. This energy does not increase the increase substance’s temperature, and for
this reason it is known as latent heat (the word ‘latent’ means ‘hidden’).
The latent heat is the amount of energy needed to change the state of a substance without
changing temperature.
The specific latent heat is the amount of energy needed to change the state of 1 kg of a
substance without changing temperature.
We can use following equation to calculate the specific heat capacity of a substance.
Thermal energy = mass × specific latent heat
E=m×l
The unit latent heat is J/kg
In an experiment to find latent heat of fusion of a 15kg metal needs 520000J of heat energy
to melt from solid state to liquid. Calculate the latent heat of fusion of metal.
Ans: E = m × l
l = E/m = 52000/15 = 34666.7 J/kg
The latent heat of fusion is amount of heat energy required to change a substance from solid
state to liquid.
During melting a lot of heat energy is needed to breakdown attraction force between the
molecules in the solid to change it into liquid. So the energy needed to breakdown
attraction force between the molecules is not shown in thermometer, this heat energies are
called latent heat of fusion.
The latent heat of vaporization is amount of heat energy required to change a substance from
liquid state to gas.
During boiling a lot of heat energy is needed increase the movement of the molecules and
change into vapour. So the energy needed increase the movement of the molecules and
change into vapour is not shown in thermometer, these heat energies are called latent heat
of vaporization.
Most substances – solid, liquid and gases expand when they are heated. When the
substance is heated it makes increase the movement of molecules inside it and molecules
move further apart, so the substance expands in all directions.
The reverse happens when the substance is cooled. The movement of the molecules
becomes smaller and the substance contracts as its molecules are pulled closer together by
force of attraction between them.
Gases expand most, and then liquid and solid expand least when heated.

When a solid is heated it makes its molecules vibrate more vigorously. As the vibration
become larger, the molecules are pushed further apart and the solid expands in all
directions.
The diagram below shows a bimetal strip; thin strips of brass and iron are bonded together.
When heated, the brass expands more than iron, which makes bimetal strip expand as
shown below.
The chart below shows how much one meter length of different materials expands when
their temperature goes up by 100°C. For greater lengths and higher temperature increases,
the expansion is more.
 Liquid - in – glass thermometer make use of the expansion of liquid.
 Metal rods can be fitted into metal wheels, by heating wheel. As the wheel cools, it
contracts and pulls the rod and wheel tightly together.
 A metal lid or cap may stick on a glass jar or a bottle. Heating the lid (for example, by
running hot water over it) cause it to expand (the glass expand much less), so the lid
loosens and can be removed.
 The bimetallic strips used in fire alarms, thermostat and bimetallic thermometers.

When the bimetallic strip in the fire alarm heated up it expands and torches with contact,
so current flows through the circuit. As a result bell rings.
The bimetal thermostats are devices which control temperature. They are fitted to
immersion heaters, ovens, and refrigerators and to some room heaters. There are several
different designs bimetal type is very common.
The diagram below shows thermostat that controls an electric heater. As the rooms warms
up, the bimetal strip expands (brass expand more than invar), so two electrical contact
separate. This switches of the heater. And when room cools down the bimetal contract and
aging torches the contact, so circuit completes and switch on the heater. Temperature can
adjust by turning control knob.
The expansion of materials can cause problems. For example metal bridges and railway
lines expand on hot days, and there is a danger that they might buckle. To avoid this,
bridges in sections, with expansion joints between the sections as shown below. On hot day
bridge expands and section between gap decreases.
Railway lines are now usually made from metallic alloy that expands very little and also by
keeping the gap between sections.

Gases expand when they are heated, just like solids and liquids. We can understand this
by using the kinetic model of matter. The diagram below shows some gas in a cylinder
fitted with a piston. At first the gas is cold and its particles press weakly on the piston.
When the gas is heated, its particles moves faster. Now they push greater force on the
piston and push it upwards. The gas has expanded.
The upward force of the gas is balanced by downward force of the piston. So in this
situation, the pressure of the gas is remained constant as it has expanded.
So for a fixed mass of a gas at constant pressure, the volume gas is directly proportional to
the increasing temperature of the gas. This is called Charles’s law.
If the piston did not move, the volume of the gas remains constant when it was heated but
its pressure would increase.

(a) state the distinguishing properties of solids, liquids and gases.
(b) describe qualitatively the molecular structure of solids, liquids and gases, relating
their properties to the forces and distances between molecules and to the motion of
the molecules.
(c) describe the relationship between the motion of molecules and temperature.
(d) explain the pressure of a gas in terms of the motion of its molecules.
(e) describe evaporation in terms of the escape of more energetic molecules from the
surface of a liquid.
(f) describe how temperature, surface area and draught over a surface influence
evaporation.
(g) explain that evaporation causes cooling.
Almost all matter can be classified as a solid, a liquid or a gas. These are called three states
of matter.
 In solid particles are closely packed together.

 Molecules are arranged in regular pattern
 Molecules can vibrate to and fro but cannot change the
position
 The force of attraction between the molecules is very
strong.
 Solid has fixed shape and volume
 It cannot compress
 Particles are close together but compare to solid

particles are little far.
 The attraction forces between the molecules are weak
compare to solid.
 Molecules can freely move from one place to another.
 Liquid has no fixed shape but has fixed volume.
 It cannot compress easily

 Particles are very far apart.
 The attraction force between the molecules are very weak
 Particles can move randomly with higher speed.
 Gas has no fixed shape and fixed volume.
 It can compress
When the temperature is increased the molecules gain kinetic energy. The increasing
kinetic energy makes molecule moves faster and increase their separation (expand).
The gas molecules are in random continuous motion. When the gas molecules are in a
container, they exert a force on a wall of the container when they collide with it. Since the
force is exerted over an area, a pressure is produced. If the temperature of the gas
increases, the gas molecules gain K.E and moves faster. So the molecules exert higher force
on the wall of the container and pressure also increase.
For fixed mass of a gas at a constant volume, the pressure is directly proportional to the
temperature. This is called pressure law.
The experiment below shows a fixed volume of a gas is heated. It shows that when the
temperature of the gas increases the pressure of the gas also increases.
When particles break away from the surface of a liquid and form a vapour, the process is
known as evaporation. It happens because of some more energetic molecules (fast moving
molecules) escapes from the surface of the liquid. The faster one near the surface has
enough energy to escape and form a gas.

Evaporation cause cooling. When the high energetic fast moving particles escape from the
liquid, slower ones left behind. This reduces the average energy of the molecules remaining
in the liquid and so the liquid cools down.
Why do we feel cold after doing an exercise?
The sweat produce by the body evaporates from the body
and we feel cold after doing exercise.
Why do we feel cold when wind blows after swimming?

Wind helps to carry away water vapour formed by evaporation,
thus increasing the rate of evaporation. When the water droplets
evaporate, they remove heat from our body and thus, we feel cool.
Rate of evaporation increases as the temperature of the liquid increases
Room temperature Increasing temperature
Rate of evaporation increases as the surface area of the liquid increases
Less surface area More surface area
Rate of evaporation increases when the drought over the surface of the liquid increases
(wind blows over the surface of the liquid).
Less wind over More wind over

the surface the surface

(a) describe what is meant by wave motion as illustrated by vibrations in ropes and
springs and by experiments using a ripple tank.
(b) state what is meant by the term wavefront.
(c) define the terms speed, frequency, wavelength and amplitude and do calculations
using velocity = frequency x wavelength.
(d) describe transverse and longitudinal waves in such a way as to illustrate the
differences between them.
(e) describe the use of a ripple tank to show
(1) reflection at a plane surface,
(2) refraction due to a change of speed at constant frequency.
A wave transmits energy from one place to another. For example, energy can be carried by
a water wave generated by a boat out at sea to the shore, or by a sound wave from the
loudspeaker to an audience’s ears.
The most common waves found in daily life are water waves, sound and electromagnetic
waves.
Wave motions can be illustrated by vibrations in ropes and springs and by experiments
using a ripple tank.
There are two types of waves: transvers waves and longitudinal waves.
A transvers wave is a wave in which the vibrations of the particles are perpendicular to the
direction of travel of the wave.
Transverse wave can illustrate by vibrating ropes and springs as shows below.
In order to produce transverse wave by using rope, one end of the rope should be attached
and from the other end the rope must move up and down as shown below.
So the vibration of the rope is perpendicular to the direction of wave travels.

To produce transverse wave by using spring one student can hold spring while another
student can move spring left and right as shown below. So the vibration of the spring is
perpendicular to the direction of wave travels.
Examples of transverse wave: water wave and all the electromagnetic waves
(radio waves, microwaves, infra-red, visible light, ultra-violet, X-rays and gamma-rays).
A longitudinal wave is a wave in which the vibrations of the particles are parallel to the
direction of travel of the wave.
Longitudinal wave can illustrate by vibrating springs as shows below.
To produce longitudinal wave by using spring, one student can hold spring while another
student can move spring forward and backward as shown below. So the vibration of the
spring is parallel to the direction of wave travels.
Example of longitudinal wave: Sound waves.

The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of the wave from its rest position.
The wavelength of a wave is the distance between two successive crests or troughs.
Or the distance of one complete wave.
The frequency of a wave is the number of complete waves produce in one second. It is
measured in Hertz (Hz).
Frequency can be calculated by using the formula:
The speed of a wave is the distance travelled by any point on the wave in one second.
The speed of the wave can be calculated by using the wave equation:
Speed = frequency × wavelength, V = f λ
A radio station broadcasts on a wavelength of 250m. The speed of radio waves is 3 × 10 8

m/s. calculates the frequency of the wave.
Ans: V = f λ
f = V/ λ = 3 × 108/250 = 1200 000 Hz or 1200 kHz
Compression is the region where the particles are close together and has high pressure.
Rarefaction is the region where the particles are further apart and has low pressure.

A ripple tank is a shallow glass-bottomed tank containing small amount of water. A light
shining downwards trough the water cast shadow of the ripples on the floor below, showing
up the pattern that they make.
One way of making ripples on the surface of the water in a ripple tank is to have a wooden
bar that just touches the surface of the water. The bar vibrates up and down at a steady
rate. This sends equally spaced straight ripples across the surface of the water as shown
below.
A spherical dipper can produce a different patter of ripples. The dipper just touches the
surface of the water. As it vibrate up and down, equally spaced circular ripples spread out
across the surface of the water as shown below.
Ripple tank can also be used to demonstrate the reflection and refraction of water wave.

Reflection of the water wave can be demonstrated by putting metal barrier on one side of
ripple tank. When the straight ripples (‘plane waves’) strikes the flat surface of the barrier,
the ripples bounce off (reflected) as shown below. The ripples are reflected by the metal
barrier so that angle of incidence is equals to angle of reflection.
The lines in the diagram shown above are called wavefronts. The separation of the
wavefronts is equals to wavelength of the ripples.
A line joining all the crests or troughs is called the wave front.
Refraction of the water wave can be demonstrated by immersing the glass plate into the
ripple tank to make the water shallower in that part of the tank. When the straight ripples
produce by the tank moves from the deep region to shallow region, it changes the direction
of ripples (refracted) as shown below.
When the wave is travelling from deep region to shallow region it refracts, because the
speed of the wave decreases. So the wavelength of the wave also decreases but the
frequency of the wave remains constant.

(a) describe the production of sound by vibrating sources.
(b) describe the longitudinal nature of sound waves and describe compression and
rarefaction.
(c) state the approximate range of audible frequencies.
(d) explain why a medium is required in order to transmit sound waves and describe an
experiment to demonstrate this.
(e) describe a direct method for the determination of the speed of sound in air and make
the necessary calculation.
(f) state the order of magnitude of the speeds of sound in air, liquids and solids.
(g) explain how the loudness and pitch of sound waves relate to amplitude and
frequency.
(h) describe how the reflection of sound may produce an echo.
(i) describe the factors which influence the quality (timbre) of sound waves and how these
factors may be demonstrated using a CRO.
(j) define ultra sound.
(k) describe the uses of ultra sound in cleaning, quality control and pre-natal scanning.
When you place your fingertips against the front of your throat, you can feel the vibration of
your vocal cord when you make a noise.
If we bang a tuning folk on a cork, the prongs vibrate and we hear a sound. If the vibrating
prongs quickly dipped into water, we see that water splashes.
These examples shows that sound is caused by vibration. Any vibrating object can be a
source of sound waves. Sound waves are longitudinal in nature.

When a loudspeaker cone vibrates, it moves forward and backward very fast. This squashes
and stretches air infront. As a result a series of compressions (‘squashes’) and rarefactions
(‘stretches’) travel out through the air. These are sound waves. When they reach your ears,
they make your ear-drum vibrate and you hear a sound.
Compression is the region where the particles are close together and has high pressure.
Rarefaction is the region where the particles are further apart and has low pressure.
Human ear can only hear sounds with a frequency of between 20Hz to 20 000Hz (20Hz to
20kHz). This frequency range is called range of audible frequencies.
This material is called a medium. Without it, there is nothing to pass on any oscillations.
Sound cannot trough a vacuum (completely empty space).
The experiment below is to prove that sound waves need a medium to travel trough:
Put the electric bell into jar and remove all the air inside the jar with the help of vacuum
pump. Then connect the bell into the battery and switch on, since the bell ring no sounds
hear the outside of the jar. This means sound required medium to travel through.

Sound can travel through solids, liquids, and gases. Speed of sound varies with the
medium through which it travels. Sound travels faster in solids (concrete 5000m/s), then
in liquids (1400m/s in pure water) and then in gases (330m/s in air). High speeds in solids
are due to the strong force of attraction between molecules. Speed of sounds depends on
temperature.
Apparatus needed: stopwatch, starting pistol and measuring tape.
Procedure:
 Observers A and B are positioned at a known distance d apart in an open field. Record
the distance d with the measuring tape. (d must be about 1km)
 Observer A fires the pistol
 Observer B, on seeing the flash of starting pistol, starts the stopwatch and then stops it
when he hears the sound. The time interval t is recorded.
 Measure the time taken 3 or 4 times and find the average value of time.
 Then calculate the speed of sound s in the air by using the following formula.
Sound waves can be reflected by large, flat and hard surfaces like walls and cliffs. If the
reflected sound is heard after an interval of time, it is called an ECHO.
Echo sound can be calculated using the formula:
To estimate the width of a valley, a climber starts a stopwatch as he shouts. He hears an

echo from the opposite side of the valley after 4.0 s.
Ans:
2d = s × t
2d = 340 × 4
The sound travels at 340 m / s. What is the width of the valley? d = 680 m

The loudness of a sound wave depends upon the amplitude of the wave.
A sound wave with a larger amplitude contains more energy and is therefore louder.
The pitch of a sound wave depends on the frequency of the wave.

Sound of higher frequency (shorter wavelength) has a higher pitch.
When a flutist plays her flute, she sets the air inside it vibrating. A trumpeter does the
same thing. Why do the two instruments sound so different? The flute and trumpet each
contain air column, which vibrates and produce a musical note. Because the instruments
are sharped differently, the notes produce sound different our ears. The two sounds have
different quality or timber.
An image of the instrument can be produce by playing the instrument next to microphone
connected to an oscilloscope. The microphone receives the vibration from the instrument
and converts them to an electrical signal, which is displayed on oscilloscope screen. The
trace on the screen shows the regular up and down pattern of the vibration that make up
the sound. The diagrams below shows different quality of sound waves displayed by the
oscilloscope screen.

The sounds above the range of audible frequency (20Hz to 20 kHz) are called ultrasounds.
 Ultrasounds are used to pre-natal scanning (womb scanning) and also to examine the
inside of human body.
 It is also used cleaning delicate (sensitive) machinery. The machinery is immersed in

tank of liquid, then the vibration of high power ultrasound are used to dislodge (remove)
the bits of dirt’s and grease.
 Ultrasound is also used to quality control (detect flaws in metals). The echo sounding
principle can be used detect flaws in metals. A pulse of ultrasound is sent through the
metal, the there is a flaw (tiny gap) in the metal, the reflected pulse are picked up by the
detector and shows on C.R.O screen.
 Ships use echo – sounders to measure the depth of water beneath them. An echo –
sounder sends pulses of ultra sound downwards towards the seabed, and then measures
the time taken for each echo (reflected sound) to return. The longer the time, the deeper
the sea.

(a) define the terms used in reflection including normal, angle of incidence and angle of
reflection.
(b) describe an experiment to illustrate the law of reflection.
(c) describe an experiment to find the position and characteristics of an optical image
formed by a plane mirror.
(d) state that for reflection, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection and
use this in constructions, measurements and calculations.
(e) define the terms used in refraction including angle of incidence, angle of refraction and
refractive index.
(f) describe experiments to show refraction of light through glass blocks.
(g) do calculations using the equation sin i / sin r = constant.
(h) define the terms critical angle and total internal reflection.
(i) describe experiments to show total internal reflection.
(j) describe the use of optical fibres in telecommunications and state the advantages of
their use.
(k) describe the action of thin lenses (both converging and diverging) on a beam of light.
(l) define the term focal length.
(m) *draw ray diagrams to illustrate the formation of real and virtual images of an object
by a lens.
(n) define the term linear magnification and *draw scale diagrams to determine the focal
length needed for particular values of magnification (converging lens only).
(o) describe the use of a single lens as a magnifying glass and in a camera, projector and
photographic enlarger and draw ray diagrams to show how each forms an image.
(p) draw ray diagrams to show the formation of images in the normal eye, a short-sighted
eye and a long-sighted eye.
(q) describe the correction of short-sight and long-sight.
The change in direction of a ray of light when it strikes a surface without passing through it
is known as reflection of light.

A ray of light striking a surface
A ray of light that has been reflected after striking a surface
The angle between incident ray and the normal to the surface at point where it reflects from
a surface
The angle between a reflected ray and the normal to the surface at point where it meets a
surface
The line drawn at right angle to a surface at the point where a ray strikes the surface
When reflection occurs the angle of incidence is always equals to angle of reflection (i = r)
Equipments: A4 paper, ruler, plane mirror, pencil, protector and ray box.
Procedure:
• Draw a line on a piece of paper consider this line as mirror line.

• Draw normal perpendicular to mirror line.
• Draw incident ray line so that it makes angle of 45° with normal.
• Place the mirror on the mirror line.
• Position the ray box so that the ray is directed along the incident ray line.
• Mark the position of the reflected ray, produce by the mirror.
• Remove the mirror and continue the reflected ray trough the points.
• Measure the angle between reflected ray and normal (angle of reflection).
• Repeat the experiment for different angles of incidence.
Observation & Conclusion
It is found that angle the angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection.
Equipments: optic pins, A4 paper, ruler, plane mirror, pencil.
Procedure
• Draw mirror line on blank paper and place a mirror vertically on that line.
• Stick the object pin O in front of the plane mirror.
• View the image of object pin O from one side of mirror and place pin1 (P1) and pin2
(P2), so that it covers the image of O.
• View the image of object pin O from the other side of mirror and place pin3 (P3) and
pin4 (P4), so that it covers the image of O.
• Remove the mirror and mark the position of the pins.
• Draw a straight line which passes through point P1 and P2, also a straight line
which passes through point P3 and P3 and mark I where both lines meet.
• Measure the distance between object and mirror and also distance between image
and mirror.
Observation & Conclusion

It is found that the distance between object and mirror and distance between image and
mirror are equal.
Image formed is same size as object, image distance and object distance are equal, laterally
inverted, erect (up right) and virtual.

The bending of a ray of light when passing from one medium to another is called refraction
of light. This is why pencil is seems to be bend when it put into a glass of water.
• When the light is travelling from optically less dense medium (air) to denser medium
(glass) the light ray bend towards the normal, because the speed of the light decreases.
• When the light travelling from optically dense medium (glass) to less dense medium (air)
the light ray bend away from the normal, because the speed of the light increases.
The angle between a refracted ray and the normal to the surface at point where it passes
from one material to another
The refractive index of a material indicates how strongly the material changes the direction
of light. It is calculated using the following formula:
Refractive index of a medium can also defined as the speed of light in a vacuum divide by
speed of light in the medium.
The diagram below shows a light ray enters to the glass block and refracted. The angle of
incidence is 45° and the refractive index of the glass is 1.5.
Ans:
1.5 = sin 45 / sin r

sin r = sin 45 / 1.5
r = sin (sin 45 / 1.5)
r=

Equipments : A glass block, ruler, protractor, pencil, A4 paper and 4 optic pins.
Procedure:
• Keep the glass block on the middle of the blank paper and draw its outline using the
pencil.
• Draw normal which is perpendicular to the one side of the outline of the block.
• Draw incident ray which is about angle of incident 45°.
• Place pin1 (P1) and pin2 (P2) on the incident ray and replace the glass block on ots
outline.
• Look from another side of the block and place pin (P3) and pin (P4) so that both the pins
align with same line of P1 and P2.
• Remove the glass block and the pins, mark the positions of pins and draw emergent ray
through point P3 and P4.
• Draw a line between incident ray and emergent ray to show the refracted ray.

When a light is travelling from optically dense medium (glass) to less dense medium (air)
the light ray bend away from the normal and also some ray of light reflected in the dense
medium as shown below.
If the angle of incident is increased, more light is reflected inside the block and the
refracted bends even further away from the normal.
Eventually at one particular angle, the refracted ray emerges along and parallel to the
surface of the block and perpendicular to the normal as shown below.
When the refracted is perpendicular to the normal, the angle between incident ray and
normal in the dense medium is called critical angle.
Critical angle also can define as greatest angle of incidence that allows refraction.
If the light ray incident on the block is greater than the critical angle, the light is entirely
reflected inside the glass block. This phenomenon is known as total internal reflection.
When the light is travelling from optically dense medium to less dense medium and if the
angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, all the light is reflected back into denser
medium. This is known as total internal reflection.

Equipments : A semi-circular glass block, ruler, protractor, pencil, A4 paper and ray box
Procedure:
• First draw the outline of semi-circular glass block on a sheet of blank paper.
• Remove the block and draw normal perpendicular to the straight surface of the block.
• Replace the block and incident a ray of light using ray box towards the normal as
shown in the diagram.
• Increase the angle of incident until the refracted ray lays the surface of the glass block
and mark the position of the ray by putting two dots.
• Draw incident ray through two dots and measure the angle of incidence that is
critical angle.
Optical fibres are thin and flexible. When light enters it, is totally reflected many times until
it comes from the other end.
Telephone or computer messages can be transmitted by light along optical fibres.
There are some advantages of using optical fibre rather than copper wire:
Each of these fibres is capable of carrying thousands of different signals at the same time.
The speed of signal is also faster.
They are cheaper than copper cables.

Convex lenses are thicker in the middle and thin round the edge.
When parallel light rays pass through a convex lens, they are bent inwards. The point F
were they converge(meet) is called the principal focus (f) or focus point.
The distance from centre of the lens to the principal focus is called the focal length.
Concave lenses are thin in the middle and thickest round the edge.
When parallel light rays pass through a concave lens, they are bent outwards. The principal
focus is the point from which the rays appear to diverge (spread out). A concave lens is a
diverging lens.
Image is virtual, magnified (enlarged), upright (erect)

This type of image is formed in magnifying glass
At infinity
Image is real, magnified (enlarged), upside down (inverted)

This type of image formed in projectors and photographic enlarger
Image is real, same size as object, upside down (inverted)
Image is real, smaller than object (diminished), upside down (inverted)

This type of image formed in camera and human eye

For concave lens the image formed has same characters, when the object is at any position.
That is virtual, upright and image is smaller than object (diminished).
An image can be MAGNIFIED so that it appears larger than the object (i.e. the
magnification is greater than 1) or DIMINISHED so that it appears smaller than the object
(i.e. the magnification is less than 1)
Linear magnification = =
𝒃𝒋 𝒃𝒋
Find the linear magnification of image of object O?
𝑖 𝑔 𝑓𝑖 𝑔
Ans: Linear magnification = = = 1.5
𝑖 𝑔 𝑓 𝑏𝑗 𝑐

In the human eye there is a convex lens and in normal eyes images of the objects are
formed in the retina.
In the short sight eye the image is formed infront of the retina.
Short sight can be corrected by using concave lens infront of the eye.
In the long sight eye the image is formed beyond the retina.
long sight can be corrected by using convex lens infront of the eye.

(a) describe the dispersion of light as illustrated by the action on light of a glass
prism.
(b) state the colours of the spectrum and explain how the colours are related to
frequency/wavelength.
(c) state that all electromagnetic waves travel with the same high speed in air and
state the magnitude of that speed.
(d) describe the main components of the electromagnetic spectrum.
(e) discuss the role of the following components in the stated applications:
(1) radiowaves – radio and television communications,
(2) microwaves – satellite television and telephone,
(3) infra-red – household electrical appliances, television controllers and
intruder alarms,
(4) light – optical fibres in medical uses and telephone,
(5) ultra-violet – sunbeds, fluorescent tubes and sterilisation,
(6) X-rays – hospital use in medical imaging and killing cancerous cells, and
engineering applications such as detecting cracks in metal,
(7) gamma rays – medical treatment in killing cancerous cells, and engineering
applications such as detecting cracks in metal.
The splitting of white light into its seven components of colours (ROY GBIV) is known as
dispersion of light.
The colours of spectrum are Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo and Violet.

So what happens in a prism to produce a spectrum? As the white light enters the prism, it
slows down. We say that it is refracted and, direction changes as shown above. Dispersion
occurs because each colour is refracted by different amount.
Violet light slows down the most, so it is refracted the most and has shortest wavelength
and highest frequency.
Red light is least affected and has longest wavelength and lowest frequency.
Laser light is not dispersed by a prism. It is refracted so that it changes the direction, but it
is not split up into a spectrum. This is because it is light of single colour and is described
monochromatic.
Rainbow is naturally occurring spectrum. White light from the sun is dispersed as it enters
and leaves droplets of water in the air. It is also reflected back to the viewer by total
internal reflection, which is why you must have the sun behind you to absorb a rainbow.
The full range of electromagnetic waves is called electromagnetic spectrum as shown

below.
Increasing frequency
6 9 12 15 18 21
10 Hz 10 Hz 10 Hz 10 Hz 10 Hz 10 Hz
3 −3 −6 −9 −12
10 m 1m 10 m 10 m 10 m 10 m
Visible light
Increasing wavelength
 All the electromagnetic waves are transverse wave.

8
 They all travels at the same speed, that is speed of light ( m/s).
 They all can travel through the vacuum.

Radio waves are the lowest frequencies and highest wave length in the electromagnetic
spectrum, and are used mainly for radio and television communications.
Microwaves are used to satellite television and telephone. Beam of micro waves send
between dish aerials, carry television and telephone signals to and from satellites and
across country.
Microwaves also used in microwave ovens to cook many types of food.
Infrared radiation is used in household electrical appliances, television controllers and

intruder alarms. Remote controllers for TV and video recorders worked by transmitting
infrared pulses. Apart from remote controls, one of the most common modern uses for IR is
in the field of security. "Passive Infra-Red" (PIR) detectors are used in burglar alarm
systems, and to control the security lighting that many people have fitted outside their
houses. These detect the Infra-Red emitted warm body of anyone who approaches.

Light is used in optical fibres in medical uses and sending telephone signals. In endoscopes
light is send through bundle of optical fibers to look inside the body. Also in optical fibres
pulse of laser light is used carry telephone calls.
Ultra-violet is used in sunbeds, fluorescent tubes and for sterilisation. Ultra-violet from the
sun is used by our skin in producing vitamin D and also gives us sun tan. UV rays kill
microbes, and are used to sterilise food so that it will keep fresh for longer.

X-rays used in hospital for medical imaging and killing cancerous cells, and engineering
applications such as detecting cracks in metal.
Gamma-rays used in killing cancerous cells, and engineering applications such as

detecting cracks in metal.

(a) describe experiments to show electrostatic charging by friction.
(b) explain that charging of solids involves a movement of electrons.
(c) state that there are positive and negative charges and that charge is
measured in coulombs.
(d) state that unlike charges attract and like charges repel.
(e) describe an electric field as a region in which an electric charge experiences a
force.
(f) state the direction of lines of force and describe simple field patterns.
(g) describe the separation of charges by induction.
(h) discuss the differences between electrical conductors and insulators and
state examples of each.
(i) state what is meant by “earthing” a charged object.
(j) describe examples where charging could be a problem e.g. lightning
(k) describe examples where charging is helpful e.g. photocopier and electrostatic
precipitator.
An object can store electric charges that cannot flow. These charges are called STATIC
CHARGES.
Where do these charges come from?

All the materials made up of tiny particles called ATOM.
An atom contains electrons, protons and neutrons

Electrons orbit the nucleus
Protons and neutrons are collectively known as nucleons
Neutrons have no charge, electrons are negatively charged and protons are positively
charged.
Since an atom is neutral the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons.

Positive charge (+) (proton) and negative charges (−) (electron)
Charges are measured in units called coulombs (C).
When two materials rubbed against each other, the two materials become electrostatically
charged due to friction between them, this is called charging by friction.
For example if you rub comb with a piece of cloth and then hold it near some tiny pieces of
paper. The rubbed comb attracts the piece of paper as shown below. This is because comb
becomes charged when it rubbed with cloth.
Materials become charged when they rubbed against each other, due to the friction force
electron transfer from one material to another.
When a cloth rubbed with a Perspex rod it becomes positively charged as shown below.
The Perspex rod becomes positively charged and the cloth becomes negatively charged,
that is because from the rod electrons transferred into cloth. So there is net positive
charge in rod and net negative charge in cloth.
When a cloth rubbed with polythene rod it becomes negatively charged as shown below.
The polythene rod becomes negatively charged and the cloth becomes positively charged,
that is because from the cloth electrons transferred into rod. So there is net negative
charge in rod and net positive charge in cloth.
Suspend a polythene rod using a thread and charge polythene rod by rubbing with a cloth.
Bring a positively charged Perspex rod near to the polythene rod.
It is found that polythene rod moves towards the Perspex rod (both the rod is attracting
each other). So this means unlike charge attract each other.
Now bring another negatively charged polythene rod near to the suspended polythene rod.
But this time it is found that polythene rod moves away from another polythene rod (both
the rod is repelling each other). So this means like charge repel each other.
Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.

When a charged object brought near to the uncharged object, the uncharged object attract
to the charged object, because due to charged object, the uncharged object induce the
opposite charge of that. This is called charging by induction. The two examples below
further explain this.
When positively charged rod is brought near to an uncharged metal sphere. The electrons
in the sphere pulls (attract) towards the rod, and on the other side of the sphere positive
charge is produce.
Reverse happens when negatively charged rod is brought near to an uncharged metal
sphere. The electrons in the sphere repel on the other side of the sphere, so the positive
charge produce near to the rod.
Electric field is a region in which an electric charge experiences a force.

We can show electric fields by lines with arrows (called ELECTRIC FIELD LINES).

Conductors are materials that allow electric charges to flow through them easily.
They have large number of free electrons that can move easily from atom to atom
e.g. metals ( e.g. copper, aluminium, steel, iron) etc..
Insulators are materials that do not allow electric charges to flow through them easily.
The electrons are tightly bound to the atoms and they are not free to move.
e.g. plastic, rubber, wood, glass etc..
In a thunderstorm, the clouds are charged by friction with air current. When charged cloud
comes above the buildings, trees and ground, the buildings trees and ground induces
opposite charge as in cloud. So the large potential difference between cloud and Earth is
produced, as a result electrons moves through the air and collide with air molecules in the
air and cause them to give out lightning flash. It can burn forests, damage houses and kill
peoples.

Tall buildings usually have a strip of copper called a lightning conductor attached at the
top of the building and connected to the Earth. This lightning conductor catches the
unwanted electrons flow through the air due to the charged cloud and provides route for
electrons to pass into the ground without damaging the building.
When the oil tank is refueling, the oil and refueling pipe may charge up because of the
friction. So the charges build up may collide with each other and spark produce, which
leads to catch the fire in the oil tank. So to stop building up the charge, the oil tank and
pipe must be earthed.
Connecting a conductor to the charged object to the earth to remove unwanted charges is
called Earthing.
For example if a conducting wire is connected to the negatively charged side of sphere as
shown below. The electrons in the sphere will moves into the ground through the
conducting wire as shown below.
If a conducting wire is connected to the positively charged side of sphere as shown below,
the positive charge in the sphere will neutralize (cancelling out charges). Because from the
ground through the conducting wire electrons moves into the sphere as shown below.

In the chimney when dust and ash particles rise upward, the dust and ash becomes
negatively charged by coming in contact with negatively charged metal grid. Since unlike
charges attract, the dust and ash move and stick to the positively charged plate. The dust
and ash is now remove from the hot gases and hot gases released into air.
Bicycles and cars always painted by using electrostatic spraying. The paint is given a
charge and this makes better spray. The droplets all have the same charge and repel each
other so that the paint spreads out to form a large even cloud.
The charged droplets are all attracted to the object and stick strongly to the surface
because it has an opposite charge. Hence less paint is needed and less paint is wasted.

(a) state that a current is a flow of charge and that current is measured in amperes.
(b) do calculations using the equation charge = current x time.
(c) describe the use of an ammeter with different ranges.
(d) explain that electromotive force (e.m.f.) is measured by the energy dissipated by a
source in driving a unit charge around a complete circuit.
(e) state that e.m.f. is work done/charge.
(f) state that the volt is given by J/C.
(g) calculate the total e.m.f. where several sources are arranged in series and discuss
how this is used in the design of batteries.
(h) discuss the advantage of making a battery from several equal voltage sources of e.m.f.
arranged in parallel.
(i) state that the potential difference (p.d.) across a circuit component is measured in volts.
(j) state that the p.d. across a component in a circuit is given by the work done in the
component / charge passed through the component.
(k) describe the use of a voltmeter with different ranges.
(l) state that resistance = p.d./current and use the equation resistance = voltage/current
in calculations.
(m) describe an experiment to measure the resistance of a metallic conductor using a
voltmeter and an ammeter and make the necessary calculations.
(n) discuss the temperature limitation on Ohm’s Law.
(o) *use quantitatively the proportionality between resistance and the length and the
cross-sectional area of a wire.
(p) calculate the net effect of a number of resistors in series and in parallel.
(q) describe the effect of temperature increase on the resistance of a resistor and a
filament lamp and draw the respective sketch graphs of current/voltage.
(r) describe the operation of a light-dependent resistor.
The flow of charges in a circuit is called current.

Current (I) is measured in Ampere (A) and miliampere (mA).
Conventional current direction is from positive to negative but electrons flow from negative to
positive.

The more the charges passing through the wire in one second, the bigger the current is.
Then we can say that current (I) is the rate of charge flowing.
Current through the circuit can be calculated by using the following formula:
Charge = current x time taken (Q = I × t)
A current of 150mA flows around a circuit for 1 minute. How much electrical charge flows
around the circuit in this time?
Ans: I = 150mA = 0.15A Q=I×t
t = 1 minute = 60s Q= 0.15 × 60 = 12 C
Q =?
The electric current flowing in a circuit can be measured by connecting an ammeter series
to the circuit. There are different ranges of ammeters as shown below. So when you are
measuring current through a circuit, to measure the current accurately remember to use
appropriate range of ammeter. For example the first ammeter shown below can be used to
measure current of 0 to 1A and another can be used to measure 5 to 30A of current.
Symbol
The battery in an electrical circuit can be thought of pushing charge round the circuit to
make a current. It also transfers energy to the electrical charge. The electro – motive force
(e.m.f.) of the battery, measures how much ‘push’ it provides and how much energy it can
transfer to the charge.
Electromotive force (e.m.f.) is measured by the energy dissipated by a source (battery) in

driving a unit charge around a complete circuit.
Electro – motive force of a battery can be calculated by using the following formula;
The unit of e.m.f is J/C or Volt (V)

Calculate the energy supplied by the battery as an electric charge of 200 C moves through
the circuit. The e.m.f. of the battery is 12 V.
Ans:
E = 𝛆 × Q = 12 × 200 = 2400 J
When cells are connected in series the combined e.m.f. is the sum of all the individual
e.m.f’s.
Calculate the combined e.m.f. of the following cells.
Ans: Combined e.m.f. = 1.5V + 1.5V + 1.5V = 4.5V
When cells are connected in parallel, the combined e.m.f. is the e.m.f. of one individual cell.
Calculate the combined e.m.f. of the following cells.
Combined e.m.f. is 1.5 V Combined e.m.f = 2 + 2 + 2 = 6V
Cell will last longer before need to replace it

If one (cell) fails others work

Energy carried by charges is consumed in components like, lamp, or heater of the circuit.
When the charges flow through the lamps in a circuit, their energy is converted other forms
such as heat and light.
The energy converted per unit charge passing through a component is called potential
difference (p.d), across the component. or
The p.d. across a component in a circuit also defines as work done in the component to pass
the electric charge through it.
The p.d. across the component can be calculated by using the following formula:
The unit of potential difference is volt (V).
The potential difference across an electrical component in a circuit can be measured by

connecting voltmeter parallel t to the component. There are different ranges of voltmeter
as shown below. So when you are measuring voltage across a component, to measure the
voltage accurately remember to use appropriate range of voltmeter. For example the first
voltmeter shown below can be used to measure voltage of 0 to 30V and another can be
used to measure 0 to 5V of voltage.
Symbol
When a p.d. of 2 V is applied across a resistor, 10 J of energy are converted.

What charge flows through the resistor?
Ans:
= 5C

How much current can a cell push through a resistor?
This depends on the resistance of the resistor. The greater its resistance, the smaller the
current that will flow through it. The resistance of a component is measured in Ohm (Ω)
and is defined by this equation:
The figure below shows a resistor and its symbol.
Symbol
Diagram shows a resistor connected in a circuit. The current in the circuit shown in the
ammeter is 2 A and voltage across the resistor is 15 V. Calculate the resistance of the
resistor.
= 7.5 Ω
Connect a conducting wire or electrical component series to the battery, switch and
ammeter. Then connect the voltmeter parallel to the wire or electrical component as shown
below.
Close the switch and measure the voltmeter and ammeter reading in the circuit.
Resistance of the wire or electrical component can be calculated by using the formula
R = V/I

For a wire of uniform cross sectional area, the resistance is proportional to the length of
wire. The longer the wire, the further electrons have to travel, the more likely they are to
collide with metal ions and so the greater the resistance. So if the length of wire increases
resistance also increases.
For a wire fixed length, its resistance is inversely proportional to the cross sectional area.
The greater the cross sectional area of the wire, the more electrons there are available to
carry charge along the wire length and so the lower resistance. So if cross-sectional area of
a wire increases resistance of the wire decreases.
For metallic wires, as temperature increases, the resistance of it also increases.

But for some materials like silicon and germanium (semiconductors), as temperature
increases resistance decreases.
Resistance depends on the kind of substance.

Copper is a good conductor and is used for connecting wires. But Nichrome has more
resistance and is used in the heating elements of electric heater.
A variable resistor or rheostat is used to vary the current in a circuit. A sliding contact
moves, it varies the length of the wire in the circuit and hence the resistance will be
changed.

The circuit below can be used to investigate how current trough a conductor depends on
the p.d. across it. The conductor in this case is a coiled-up length of nichrome wire, kept at
a constant temperature by immersing it in a large amount of water. The p.d. across
nichrome wire can be varied by adjusting variable resistor.
Typical results are shown in the table and graph below.
Current / A p.d. / V Resistance / Ω

0.2A 1V 5Ω
0.4A 2V 5Ω
0.6A 3V 5Ω
0.8A 4V 5Ω
1A 5V 5Ω
The result in the table shows that when the voltage increases the current also increases
within constant temperature. And the gradient of the graph is constant value (voltage /
current is equals to constant value of resistance).
So we can conclude that under constant temperature voltage is directly proportional to the
current. This is called Ohm’s law.
The resistance of the most of the conductors becomes higher if the temperature of the
conductor increases. As the temperature rises, the metals ions vibrate more and provide
greater resistance to flow the electrons. For example filament lamp, as the current flows
through the metal filament, it gets hotter so its resistance increases. This means the
current varies with voltage is not directly proportional and not give straight line for current-
voltage graph.

A light dependent resistor (LDR) is a type of variable resistor whose resistance depends on
the amount of light falling on it. An LDR is made of material that does not normally
conduct well (semiconductor Cadmium Sulphide). In the dark, an LDR has a high
resistance, often over 1MΩ. However, light can provide the energy needed to allow a current
to flow. Shine light on an LDR and its resistance decreases. In bright light its resistance
may fall to 400Ω).
LDRs are used in circuits to detect the level of light, for example in security lights that
switch on automatically at night.
Symbol
The total resistance R of the resistors connected in series circuit is equals to the sum of the
separate resistance.
R = R1 + R2 + R3
Calculate the combined resistance of following resistors.

Ans: R = R1 + R2 + R3
R = 2 + 8 = 10 Ω
The effective resistances R of the resistors connected in parallel can be calculate by using
the formula:
or
Calculate the effective resistance of following resistors.

Ans:
= 1.43 Ω
Calculate the effective resistance of following resistors.

Ans: Combined resistance of 2Ω and 8Ω:
R = R1 + R2 = 8 + 2 = 10 Ω
Combined resistance of 5Ω and 5Ω:
R = R1 + R2 = 5 + 5 = 10 Ω
=5Ω

(a) *draw circuit diagrams with power sources (cell, battery or a.c. mains),
switches (closed and open), resistors (fixed and variable), light dependent
resistors, lamps, ammeters, voltmeters, magnetising coils, bells, fuses, relays,
light-emitting diodes and rectifying diodes.
(b) state that the current at every point in a series circuit is the same, and use this
in calculations.
(c) state that the sum of the potential differences in a series circuit is equal to the
potential difference across the whole circuit and use this in calculations.
(d) state that the current from the source is the sum of the currents in the separate
branches of a parallel circuit.
(e) do calculations on the whole circuit, recalling and using formulae including
R = V/I and those for potential differences in series, resistors in series and
resistors in parallel.
The circuit below shows two resistor connected in series with battery and ammeter.
If the resistors or other electrical components are connected in series:

 the current at every point in a circuit has the same value.
 the sum of the p.d. across each electrical component is equals to p.d supplied by the source
(battery).
The circuit below shows the same circuit as shown above.

(a) Calculate the current through the circuit.
Ans: First find the combined resistance of the circuit using the formula R = R1 + R2
= 6 + 4 = 10 Ω
Then calculate the current through the circuit using the formula V = IR
I = V/R = 16/10 = 1.6A
So the current in every point of this circuit is 1.6A.
(b) Calculate potential difference across the 6Ω and 4Ω resistor.

Ans: P.d across 6Ω resistor P.d across 4Ω resistor
V = IR = 1.6 × 6 = 9.6 V V = IR = 1.6 × 4 = 6.4 V
So the sum of p.d across the resistor equals to the p.d. supplied by the battery of the
circuit (9.6 + 6.4 =16V)
The circuit below shows two resistor connected in parallel with the battery.
If the resistors or other electrical components are connected in series:

 the p.d across each resistor or electrical component has the same value.
 the sum of the current across all the branches is equals to current supplied by the source
(battery).
The circuit below shows two resistors connected in parallel.
(a) State the potential difference across the both resistors.

Ans: Potential difference across both resistors is same as p.d across the battery that is (18V)
(b) Calculate the ammeter reading shown in the circuit.
Ans: First find the current through each resistor
Current through 8Ω resistor Current through 2Ω resistor

I = V/R = 18/8 =2.25A I = V/R = 18/2 =9A
Reading of the ammeter = 22.5 + 9 = 11.25A

The circuits below shows two lamps connected in series and parallel.
There are some advantages of connecting lamps and other electrical components in parallel
rather than connecting in series. These include:
• The voltage through each lamp is same so each lamp has same brightness.
• If the one lamp is melt the other lamps will work but in series if one lamp melts others
will not work.
Open switch
Lamps Ammeter Closed switch
Cell (battery)
Variable resistor Voltmeter Several cells
power supply
Light dependent resistor fuse

AC power supply
Light emitting diode diode Magnetising coil
relay Electric bell Thermistor

Draw a circuit diagram including:
(i) a 1.5 V power supply of fixed voltage,
(ii) Two bulbs connected in series
(ii) A switch
(iv) an ammeter to measure the current through the circuit
(v) Volt meters across each bulb to measure the p.d across the bulbs.
Draw a circuit diagram including:

(i) a 15 V power supply of fixed voltage,
(ii) Two resistors connect in parallel each rating 5Ω
(iii) A switch
(iv) an ammeter to measure the current trough the circuit
(v) Variable resistor

(a) describe the use of electricity in heating, lighting and motors.
(b) do calculations using the equations power = voltage x current, and energy = voltage x
current x time.
(c) Calculate the cost of using electrical appliances where the energy unit is the kW h.
(d) state the hazards of damaged insulation, overheating of cables and damp conditions.
(e) explain the use of fuses and circuit breakers and fuse ratings and circuit breaker
settings.
(f) explain the need for earthing metal cases and for double insulation.
(g) state the meaning of the terms live, neutral and earth.
(h) describe how to wire a mains plug.
(i) explain why switches, fuses and circuit breakers are wired into the live conductor.
Electric kettles, cookers, electric irons and immersion heaters are appliances which make
use of the heating effect of an electric current. There is a heating element inside all these
appliances. This element is usually made of metal wire with a higher resistance.
When electrons pass through the metal wire, they give some of their energy to the atoms in
the wire and make them vibrate more, so the wire gets hotter. For the same current flowing
in a circuit, the greater the resistance, the hotter it becomes – this is why an electric fire
glows red-hot while the connecting wires stay cool.
Filament lamp, tube light and other light up object used electric current to light up. The
‘heating element’ in a light bulb is a fine wire or filament of tungsten which becomes white
hot when a suitable current is passed through. Tungsten is used because it has a very high
melting temperature (3400◦C) and can be kept white hot without melting.

An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy, very typically
through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors. The reverse
process, producing electrical energy from mechanical energy, is accomplished by a
generator or dynamo. Traction motors used on vehicles often perform both tasks. Many
types of electric motors can be run as generators, and vice versa.
Electric motors are found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps,
machine tools, household appliances, power tools, and disk drives.
The e.m.f (voltage) of a supply tells us about how much energy is transfer to charges
flowing around the circuit. The greater the current flowing around the circuit, the faster
that energy is transferred. Hence the rate at which the energy transferred in the circuit (the
power P) depends on both e.m.f V of the supply and the current I that it pushes round the
circuit. The following equation can be used to calculate power of an electrical component.
Power = current × p.d.
P=I×V
Since energy transferred = power × time, we can modify the equation P = VI to give an
equation for energy transformed E:
Energy transformed = p.d. × current × time

E = VIt
An electric fan runs from the 230V mains. The current flowing through it is 0.4A.
(a) At what rate is electrical energy transformed by the fan?
Ans: P = VI = 230 × 0.4 = 92W
(b) How much energy is transformed in 1 minute?
Ans: E = VIt = P × t = 92 × 60 = 5520J

Joule is the very small unit of energy, the energy consumed in household appliances is
measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh). One kilowatt-hour is the amount of energy that is used
by 1000W appliance in one hour. If you look at the electricity meter at home, you will find
that it is marked in kilowatt-hour (kWh). It is therefore called kilowatt-hour meter as shown
below.
E = P(kW) × t(h) = kWh
If electrical energy costs $0.90 per unit, what is the cost of running an air-conditioner with
an average power of 1000W (1kW) for 8 hours?
Ans: E = Pt = 1kW × 8h = 8kWh
Cost = 0.90 × 8 = $7.20
Normally, the wires of electrical cables are insulated in rubber. However, the insulating
materials deteriorate with time and use. The wires may be exposed which can cause electric
shock to the user if the user touches the wires accidentally.
The overheating of cables refers to the unusually large current flowing in the conducting
wires under certain conditions such as a short circuit or overloading.
The large amount of heat generated can melt the insulation and star a fire.
Many electrical accidents occur in damp conditions such as those in a wet bathroom. Since
the humidity in the bathroom is higher especially when you are taking bath, the water
(moisture) provides a conducting path for a large current to flow through the human body
in the bathroom.
The body’s resistance depends on whether the skin is wet or dry. With dry skin, the typical
body resistance is around 200kW. However, it may drop below 1kW if the skin wet. With a
such low resistance, the mains voltage (230V) can result deadly current of 0.23A flowing
through the body.

A fuse is a safety device which is made of a piece of copper wire. If a fault occurs and too
much current flows, the fuse wire melts before anything else is damaged or starts a fire.
Fuse must be connected to the live wire of a circuit. When the fuse is blown, the electrical
appliance is disconnected from high voltage (live wire). We can then safely touch the
exposed live wire on the appliance.
Diagram below shows a fuse and its symbol
Symbol
The fuse rating is the maximum current that the fuse can carry without melting.
Only certain values are available e.g. 5A, 13A, 15A and 30A.
An electrical fan has a rating 0f 460W on 230V mains what rate of fuse should be fitted in
the plug?
Ans: P = VI
I = P / V = 460 / 230 = 2A
Therefore 3A fuse should be fitted.
The fuse rating should be slightly larger than the working current of an appliance under
normal operations.
A switch is used to disconnect or connect an electrical appliance to the main supply. In the
case of leakage of current or exposed live wire, a switch can be used as a safety device to
cut off the current.
Switch should be installed on the live wire so that the electrical appliance is disconnected
from high voltage (live wire) when the switch is open.
Nowadays, many households are fitted with circuit breakers rather than fuses. They are
thermal or electromagnetic switches which cut off the current when it exceeds a certain
limit. If a fault in the circuit occurs, the circuit breakers automatically switch off the
appliance. It can be reset only after the fault has been fixed.
Some modern houses are installed with Earth Leakage Circuit Breakers (ELCB). They are
very sensitive electromagnetic switches. They cut off current in the live wire when a very
small leakage of current (typically 30mA) is detected in the earth wire.

Double insulation means that user is protected from electric shock by two independent
layers of insulation.
Some electrical appliances are double insulated by using plastic or other insulating
materials. They only have two pin plugs. The cable only consists of two wires that is live
and neutral wire. Earth wire is not needed because its body is insulated and protected from
flowing current into its body.
The pictures shown below are some of the double insulate household electrical appliances.
Some electrical appliances body is made up of metal casing. If there is a leakage of

electricity, the user may get electric shock if live wire is connected into metal casing. So
Earth wire should connect to the metal casing of electrical appliance. The earth wire allows
the current to flow through it to the ground. It can protect the user from fatal electric
shock. Therefore we have to use the three pin plugs to connect the metal casing electrical
appliances and three wire live, neutral and earth.
The pictures shown below are some of the metal casing household electrical appliances.

Colour codes for the wires from the mains:
LIVE (BROWN)
NEUTRAL (BLUE)
EARTH (YELLOW/GREEN)
The correct wiring of mains plug shown below
Connect the brown wire into live terminal, blue wire into neutral terminal and yellow/green
wire into earth terminal and tighten the terminal screws. After that put the cable grip and
put the cover back on.
A wire connected to a source of voltage
A wire which completes the circuit, although current passes through the wire it remains
zero potential.
It is a safety wire which connects the metal body of the electrical appliance to the earth.

(a) state the properties of magnets.
(b) describe induced magnetism.
(c) state the differences between magnetic, non-magnetic and magnetized materials.
(d) describe electrical methods of magnetisation and demagnetisation.
(e) describe the plotting of magnetic field lines with a compass.
(f) state the differences between the properties of temporary magnets (e.g. iron) and
permanent magnets (e.g. steel).
(g) describe uses of permanent magnets and electromagnets.
(h) explain the choice of material for, and use of, magnetic screening.
(i) describe the use of magnetic materials in audio/video tapes.
(j) describe the pattern of the magnetic field due to currents in straight wires and in
solenoids and state the effect on the magnetic field of changing the magnitude and
direction of the current.
(k) describe applications of the magnetic effect of a current in relays, circuit-breakers
and loudspeakers
 Magnets have two poles north and south pole.
 Magnet arracks magnetic materials such as iron, cobalt nickel and steel.
 Like poles of the magnets repel each other.
 Unlike poles of the magnets attract each other.

 Around the magnet there are magnetic field lines starting from North Pole and ends at
South Pole.
You will need

• a bar magnet
• a plotting compass
• plain paper, a pencil
What to do
1 Place the magnet in the centre of the sheet of paper and draw round it.
2 Place the compass near one of the poles of the magnet. Mark dots 1 and 2 on the
paper to indicate the two ends of the compass needle.
3 Move the compass away from the magnet and position it so that one end of its needle is
marked by dot 2. Mark dot 3 at the other end.
4 Continue this process, until you have moved round to the other pole of the magnet.
5 Remove the compass. The sequence of dots shows one of the field lines of the magnet’s
field. Draw a smooth line through the dots.
6 Repeat the process, starting at a slightly different position, to obtain another field line.

A permanent can attract or repel another permanent magnet. It can also attract other
unmagnetised magnetic materials. For example a permanent magnet can attract steel
pins, paper clips or iron nails.
What is going on here? Paper clips are made up of a magnetic material. When the south
pole of the magnet is brought closed to a clip the clip is attracted. The attraction tells us
that the end of the paper clip nearest magnetic pole must be a north pole as shown below.
This is known as induced magnetism. When the permanent magnet is removed, the pin
will return to its unmagnetised state.
Materials that attract the magnets and can be magnetised

Eg: iron, steel, cobalt, nickel etc..
Materials that do not attract the magnets

Eg: brass, copper, zinc, tin, aluminum and as well as non-metals.
Materials which acts as magnets and having all magnetic properties.
When an electric current is passed through a wire, as shown below, a weak magnetic field
is produced around the wire.

 If the current through the wire increases the strength of magnetic field around the wire
also increases.
 If the direction of current flowing through the wire changes the direction of magnetic
field around the wire also change.
So the direction of magnetic field produce by a current is given by the right-hand grip rule
as shown below. Imagine gripping the wire with your right hand so that your thumb points
in the conventional direction. Your fingers then point in the same direction as the field
lines.
A current produces a stronger magnetic field if the wire it flows through is wound into a
coil. The diagram below shows the magnetic field patterns produced by current carrying
coil. A long coil is called solenoid.
 If the current through the solenoid increases, the strength of magnetic field also
increases.
 If we increase the number of terns in the solenoid, the strength of magnetic field also
increases.
 If the direction of current flowing through the solenoid changes, the field around the
solenoid and the poles of solenoid also changes.
So to work out which way round the poles are, we can use another right-hand grip rule, as
shown below. Imagine the gripping the coil with your right hand so that your fingers point
in the conventional current direction. Your thumb then points towards the North pole of
the coil.

1. A steel bar is placed inside a solenoid through which a direct current passed for a while.
2. A strong magnetic field is produced and the steel bar is magnetised.
3. When viewed at one end of the bar, the current flows in clockwise direction that end
becomes a South pole. If current flows anti-clockwise direction, it becomes a North pole.
And we can easily find the poles by using right hand grip rule.
A piece of the material may be stroked with a permanent magnet. By stroking it

consistently from one end to another (never going in the reverse direction), it becomes
magnetised.
1. A magnet to be demagnetized is places inside a solenoid.

2. The solenoid is connected to an a.c. supply.
3. The magnet is withdrawn far away through the solenoid in the east-west direction while
the a.c. current still flowing.
4. As the process is repeated, the magnet will be demagnetised.

If we heat a magnet strongly by means of bunsen flame, the magnet will lose its
magnetisation.
As in the case of heating, hammering also cause a magnet to lose its magnetism. If the
magnet is hammered vigorously while lying in an east west direction, its magnetism
becomes weaker and weaker.
Soft magnetic material Hard magnetic material

Easy to magnetise and demagnetise Harder to magnetise and demagnetise
( lose its magnetism easily) (can retain its magnetism)
Used to make electromagnets Used to make permanent magnets
Uses: transformers, audio/video Uses: D.C motors, A.C generators,

tape, electric bells, magnetic relays, galvanometers, loud speakers and
reed relays. magnetic door catches.
A magnetic relay is a switch operated by an electromagnet. With a relay a small switch with
thin wires can be used to turn on the current in a much more powerful circuit– for
example, one with large electric motor in it.
When the switch S in the input circuit is closed, a current flow through electromagnet and
it will magnetised. This pulls the iron armature towards it, which closes the contact C. As a
result current flows through the output circuit and motor turn on.

A circuit breaker is an automatic switch which cuts off the current in a circuit if this rises
above a specific value.
In the type shown below, the current flows through two contacts and also through an
electromagnet. If the current gets too high, the pull of electromagnet becomes strong
enough to release the iron armature, so the contact open and stop the current. Pressing the
reset button closes the contact again.
Most loudspeakers are of the moving-coil type shown below. The cylindrical magnet
produces a strong radial (‘spoke-like’) magnetic field at right angles to the wire in the coil.
The coil is free to move backwards and forwards and is attached to a stiff paper or plastic
cone. If a current is passed through the coil, a backward and forward force acts on it; this
follows from Fleming’s left hand rule.
The loud speaker is connected to an amplifier which gives out alternating current. This
flows backwards, forwards, backwards… and so on, causing a force on the coil which is
also backwards, forwards, backwards…. As a result, the cone vibrates and gives out sound
waves. The nature of sound produced depends on the frequency and amplitude of the
alternating current flowing through the coil.

A sound wave sent into a microphone is transformed into an electric current, amplified,
and allowed to pass through a wire coiled around a doughnut-shaped piece of iron, which
functions as the recording head. The iron ring and the wire constitute an electromagnet, in
which the lines of the magnetic field are contained completely inside the iron except at the
point where a slot is cut in the ring. Here themagnetic field fringes out of the iron and
magnetizes the small pieces of iron oxide embedded in the tape. As the tape moves past the
slot, it becomes magnetized in a pattern that reproduces both the frequency and the
intensity of the sound signal entering the microphone.
Magnetic screening is protecting delicate instruments from stray magnetic fields by placing
delicate instrument inside the soft iron shield. Since the soft iron is a magnetic material,
and stray magnetic field lines can go through the soft iron as shown below. But the field
lines cannot reach into delicate instrument it will protect the layer of soft iron around it.

(a) describe experiments to show the force on a current-carrying conductor, and on a
beam of charged particles, in a magnetic field, including the effect of reversing (1) the
current, (2) the direction of the field.
(b) state the relative directions of force, field and current.
(c) describe the field patterns between currents in parallel conductors and relate these to
the forces which exist between the conductors (excluding the Earth’s field).
(d) explain how a current-carrying coil in a magnetic field experiences a turning effect
and that the effect is increased by increasing (1) the number of turns on the coil (2)
the current.
(e) discuss how this turning effect is used in the action of an electric motor.
(f) describe the action of a split-ring commutator in a two-pole, single coil motor and the
effect of winding the coil onto a soft-iron cylinder.
The current carrying wire has magnetic field around it. If we place this wire in another
magnetic field, the two magnetic fields may interact, and produce a force on the wire. This
can be shown by the experiment set up below.
 When a current is passed through the wire, the wire moves upward. A force is acting
on the wire segment inside the magnetic field.
 When the direction of current reversed, the wire move downward.
 When there is changing of direction of the magnetic field, the force acting on a wire
also changes.
 When the current and magnetic field strength are increase, the wire experiences a
large force. The force acting on the wire is therefore proportional to current and
magnetic field strength
 The direction of force can be determined by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule.

Place the forefinger, second finger and thumb of the left hand mutually at right angles.
Then, if the forefinger points in the direction of the field and second finger in the direction
of current, the thumb will point in the direction of the force or motion.
When a beam of moving charged particles enters a magnetic field, there is force acting on
the charged particles. They are deflected inside the magnetic field. Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
can be applied to determine the direction of deflection of the beam of charged particles.
 Direction of current is same as direction of movement of the charged particles

 If beam of positive charged particles enters magnetic field into the paper, the charged
particles move towards top of the paper as shown below.
 When the direction of magnetic field changes the force acting on a charge particle also
changes.
 If the positive charge particle enters magnetic field out of the page the charge particles
move towards bottom of the page. So by using Fleming’s Left Hand rule we can find the
direction of force acts on a charged particle.

Current is in an opposite direction to that of the flow of negative charges.
If beam of negative charged particles enters magnetic field into the paper, the charged
particles move towards bottom of the paper as shown below.
 When the direction of magnetic field changes the force acting on a charge particle also
changes.
 If the negative charge particle enters magnetic field out of the page the charge particles
move towards top of the page. So by using Fleming’s Left Hand rule we can find the
direction of force acts on a charged particle.
When two parallel wires carrying current at same direction, both the wires move towards
each other and magnetic field pattern is shown below.

When two parallel wires carrying current in an opposite direction, both the wires move
away from each other and magnetic field pattern is shown below.
A simple direct current electric motor consists of a coil (ABCD) connected to two split-ring
commutators (X and Y), two permanent magnets and two carbon brushes (P and Q)
connected to an external battery. The commutators rotate with the coil. Two carbon
brushes are made to press lightly against the commutators so that current can pass
through when they are in contact.
The following figures show how the coil is set into motion when current flows through it.
 When current flows from A to D through the coil it creates magnetic field, which
interacts with magnetic field produce by two permanent magnets, so the side CD
experiences an upward force and the side AB experiences a downward force. These
forces produce a turning effect and cause the coil to rotate in a clockwise direction.

 When the coil rotates 90° and reaches the vertical position, the contact between the
carbon brushes (P and Q) and the commutators (X and Y) are broken. No current flows
through the coil. But because of its inertia, the coil keeps rotating until the
commutators are in contact with the carbon brushes again.
 The current along the sides AB and CD is reversed. The side AB experiences an upward
force and the side CD experiences a downward force. These two forces produce a
clockwise moment. Hence the coil continues to rotate in a clockwise direction.
 The purpose of the split-ring commutators is to reverse the direction of current in the
coil whenever the commutators change contact from one carbon brush to another. This
ensures that the coil will rotate in a fixed direction.
 Four ways to increase the rotating speed of a motor:

(i) increasing the current,
(ii) increasing the number of turns of the coil,
(iii) increasing the strength of the magnetic field,
(iv) increasing the area of the coil

(a) describe an experiment which shows that a changing magnetic field can induce an
e.m.f. in a circuit.
(b) state the factors affecting the magnitude of the induced e.m.f.
(c) state that the direction of a current produced by an induced e.m.f. opposes the
change producing it (Lenz’s Law) and describe how this law may be demonstrated.
(d) describe a simple form of a.c. generator (rotating coil or rotating magnet) and the use
of slip rings where needed.
(e) *sketch a graph of voltage output against time for a simple a.c. generator.
(f) describe the structure and principle of operation of a simple iron-cored transformer.
(g) state the advantages of high voltage transmission.
(h) discuss the environmental and cost implications of underground power transmission
compared to overhead lines.
Electromagnetic induction is the production of an e.m.f (voltage) in a conductor when there

is a change in magnetic flux linked with the conductor.
When a wire is moved across a magnetic field, as shown below, a small e.m.f. (voltage) is
generated in the wire. If the wire forms part of a complete circuit, the e.m.f. makes a
current flow. This can be detected by using a sensitive meter called galvanometer.
When the direction of movement of wire changes the direction of induced current also
changes.
 If the wire moves downward, the direction of current carried is shown above and the
deflection of galvanometer needle is also same direction that is right side.

 If the wire moves upward, the direction of current carried is shown below and the
deflection of galvanometer needle is also same direction that is right side.
 The direction of induced current in the straight wire can be determined by using
Flemings Right Hand Rule.
 If the magnetic field direction changes the current direction also changes.
 If the wire is in rest in the magnetic field, no e.m.f is induced.
The induced e.m.f. (and current) can be increased by:

 moving the wire faster
 using a stronger magnet
 increasing the length of wire in magnet in the magnetic field – for example, by looping
the wire through the field several times as shown below.

The direction of induced current can be determined by Lenz’s law.
An induced current always flows in a direction such away that its magnetic field
opposes the change which produce it.
Example 1
The N-pole of magnet is moving towards the solenoid as shown in the diagram below.
The change that induces current is the N-pole moving towards the solenoid. According to
Lenz’s Law, the direction of induced current opposes the change producing it. To oppose
the N-pole moving to the coil, the induced current must produce a N-pole at the end X.
Hence the direction of induced current is as shown above.
Example 2
The N-pole of magnet is moving away from the solenoid as shown in the diagram below.
The change that induces current is the N-pole moving out the solenoid. According to Lenz’s
Law, the direction of induced current opposes the change producing it. To oppose the N-
pole moving out of the coil, the induced current must produce an S-pole at the end X.
Hence the direction of induced current is as shown above.

A simple a.c. generator consists of a coil rotating about an axis between the poles of a
permanent magnet as shown below.
 When the coil rotates, it cuts magnetic field lines, so an e.m.f. is induced. This makes a
current flow through the coil.
 As the coil rotates, each side travels, upwards, down wards, upwards and downwards…
and so on, through the magnetic field. So the current flows backwards, forwards and an
a.c. current is produced.
 The direction of induced current changes every half rotation of the coil and this can be
determined by using Fleming’s Right Hand Rule.
 The end of coil is connected to a pair of slip rings. The slip rigs rotate with the coil and
are in close contact with two carbon brushes which rub against the slip rings and keep
the coil connected to the outside part of the circuit.
 The induced current is maximum when the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic
field. There is no induced current when the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the
magnetic field.
 The induced current can be increased;
o using the coil with more turns
o using stronger magnet
o rotating the coil faster

If the coil rotes faster, the e.m.f induce will increase, so the amplitude of the graph will be
doubled and the wave length will be half as shown below.
Transformer is a device used to increase or decrease the voltage of a.c. supply.

The transformers only worked with alternative current (a.c.).
The diagram below shows how transformer works.

It makes use of electromagnetic induction.
 When the primary coil has alternative current flowing through it. It is thus an
electromagnet, and produces an alternating magnetic field.
 The core transports this alternating field around the secondary coil.
 These alternating magnetic field cuts the wires of the secondary coil. So an e.m.f. is
induced in the secondary coil.
There are two types of transformers:
A step-up transformer is used to increase the output voltage, so there are more turns on
the secondary coil than primary coil as shown below.
A step-down transformer is used to decrease the output voltage, so there are more turns on
the primary coil than secondary coil as shown below.
The ratio of number of turns tells us the factors by which the voltage will be changed.
Hence we can write an equation, known as transformer equation, relating two voltages Vp
and Vs, to the number of turns on each coil, Np and Ns.

To minimize the power loss in transmitting electricity, the current has to be kept low as
possible. The higher current the more transmission wires will be heated by the current and
the more energy is wasted as heat
This is why the power houses transmitting the electricity in high voltage. The step up
transformer shown below increases the voltage and the step down transformer reduces the
voltage that need for houses. The higher voltage of transmission of electricity reduces power
loss in the transmission cables.
To prevent sparking, the only effective way of insulating the cable is to keep huge air spaces
around them. That’s why we have to be suspended from pylons. Underground cables are
more difficult insulate and must be used at lower voltages, to transmit same power they
have to carry higher current. This means that we have to use thicker cables and it will be
very expensive to lay. Despite the extra cost.
Underground cables are used in areas of outstanding natural beauty so the destruction of
ground.

(a) state that electrons are emitted by a hot metal filament.
(b) explain that to cause a continuous flow of emitted electrons requires

(1) high positive potential and (2) very low gas pressure.
(c) describe the deflection of an electron beam by electric fields and magnetic fields.
(d) state that the flow of electrons (electron current) is from negative to positive and is in
the opposite direction to conventional current.
(e) describe in outline the basic structure and action of a cathode-ray oscilloscope (c.r.o.)
(detailed circuits are not required).
(f) describe the use of a cathode-ray oscilloscope to display waveforms and to measure
p.d.’s and short intervals of time (detailed circuits are not required).
(g) explain how the values of resistors are chosen according to a colour code and why
widely different values are needed in different types of circuit.
(h) discuss the need to choose components with suitable power ratings.
(i) describe the action of thermistors and light-dependent resistors and explain their use as
input sensors.
(j) describe the action of a variable potential divider (potentiometer).
(k) describe the action of a capacitor as a charge store and explain its use in time delay
circuits.
(l) describe the action of a reed switch and reed relay.
(m) explain the use of reed relays in switching circuits.
(n) describe and explain circuits operating as light-sensitive switches and temperature
operated alarms (using a reed relay or other circuits).

If a tungsten filament is heated to about 2000◦C, some of the electrons in the white hot
metal gain enough energy to escape from its surface. This effect is called thermionic
emission and it occurs in other metals and metal oxides as well.
The diagram below shows an experiment to demonstrate the effect.
In the vacuum tube below there are two electrodes, called cathode (−) and anode (+). The
cathode in this case is the tungsten filament. When the filament is switched on, it heated
up and emits electrons. These electrons accelerate towards the anode, because it has a
high positive potential. The glass tube is vacuum, so the electrons will not collide with air
molecules and moves as a beam of electron. If the tube is not vacuum the filament may
also burn.
A C.R.O consists of three main parts. They are electron gun, deflection system and
fluorescent screen.
When the filament heated up it emits electrons and moves towards the anode in the
electron gun and travels towards the plates as a form of electron beam.
The Y-plates move the election beam vertically. This happens when an external source of
voltage – for example, an AC supply – is connected across the Y-input terminals. The
amount of vertical movement can be amplified (magnified) by turning up the gain control.
The X-plates moves the beam horizontally. Normally, the movement is produced by a circuit
called the time base inside the oscilloscope. The time base is automatically applies a
changing voltage across the plates so that the spot moves from left to right across the
screen at a steady speed, flicks back to the start, moves across gain… and so on, over again
and again.

The screen of C.R.O is made up of fluorescent material, so when the electrons strike the
screen a bright spot is produced on the screen.
A C.R.O shows a trace of a.c voltage as in the following diagram the time base setting is
25ms/cm and the Y-gain setting is 5V/cm.
What is the maximum voltage of the supply and the time taken to one complete oscillation?
Ans: Voltage of the supply = 5V
Time taken for one complete oscillation = 100ms
The Y-plates of a cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) are connected to an alternating voltage of

amplitude 4.0 V and frequency 25 Hz.
The Y-gain of the CRO is set at 2.0 V / division and the time-base is set at 0.01 s /
division.
(a) Calculate the time taken for one complete oscillation.
Ans: F = , T= = 1/25 = 0.04s
(b) On the grid below, draw the trace on the screen of the CRO.
Ans:

Resistors keep current and voltages at the levels needed for other components to work
properly. The resistance in ohms is marked on the side using either the colour code or
resistance code. The values are only approximate. When the resistors are made the
resistance can change slightly from one to next.
Resistance value = 27000Ω or 27 k Ω
The fourth ring gives the tolerance. This tells us by how much resistance may differ from
the marked value.
Gold 5% , silver 10% and no colour 20%
Often a power supply or a battery provides a fixed p.d. to obtain a smaller p.d., or a
variable p.d., this fixed p.d. must be split using circuit called a potential divider
(potentiometer) as shown below.
When the sliding contact is at N the p.d across the bulb is zero and not light up. When the
sliding contact moves from N to M the p.d. across the bulb increases and it becomes
brighter. The sliding contact at M gives the full p.d. of the battery to the bulb that is 6V.

It also possible to make a potential divider connecting two resistor in series as shown
circuit below.
If the two resistors have same value of resistance, the battery voltage is divided into same
rate to each of the resistor. In the circuit above the battery voltage of 6V is divided into 3V
to each resistor.
But when the two resistors have different value of resistance, the voltage share by the
battery to each resistor is different as shown below.
Total resistance of the circuit = R = R1 + R2

= 10 + 5 = 15 Ω
Current through the circuit = V =IR
I = V/R = 6/15 = 0.4A
Voltage across 10 Ω resistor = V=IR
V = 0.4 × 10 = 4V
Voltage across 5 Ω resistor = V=IR
V = 0.4 × 5 = 2V
In this case the 10Ω resistor gets 4V of p.d. from the battery and 5Ω resistor gets 2V of p.d
from the battery. So the greater the resistance, the greater share of the battery voltage.
The circuit below contains light dependent resistor (L.D.R), a special type of resistor whose
resistance falls when light shines on it and in dark its resistance increases. The principle is
used in lamps which come on automatically at night.
The LDR is a part of a potential divider, in day light the LDR has low resistance and a low
share of battery voltage-too low to switch the bulb. In dark the resistance of the LDR rises
considerably, and so does it share of the battery voltage. Now, the voltage across the LDR is
high enough to switch bulb.

The circuit below contains thermistor a special type of resistor whose resistance falls
considerably when its temperature rises. The principle is used automatic fire alarms.
The thermistor is part of a potential divider. At room temperature, the thermistor has a
high resistance and the major share of battery voltage. As a result, the voltage across the
resistor is not enough to switch on the buzzer. When the thermistor is heated, its
resistance falls, and the resistor gets a much larger share of the battery voltage. So the
buzzer is on and starts to ring.
The capacitor is designed to store electric charge (and hence electrical energy). The energy
is stored as an electric field between two plates.
When you close the switch in the circuit below, there is a time delay before the bulb lights
up. This is because when the switch closed it takes some time to charge the capacitor. The
delay can be increased by increasing the capacitance of the capacitor.
A diode is a component that allows electric current to in one direction only. Its circuit
symbol showing below represents this by showing an arrow to indicate direction in which
current can flow. The bar shows that current is stopped if it tries to flow in opposite
direction.
Diodes are useful to for converting alternating current (which varies back and forth) into
direct current (which flows in one direction only). This process is known as rectification and
the diode act as a rectifier. For example the d.c. motor in a drill cannot work using a.c.
current, so the diode is used to convert a.c. current into d.c. current as shown the circuit
below.

A magnetic relay is a switch operated by an electromagnet. With a relay a small switch with
thin wires can be used to turn on the current in a much more powerful circuit – for
example, one with large electric motor in it.
When the switch S in the input circuit is closed, current flows through electromagnet and it
will magnetised. This pulls the iron armature towards it, which closes the contact C. As a
result current flows through the output circuit and motor turn on.
The diagram below shows reed switch used to switch on warning lamp.
When the temperature of the air raises the resistance of the thermistor decreases, as a
result current flows through the coil and the ends of both wires inside the coil magnetised
with opposite pole. So both the wires attract each other and the circuit of the warning lamp
completes and lights up.

(a) describe the action of a bipolar npn transistor as an electrically operated switch
and explain its use in switching circuits.
(b) state in words and in truth table form, the action of the following logic gates,
AND, OR, NAND, NOR and NOT (inverter).
(c) state the symbols for the logic gates listed above (American ANSI Y 32.14
symbols will be used).
Note: There is no compulsory question set on this unit of the syllabus. Questions set on
topics within this unit are always set as an alternative within a question.
A transistor is an electronic component with three terminals or connections. The diagram

below shows some examples together with the circuit symbol.

The three terminals are called the collector (c), base (b) and emitter (e). In the circuit a
transistor acts as a device for controlling the flow of current.
The transistor is connected so that there is a p.d. of 6V between the collector and emitter. A
current wants to flow from the collector to the emitter. The arrow indicates the direction of
current flow. The transistor has a very high resistance, so no current flows. However, if a
small current flows into the base this greatly reduces the transistors resistance, and so
large current flows from the collector to emitter. Hence a small base current Ib permits a
large current Ic to flow into the collector. The two current join together and flow out
through the emitter. We can show this as a formula:
base current + collector current = emitter current.
Hence a small current (Ib) controls a large current (Ic). When no current flows through the
transistor, we say that it is OFF. When a current flows, it is ON. So the transistor acts as a
switch, controlled by the base current.
Now we will look at an example of a circuit in which sufficient current can flow through a
transistor to operate buzzer as shown below. This circuit sounds an alarm when the
temperature rises – it could be part of fire alarm system.
The input to the transistor is a potential divider circuit, consisting of a fixed resistor and a
thermistor, connected in series. The resistance of the thermistor decreases if it gets hot.
To switch the transistor ON, we need a current to flow into the base. For this to happen,
the voltage at point X must be high. This will happen when the resistance of the thermistor
is low, that is, when it is hot. So here is how the circuit works.
 When the thermistor is cold, its resistance is high. The voltage across point X is low,
and so the base current Ib flowing into the transistor is too small to cause a current
to flow though the transistor. The transistor is OFF.
 When the thermistor is hot, its resistance is low. The voltage at point X will be close
to 6V, and this voltage makes a small current flow into the base of the transistor.
(the resistor is there to make sure the current does not get too big).
 This allows a large current Ic to flow through the transistor, which is ON. The
current also flows through the buzzer, which buzzes.

The following circuit the light which comes on automatically at night. In this circuit also
transistor acts as a switch.
Rather than working with individual transistors, electronic engineers prefer to use logic
gates. Each logic gates has a specific function. And many can be combined together to
produce complex effects. However, inside each logic gate there are numbers of transistors
working switches, together with other components.
A logic gate is a device that receives one or more electrical input signals and produces an
output signals depends on those input signals. These signals are voltages.
• a high voltage is referred to as ON(high), and is represent by symbol 1.
• a low voltage is referred to as OFF (low), and is represent by symbol 0.
There are different types of logic gates these include: AND, OR, NOT, NOR and NAND.

This gate has two inputs (input 1 and 2) and output as shown below.
An AND gate function like this: Its output is ON (high) if both input 1 and input 2 are ON
(high). The truth table for this gate is shown below.
An OR gate function like this: Its output is ON (high) if either input 1 or input 2 or both is
ON (high). The truth table for this gate is shown below.
This gate has one input and one output as shown below. This gate is also called an
inverter.
An NOT gate function like this: Its output is ON (high) if its input is not ON (high). The
truth table for this gate is shown below.

An NAND gate function like this: Its output is ON (high) if both input 1 and input 2 are not
ON (high). The truth table for this gate is shown below.
An NOR gate function like this: Its output is ON (high) if neither input 1 nor input 2 is ON
(high). The truth table for this gate is shown below.

(a) describe the structure of the atom in terms of nucleus and electrons.
(b) describe how the Geiger-Marsden alpha-particle scattering experiment provides evidence
for the nuclear atom.
(c) describe the composition of the nucleus in terms of protons and neutrons.
(d) define the terms proton number (atomic number), Z and nucleon number (mass
number),A.
(e) explain the term nuclide and use the nuclide notation to construct
equations where radioactive decay leads to changes in the composition of the nucleus.
(f) define the term isotope.
(g) explain, using nuclide notation, how one element may have a number of isotopes.
In 1911 Geiger and Marsden performed series of experiments under the direction of
Rutherford which led to the planetary or nuclear model of atom.
The radioactive material kept inside a thick lead box emits alpha particles. Beam of alpha
particles are then allowed to fall on a thin gold foil in a vacuum place.
While passing through the gold foil, the alpha particles are scattered through different
angles, but few were repelled so strongly that they bounced back.

Rutherford concluded that the atom must be largely empty space, with the positive charge
and most of its mass concentrated in a tiny nucleus at the center. In his model much lighter
electrons orbited the nucleus.
• Matter is made up of very small particles called atoms

• Each atom has a very small and very dense core called nucleus. Most of the mass of
atom is contained in the nucleus
• The electrons move in orbits around the nucleus.
• There are a lot of empty spaces within atom
• A nucleus consists of a number of protons and neutrons.
• Protons and neutrons also known as nucleons.
• A proton has a unit positive charge.
• A neutron is an uncharged particle of about the same mass as the proton.
• An atom is neutral because it contains an equal number of negatively charged electrons.
So the net charge is zero.
e
n
p n
p
e
Helium

A nuclide is an atom of a particular structure. Each element has nucleus with a specific
number of protons and neutrons.
A = nucleon number (mass number)

Z = proton number (atomic number)
X = chemical symbol of the element
Example
Proton number (atomic number) of carbon = 6, carbon nucleus has 6 protons. The nucleon
number (mass number) of carbon is 12. So the number of neutrons in carbon nucleus is
12 – 6 = 6
Describe the structure of lithium atom .
e e
p n
p np
nn
e
Ans: The atom of lithium of nucleus consists of 3 protons and 4 neutrons. Around the
nucleus 3 electrons are orbiting.
Proton number, Z, is defined as the number of protons in a nucleus.

The number of electrons = the number of protons
An element is identified by its proton number
Nucleon number, A is defined as the total number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus.
Isotopes are atoms with the same proton (atomic) number but different (mass) nucleon
number.
Example: Hydrogen deuterium tritium are isotopes.
Isotopes of an element contain the same number of protons and the same number of
electrons. So isotopes have the same chemical properties chemical reactions involve the
electrons in an atom.
However they have different physical properties because their mass is different. Some
isotopes exist naturally. Isotopes can also be made artificially.

(a) describe the detection of alpha-particles, beta-particles and gamma-rays by
appropriate methods.
(b) state and explain the random emission of radioactivity in direction and time.
(c) state, for radioactive emissions, their nature, relative ionising effects and relative
penetrating powers.
(d) describe the deflection of radioactive emissions in electric fields and magnetic fields.
(e) explain what is meant by radioactive decay.
(f) explain the processes of fusion and fission.
(g) describe with the aid of a block diagram one type of fission reactor for use in a power
station.
(h) discuss theories of star formation and their energy production by fusion.
(i) explain what is meant by the term half-life.
(j) make calculations based on half-life which might involve information in tables or shown
by decay curves.
(k) describe how radioactive materials are handled, used and stored in a safe way.
(l) discuss the way in which the type of radiation emitted and the half-life determine the
use for the material.
(m) discuss the origins and effect of background radiation.
(n) discuss the dating of objects by the use of 14C.
 The nuclei of some atoms are unstable because they contain the wrong number of
protons or neutrons.
 To become stable they emit particles (alpha & beta) and/or radiation (gamma).
 This decay is random

 This decay is spontaneous (it cannot be affected by outside factors such as temperature
or pressure).
Radioactivity is the spontaneous and random disintegration (decay) of an unstable nucleus

by the emission of alpha, beta and gamma to become more stable. OR
Radioactivity is the process that decaying of unstable nuclei by the emission alpha, beta and
gamma to become more stable.
There are three types of radiation that is alpha (α), beta (β) and gamma (γ).
Helium nuclei or Electrons, Electromagnetic

radiation.
2 p and 2 n
4 1/2000 0
+2e -e Neutral
Slow Fast Speed of light
High Medium Low
Low Medium High
A few cm of air or a A few mm of A few cm of lead
piece of paper aluminium foil
Yes Yes No
• Radioactive emission has an ionizing effect

• The 3 types of radiation are highly energetic and use their energy to remove electrons
from the air molecules when they pass through air.
• The ionization of an atom produces positive ion and negative ion (electron)
• Due to their different charges and masses, they have different ionizing abilities.
Alpha Beta Gamma
Dense – strong ionization Very fast beta particles - thin, The gamma rays do not
power straight tracks - the straight tracks. The slower produce clear or continuous
alpha particle has a large beta particles - short, thick tracks due to their low
mass and momentum so it is tracks which curve in random ionizing power
not easily deflected direction.

• The penetrating effect of alpha, beta and gamma radiation depends on their ionizing
power.
• Radiation which has a stronger ionizing power will have a lower penetrating effect.
• The radiation emission loses some of its energy each time an ion pair is produced.
• Alpha particles lose energy very quick as they move through a medium. After a short
distance in the medium, the alpha particles would have lost almost all energy. So alpha
particles have the lowest penetrating power.
• Alpha particles can be stopped by paper; beta particles can penetrate through paper but
can be stopped by thin metal (aluminium). Gamma rays can go through paper and metal
sheet and can only be stopped by thick lead or concrete.
• Alpha and beta particles are deflected in an electric field because they are charged. The
deflections are in opposite direction because they carry opposite charges. The deflection of
beta is larger than alpha because mass of beta is less than mass of alpha.
• Gamma rays are not deflected because they do not carry any charge.

• Alpha particles and beta particles are also deflected when they pass through a magnetic
field while gamma rays are unaffected.
• The direction of the deflection of alpha particles in the magnetic field can be found using
Fleming’s left-hand rule.
Radioactive emissions can be detected with the help of Geiger-Muller tube (GM tube), gold
leaf electroscope, cloud chamber and spark counter.
• The radioactive emission enters the tube through the mica window and ionizes the neon
gas.
• The electrons and positive ions are attracted towards the anode and cathode respectively.
• When electrons are collected by the anode, a pulse of current is produces.
• The pulses of current are counted by a scaler or ratemeter.
• The scaler gives the number of counts over a certain period of time that is counts per
minute / counts per second.
• Initially the GM tube is switched on without the presence of any radioactive substance.
The reading displayed by the ratemeter is known as the background count rates.
• When the GM tube is used to detect radioactive emission, the background count rate is
subtracted from the count rate obtained.
Notes:
Background radiation gives reading to the GM tube even though there is no radioactive
source.
Background radiation is always present due to natural radioactivity in the ground, bricks
or buildings and cosmic radiation.
• When an electroscope is charged, the gold leaf sticks out, because the charges on the gold
repel the charges on the metal stalk.
• When a radioactive source comes near, the air is ionized and starts to conduct electricity.
• This means the charge can ‘leak’ away, the electroscope discharges and the gold leaf falls.
• It shows the path traveled by the ionizing radiation in air.

• The radioactive produces ions in the air that is saturated with alcohol vapour.
• The alcohol vapour condenses on the ions to make the tracks of the radiation visible.
Alpha particles are best for this because it ionization power is high.

• The spark counter consists of a wire gauze and a thin wire below it.
• A high voltage is applied between the gauze and the wire. The voltage is adjusted until it
is just below the value required to produce sparks.
• When a radioactive source is brought near the wire gauze, the radiation ionizes the air
below it. The motion of the ions to the gauze and the wire causes sparks to be produced.
The spark can be seen and heard.

• Spark counters are suitable for alpha particles. Beta particles and gamma rays produce
too few ions to produce sparks.
Alpha, beta and gamma radiation can all damage living cells. Alpha particles, due to their
strong ability to ionise other particles, are particularly dangerous to human tissue. Gamma
radiation is dangerous because of its high penetrating power. However cells have repair
mechanisms that make ordinary levels of radiation relatively harmless.
Radioactive substances must always be handled with the correct procedures to prevent
harmful effects to people and the environment.
Safety precaution for handling radioactive materials include:
• Use forceps or tongs for handling radioactive sources – don’t hold them directly.
• Do not point radioactive sources at living tissues.

• Store radioactive materials in lead-lined containers – and lock containers away
securely.
• Wear laboratory coats, long pants, closed-toe footwear and gloves when entering
radioactive place.
• Stronger radioactive sources should be handled with robotic control systems behind
steel, concrete, lead or thick glass panels.
• Check the surrounding area for radiation levels above the normal background levels.
The radioactive radiation present around the environment because of radioactive materials
in the environment.
Background radiation can be produced by natural sources
• The Rocks of the Earth
• Cosmic radiation from space
• Radioactive gas within our atmosphere
Background radiation can also be produced from man-made sources

• Nuclear reactors
• Nuclear waste
• Fall out from nuclear weapon testing
• Uses of radioactive materials in Medicine
• Uses of radioactive materials in Industry

Radioactive decay is a self-disintegrating process which an unstable nucleus emits nuclear
radiation like alpha beta or gamma so as to become stable.
• When a radioactive nucleus decays, its nucleus breaks up, emits an alpha particle or beta
particle and energy, and forms a new atom of a different element.
• A parent nuclide X changes into a daughter nuclide Y.
When a nucleus emits alpha particle, the atomic number decreases by 2 units and it mass
number decreases by 4 units. And huge amount of energy is released.
Example 1:
Example 2:
When a nucleus emits a beta particle, the mass number does not change but the atomic
number increases by 1. And huge amount of energy will be released.
Example 1:
Example 2:

Gamma emission does not change the structure of the nucleus, it just makes the nucleus
more stable. Gamma rays are emitted at the same time together with either an alpha or
beta particle. When a nucleus ejects an alpha or beta particle, there is often some excess
energy produced which will be released as gamma rays.
The half-life T of a radioactive substance is the time for half of the radioactive nuclei to
1/2
decay.
All radioactive substances decay with the same pattern, as shown in the graphs below.
The graph shows that amount of substance decrease rapidly at first and then more and
more slowly. We cannot say when the last atom will decay. Different radioactive substances
decay at different rates some much faster than others.
Question 1: The count-rate from a radioactive source falls from 400 to 50 in 3.0 minutes.
What is the half-life?
Ans : 1minutes
Question 2: The half-life of a radioisotope is 2400 years. The activity of a sample is 720
counts / s.
How long will it take for the activity to fall to 90 counts / s?
Ans: 7200 years
Question 3: The half-life of a radioactive material is 24 years.

The activity of a sample falls to a fraction of its initial value after 72 years.
What is the fraction?
Ans: 1/8
Question 4: A radioactive isotope has a half-life of 6000 years.

How much time passes before the rate of emission from a sample of this isotope
falls to 1/16 of its original value?
Ans : 2400 years
Nuclear fission is the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei, when the nucleus
of an atom is bombarded with a neutron.
The energy of the neutron causes the target nucleus to split into two (or more) nuclei that
are lighter than the parent nucleus, releasing a large amount of energy during the process.
• A neutron hitting a uranium-235 nucleus, causing it to split producing strontium-90,
xenon-143 and three neutrons + energy.

Electricity can be generated from the energy released by fission reactions. A nuclear power
station consists of a nuclear reactor and a generator.
Nuclear
fission in Heat
Nuclear energy Heat energy Heat energy of
of uranium steam
The nuclear exchanger
reactor
turbine
generator
Mechanical
Electrical
energy
energy
Nuclear fusion is the combining of two lighter nuclei to form a heavier nucleus, releasing a
vast amount of energy during the process.
Nuclear fusion is believed to be the process by which energy is released by the Sun. When
two hydrogen-2 nuclei moving at high speeds collide, they can join together to produce
heavier nucleus. A large amount of energy is released.
A hydrogen bomb uses the principle of nuclear fusion for its design.
Distribution of hydrogen and interstellar dust in space may accidentally become so dense
that they contract under their own gravity, causing temperature and density to rise.
When the mass starts to give a red glow, a protostar is formed. When temperatures at the
center of the mass increase to ten-million degrees Kelvin, hydrogen will fuse to form helium
in nuclear fusion reactions. Unlike ordinary chemical reactions we are familiar with,
nuclear reactions convert one chemical element into another such as from hydrogen (H) to
helium (He), releasing a lot of energy, which causes the temperature to rise further. The
energy causes the surface to heat up, and eventually, energy escapes from the mass as
radiation (heat and light). At some point in time, the state is steady in that the amount of
energy released from fusion reactions equals to the amount lost by radiation, and we call
such a collection of mass a star.

Radioactive substances decay at a rate we can determine, we can use them to discover how
old objects and animals are. The best-known example of this is radiocarbon dating.
All living things contain carbon. Plant gets this from atmospheric carbon-dioxide, which
they use in photosynthesis. Plant-eating animals get it from the plants they eat to build
their bodies. Meat eating animals get it from their prey. Most carbon is carbon – 12 ( ),
which is not radioactive. A tiny fraction is radioactive carbon – 14 ( ), with a half-life of
5370 years. (It emits beta radiation)
The idea of radiocarbon dating is this. When a living organism dies, the carbon – 14 in its
body decays. As time passes, the amount remaining decreases. If we can measure the
amount remaining, we can work out when the organism was alive.
There are two ways to measure the amount of carbon – 14 present in an object.
• By measuring the activity of the sample using a detector such as a Geiger counter.
• By counting the number of carbon – 14 atoms using a mass spectrometer.

Physical quantity Formula Formula in symbol unit
Speed km/h, m/s, cm/s
Acceleration m/s2
Force force = mass × acceleration F = ma N

Weight weight = mass × gravitational field W = mg N
strength.
Density g/cm3, kg/m3
Moment moment = force × perpendicular m=F×d Nm

distance
Principle of moment sum of clockwise moment = sum of F×d=F×d
anticlockwise moment
extension force = spring constant × extension F = ke mm, cm
Pressure Pa, N/m2
Liquid pressure Pressure = density × gravity × height of P= Pa, N/m2

the liquid
Boyle’s law initial pressure × initial volume = final P1V1 = P2V2
pressure × final volume
Kinetic energy J
Potential energy Potential energy = mass × gravity × PE = mgh J

height
Mass-energy equation Energy = mass × (speed of light)2 E = mc2 J
Work done Work done = force × distance W=F×d J
Power W, kW
Efficiency
or %
Specific heat capacity Energy = mass × specific heat capacity E = mc∆T J/(g °C), J/(g K)
× change in temperature
Specific latent heat Energy = mass × specific latent heat E = ml J/kg, J/g
Wave equation Speed of wave = frequency × V = fλ
wavelength
Frequency Hz
Speed of echo sound m/s
Refractive index
Current Charge = current × time Q = It A, mA

Electromotive force V
Potential difference V
Resistance Voltage = current × resistance V = IR Ω

Resistors in series R = R1 + R2 + R3….. R = R1 + R2 + R3….. Ω
Resistors parallel R = + + ... or Ω
Electrical power Power = voltage × current P = VI W, kW

Electrical energy Energy = voltage × current × time E = VIt J, kWh
Or Or
Energy = power × time E = Pt
Cost of electricity Cost of electricity = energy in kWh ×
cost per unit

Candidates should be able to state the symbols for the following physical quantities and,
where indicated, state the units in which they are measured. Candidates should be able to
define the items indicated by an asterisk (*).

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Candidates should be able to:

(a) define the terms scalar and vector.

Vectors can be added to form a RESUNLTANT.

© Department of physics 2012 Page 1 of 176

First take a scale, for example 1cm = 1000N

4000N (4cm) breakdown vehicle A

© Department of physics 2012 Page 2 of 176

4000N (4cm) breakdown vehicle A

4000N (4cm) breakdown vehicle A

Direction of resultant force = 25° from vehicle A

© Department of physics 2012 Page 3 of 176

© Department of physics 2012 Page 4 of 176

Main scale reading = 3.1cm

Vernier scale reading = 5cm × 0.01 = 0.05 cm

Reading of vernier caliper = 3.1 + 0.05 = 3.15 cm

The diagram shows part of a vernier scale.

What is the reading on the vernier scale?

Ans: Main scale reading = 6.5cm

Vernier scale reading = 5cm × 0.01 = 0.05

Reading of the vernier caliper = 6.5 + 0.05 = 6.55cm

© Department of physics 2012 Page 5 of 176

© Department of physics 2012 Page 6 of 176

Main scale reading = 7.5 mm

Thimble scale reading = 14mm × 0.01

Reading of micrometer = 7.5 + 0.14 = 7.64mm

The diagram shows part of a micrometer.

What is the reading on the micrometer?

Ans: Main scale reading = 6.5mm

Thimble scale reading = 13 mm × 0.01 = 0.13

Reading of the vernier caliper = 6.5 + 0.13 = 6.63 mm

© Department of physics 2012 Page 7 of 176

Diagrams below shows the simple pendulums

We can measure time for many oscillations around 10 to 20 oscillations.

© Department of physics 2012 Page 8 of 176

 Distance is defined as the length of the path covered.

 Displacement is defined as the distance moved in the stated direction.

© Department of physics 2012 Page 9 of 176

© Department of physics 2012 Page 10 of 176

A car is brought to rest in 5 s from a speed of 10 m / s. What is the average deceleration of

© Department of physics 2012 Page 11 of 176

Object increasing speed non - Object decreasing speed uniformly

Object decreasing speed non - uniformly

© Department of physics 2012 Page 12 of 176

(a) Describe the motion of the car between point A and E.

(c) Calculate the speed of the car between point B and C?

© Department of physics 2012 Page 13 of 176

Object accelerating Object accelerating

Object decelerating Object decelerating

© Department of physics 2012 Page 14 of 176

The speed – time graph below shows the motion of a lorry.

(a) Describe the motion of the lorry.

© Department of physics 2012 Page 15 of 176

(c) Calculate distance travelled by the lorry between 5s and 7s.

 The acceleration of free fall or acceleration due to gravity is denoted by g.

Consider a parachutist jumping from aircraft.

When the parachutist jumps from the aircraft, his

© Department of physics 2012 Page 16 of 176

As his speed increases his air resistance will also

After sometime air resistance will be big enough to balance

When he opens his parachute the air resistance

After some time again air resistance decreases until it

© Department of physics 2012 Page 17 of 176

Terminal velocity reached