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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Problem Statement Synchronous generators and

induction generators play a significant role in the power grid. Synchronous generators
provide the majority of electric power and induction generators are widely used in wind
power generation. Losing synchronous generators and induction generators can greatly
impact the stability and the reliability of the power system.

Thus, developing a secure and reliable method to protect synchronous generators and
induction generators can bring huge benefits to the grid. As one of the most expensive
and important power apparatus in the power grid, synchronous generators should be
protected securely and dependably. Generally, there are two protection aspects for
synchronous generator protection: fault protection and abnormal operating condition
protection.

Fault protection refers to the protection when faults occur inside the synchronous
generator, e.g. stator phase faults, stator ground faults, rotor winding faults, rotor
ground faults, etc. [1],[2]. Abnormal operating condition protection means the
protection of the synchronous generator when it is experiencing abnormal operating
condition, e.g.

abnormal frequency, over excitation, under excitation, out-of-step, etc. [3]. This
dissertation focuses only on the fault protection of synchronous generator and
induction generator. Legacy protective functions are being used to provide fault
protection, such as differential protection, negative-sequence protection,
instantaneous/time overcurrent protection, and distance protection However, the above
mentioned legacy protective functions can only cover stator ground fault up to 85-90%
of the winding.
Usually the rest of the 10-15% of the winding is protected by third-harmonic voltage
protection. As a result, to provide 100% stator protection, legacy protective functions
are configured in complex schemes that use specialized methods. Complexity always has
the potential of errors. New protection approaches are needed to provide simplified,
secure and dependable protection for synchronous generators.

In earlier decades, most of the induction machines were used as motors. Induction
motors consume up to 70% of the electric power across the United States [4].
Nowadays, with the development of wind power, more and more doubly-fed induction
generators (DFIG) are installed in wind farms. Compared with other generators for wind
power production, like permanent magnet generators, DFIG has a much lower cost.

Protection of DFIGs has become a challenging topic. Similar to the synchronous

generators, induction generators can also experience stator/rotor phase and ground
faults. Legacy protective functions, such as differential protection, negative-sequence
protection, instantaneous/time overcurrent protection, are designed to detect internal
faults of induction generators.

Although legacy protective functions can do their job well most of the time, there are
still some protection gaps such as phase turn-to-turn faults, DFIG faulted current limited
by converters, etc.. Present protective technology has evolved from conventional
electromechanical relays to numerical relays. Compared with electromechanical relays,
numerical relays are microprocessor based digital devices, which analyze power system
voltages, currents and other quantities for the purpose of detection of faults in the
power system.

The characteristics and behaviors of several protective functions can be programmed

together into one numerical relay. This is definitely a big step for the development of
protective relays. For the synchronous generator and induction generator protection,
usually there are more than ten protective functions used to protect the device and they
need to coordinate with each other. This coordination is very complicated and it may
bring human or setting errors when facing faults.

Furthermore, the protective functions that are being used in the numerical relays now
still mimic the concepts of electromechanical relays. They are basically direct
comparisons between the pre-defined settings and realtime measurements after simple
calculation. Since the advanced microprocessors are being utilized now, they have the
capability to perform high-speed complicated calculation.
This is a huge potential that has not been fully explored yet so that a new revolution in
protective relays could be started to seek the full potential of numerical relays. 1.2
Research Objectives The objective of this dissertation is to develop a novel protective
function, which is called dynamic state Estimation Based Protective (Reverse Power
Relays) relay, that can protect the synchronous generators and induction generators
securely and reliably when they experience internal faults.

The objective has been achieved by the development of such an approach which is
based on the following contributions: (1) development of an innovative protection
function which is based on the dynamic state estimation of the protection zone, in this
case, it is a synchronous generator or an induction generator; (2) development of an
interoperable and unified syntax of a protection zone so that the Reverse Power Relays
algorithm can be programmed in an object-oriented manner and no specific setting is
needed for different types of machines; (3) development of physical based synchronous
generator and induction generator models using the above syntax, which have the
capability of representing both balanced and unbalanced machine conditions.

The effectiveness of the Reverse Power Relays approach can be verified by utilizing
these models. The dynamic state estimation based protective function uses dynamic
state estimation to detect the faults in the protection zone. Generally, the Reverse Power
Relays algorithm can be utilized to protect any power system apparatus so a general
methodology description will be introduced in this dissertation. The Reverse Power
Relays monitors the consistency between the realtime measurements for the protection
zone and protection zone dynamic model.

If they line up with each other, it means the protection zone is healthy and under normal
operating condition. Otherwise, any mismatch between the measurement and the
model indicates abnormality inside the protection zone. In this case, protection actions
should be taken to protect the device from further damage.

Compared to the other protective functions, the Reverse Power Relays approach only
needs very few simple settings, which reduces the relay settings complexity greatly. In
addition, the Reverse Power Relays function does not need any coordination with other
protective functions, which also decreases the possibility of mis-operations. 1.3

Aims and objectives of the thesis The main objective of this thesis was to design and
develop efficient protection strategies to achieve the fault detection, faulted segment
isolation, system restoration and reclosing for both grid connected and islanded
operations of a micro grid or a distribution network which mainly consists of current
limited DGs.
To achieve this goal, the aims of the research project were identified as: Analysing the
protection issues related to a micro grid and a distribution network in the presence of
DGs determining the applicability of the existing protection strategies determining the
new protection strategies that are required to achieve appropriate fault detection and
protection of a network Addressing the protection issues associated with system
restoration, arc extinction and reclosing in the presence of converter interfaced DGs in a
network While the main objective of the thesis was to propose a generic protection
solution for DG connected distribution networks, the focus was limited to converter
interfaced DGs.

Moreover, the protection of DG connected distribution networks without

communication was considered for a simple and cost effective solution. CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW The cost of transmission and distribution is rising with the rapid
increases in the load demand. However, the costs of distribution generation
technologies are falling [2].

So from a costing point of view, it is becoming more worthwhile to increase the

generation at the distribution level by connecting a distributed generator (DG) to meet
the load requirement without expanding the transmission and distribution
infrastructure. In addition, there are several advantages of having DGs; short
construction time, lower capital costs, reduction in gaseous emissions, reduced
transmission power loss since generation is now closer to the load, improving voltage
profile, enhancing reliability and diversification of energy sources [9-11].

A microgrid can be considered as a small grid based on DGs. Generally, the microgrid
consists of renewable energy based DGs and combined heat and power plants. It can
operate either grid connected or islanded mode. Most of the DGs are connected to the
microgrid through power electronic based power converters which pose operational
challenges [12].

The protection system of a microgrid should respond to faults within the microgrid
irrespective of its grid connected and islanded operation. For a fault in the utility grid,
the microgrid should disconnect immediately from PCC to maintain a continuous supply
to the microgrid loads. On the other hand, the smallest possible set of faulted lines of
the microgrid must be isolated for a fault within this grid.

However, protection of a distribution network becomes more complicated and

challenging once several DGs are connected (as in a microgrid). In this chapter, the
complications in system protection arising due to the connection of DGs to a
distribution network are discussed. Also some of the already proposed solutions are
mentioned. 2.1

Protection issues and solutions The present practice is to disconnect the DGs from the
network using an islanding detection method when there is a fault in the system [13,
14]. This is as per the IEEE recommended practice, standard 1547 [15]. This may work
satisfactorily when the penetration of DGs in a distribution system is low.

However, as the penetration levels increase or in the case of micro or mini-grid, the DGs
will be expected to supply power even when the supply from the utility is lost and the
DGs form a small island. This will prevent unnecessary customer power interruption
Thus, the benefits of DG installations can be maximized allowing the DGs to operate in
both grid connected and islanded modes of operation, especially when the DG
penetration level is high.

Some of the issues in DG connected distribution networks or micro grids that need
attention are bi-directional power flow, change of relay reach, coordination between
protective devices, islanding, reclosing, protection in the presence of current limited
converters and temporary arc faults. These are discussed below. 2.1.1 Islanding
operation and anti-islanding protection Islanding occurs when the main supply is
disconnected and at least one generator in the disconnected system continues to
operate. If a DG is allowed to operate in this islanding condition, it will bring benefits to
customers by reducing outages [16].

However, if DGs are not designed to operate in islanded operation, this can cause a
number of safety issues [17]. The point where the islanded system is created after the
disconnection of the utility for a fault cannot be identified exactly. Therefore at the
moment of islanding, the generation and load capacity may not be equal.

When synchronous generators are present in the islanded region and if loads are larger
than the generation then the generators tend to slow down which can lead to under
frequency tripping of generators. In this case, a load shedding scheme should be
implemented to maintain the stability in the islanded system. On the other hand if load
capacity is less than the generation, generators could experience over frequency
tripping and require a fast governor controller to respond and balance the power [18].
Thus there is a need to identify the islanding condition in an expanded islanded system
which has the loads beyond the PCC.

The type of prime mover and controller mode (i.e. droop control, constant power, etc)
affect the response of the system at the event of the islanding. These responses have
been described according to the type of generation in [18]. Also islanding may increase
the risk for the user equipment and utility power apparatus due to the potential
reduction in performance standards for voltage and frequency and the issues relating to
phase mismatching when reconnecting the DG and utility [1].

It also can be a potential hazard to utility personnel working to rectify the faulted
segment as some portion of it can be live due to power supplied by DGs. Power quality
may not be guaranteed within the island and there could be abnormal conditions in
voltage and frequency. In the islanded mode, short circuit levels may drop significantly
upon disconnection from the utility.

These factors are the reason why anti-islanding protection is traditionally applied to
achieve the safety of personnel and equipment of the distribution system. Under and
over voltage relays, under and over frequency relays, vector shift and relays for
detecting rate of change of frequency (ROCOF) can be used as devices to detect
islanding. The common practice is to disconnect the DGs before the first reclosing
occurs after a fault in the system.

Therefore anti-islanding protection devices should be appropriately coordinated with

other protective devices such as reclosers in the system. From the reliability point of
view, applying the anti-islanding protection to a microgrid is disadvantageous. An
anti-islanding protection relay should detect the islanding condition within the required
time (typically 200 to 400 ms) and should trip all the generators.

On the other hand, it should not trip for small frequency variations in the system. A
microprocessor based line tracking system is suggested for detecting islanding
condition of a hydro power distributed generator (HPDG) using the changes of voltage,
frequency, active power and reactive power [10]. This method can be used to detect the
islanding condition of HPDG quickly and to isolate it from the main grid.

ROCOF relay needs very sensitive settings for the fast islanding detection under a small
imbalance of active power. However, it may cause to trip the anti-islanding relay for the
small frequency variations. Usually frequency tripping requirements (i.e. under and over
frequency) of a relay and islanding detection relay settings are analysed separately.

As a result, two relays are required to perform the task; one for the under/over
frequency protection of the generator and another for the islandingdetection. However,
these two relays are operated based on the system frequency. Reference [21] has
proposed a graphical method based on application region of the frequency relay to
determine the islanding requirements without disturbing the frequency tripping
requirements. Further this paper outlines how to coordinate the operation of the
islanding detection relay and standard frequency tripping relay.

Reference [20] also provides a mathematical development to determine the application

region of a frequency relay which satisfies both the islanding detection and frequency
tripping requirements. It has been shown that the frequency relay can be replaced by an
islanding detection vector shift relay if the proper settings are selected.

Similarly, a method is suggested to find out the application region of a voltage relay to
satisfy both the anti-islanding and voltage variation protection in [22]. After
disconnecting the main utility, the loading effect on DG is suddenly changed. As a result,
balance condition of loads and harmonic currents will change. Therefore Total Harmonic
Distortion (THD) of current and voltage unbalance at the DG terminal have been
introduced as two new monitoring parameters to detect the islanding condition with
voltage magnitude in [23]. Test results have shown that this method can be used
efficiently for improved performance.

The DGs are expected to supply either an increase of load at grid connected operation
or emergency loads at the islanding operation. Thus the islanding operation is
important to ensure supply continuity to customers. Therefore, implementing an anti
islanding operation every time a fault occurs reduces the reliability of the system.

The authors in [6] proposed a method for a distribution network with high penetration
of DGs to use the conventional protective devices without disconnecting the DGs from
the system when a fault occurs. In this case, each DG should be connected to two
feeders which operate in a loop. The DG is required to be isolated from the faulted
feeder after the fault occurs and a micro-processor based line protection relay is used to
implement the scheme.

However this scheme may increase the fault clearing time which can affect the dynamic
condition of the system. Voltage and frequency should be maintained in the desired
range, in the presence of disturbances in the islanding system. Control strategies should
be implemented considering over-generated and under-generated islanding conditions
[10].

It has been mentioned that the only way to maintain the existing coordination system in
the presence of arbitrary DG penetration level is to disconnect all DGs instantly in the
case of a fault [2]. It would result in the DG disconnection for a temporary fault as well.
Therefore it is clear that new protection strategies are required to investigate with the
DG penetration to the utility.
In addition, if the DG is not disconnected from the system at the event of a fault, the
fault arc would not extinguish during an automatic recloser open time, since the source
feeding the fault still remains. Thus a compromise solution between islanding operation
and anti islanding protection needs to evolve. 2.1.2 Coordination between protective
devices The coordination of protective devices based on current is relatively easy when
the distribution network is radial.

However, with the connection of microgrids or DGs to the utility, the radial nature no
longer exists and it permits the power flow to be bi-directional rather than
uni-directional [14, 24]. This may create a number of protection coordination issues. On
the other hand, the protective devices should be coordinated in the distribution network
considering reliability (correct operation), selectivity (minimum system disconnection),
speed of operation (minimum fault duration), simplicity (having minimum protective
equipment) and economics (maximum protection under minimum cost).

These coordinated actions should be implemented fast enough to prevent personal

hazards and equipment damage [25]. Generally, the protection of the distribution
network is done using the current measurement based on the coordination of fuses,
over current relays, re closers and sectionalizes [26]. It should consist of a primary and
backup protection system which has proper time grading between each devices.

As an example, tripping time increases towards the main utility source from the fault
location and operation device sequences for a fault in a DG may be the first low voltage
breaker, then the fuse, after that the line recloser, finally if fault still exits it should be
cleared by the substation circuit breaker. The coordination based on the current is
relatively easy in the unidirectional power flow networks, because the fault current
reduces along the feeder.

However, with the growth of distributed generators, the system permits the power flow
to be bi-directional rather than uni-directional. This may create a number of feeder
protection issues. It causes relays to under-reach or over-reach [28]. The DG location in
the distribution network influences the relay reach to reduce or increase.

It has been shown that the reach of an over current relay will reduce in the presence of a
DG. Among the protective devices currently used, reclosers and fuses usually do not
have the directional sensing feature but a relay can easily be made to have that feature
[2].

In addition to that, the DG can contribute by supplying short circuit currents to the
neighbouring faulted feeder and operating the protective device in the healthy feeder
[30]. The only possible way to coordinate the existing protection schemes is to
disconnect all the DGs for every fault even for the temporary faults [2]. However, it has
been mentioned before that this is not a desirable solution to this problem.

This chapter provides the background information of existing technologies related to

the proposed research along with a literature review of the research efforts on these
topics. Section 2.2 starts with a summary of the evolution of the protective relays for
power system fault detection. Section 2.3 summarizes the present utilized technology in
synchronous generator and induction generator protection and explores its biases and
limitations. Section 2.4

provides a literature review on the parameters identification technology for a

synchronous machine. 2.2 The Evolution of the Protective Relays Prior to the transistor
and computer era, relay technology was based on electromechanical elements to
perform the relay logic. Electromechanical relays are invented as electrically operated
switching devices to perform a specific task within an electrical circuit or system.

The most common electromechanical components are the plunger relay, the induction
disk/cup relay, and the balancing beam relay. Figure 2.1 shows a picture of a simple
electromechanical relay. It consists of a coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron core, an
iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron
armature, and one or more sets of contacts (there are two contacts in Figure 2.1). The
armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to the moving contacts.

The armature is held in place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is
an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts is
closed, and the other set is open. / Figure 2.1. Simple Electromechanical Relay When an
electric current passes through the coil it generates a magnetic field that activates the
armature and the consequent movement of the movable contact either makes or breaks
(depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact.

If the set of contacts was closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement
opens the contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open.
When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force,
approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position.

Usually this force is provided by a spring. Basically, the relay takes inputs from
instrument transformers. Typically, a signal conditioning circuit will be employed for
filtering any unwanted transients and spikes in the signal. For the electromechanical
relay, the filtered signals are fed to the logic circuit of the electromechanical relay which
may consists of an induction disk, plunger, etc.. The general structure of an
electromechanical relay is shown in Figure 2.2. / Figure 2.2.

General Structure of an Electromechanical Relay The invention of the transistor enabled

the development of solid state relays. Solid state relays (static relays) are devices that
include discrete component electronic circuits that mimic the logic of the
electromechanical relays. The structure of the solid state relay is the same as the
electromechanical relay except the action system is static.

The advantages of the solid state relays are (a) smaller size and (b) ability to perform
more complex logic than the electromechanical relays. The era of solid state relays was
short lived because of the development of the microprocessor based relay (or numerical
relay). Numerical relays consist of an input section where the analog signals of voltages
and currents are conditioned by appropriate analog filters (protection & isolation) and
then digitized by means of analog to digital converters. The structure of the numerical
relay is shown in Figure 2.3.

The digitized signals are processed by microprocessors via algorithms that perform
identification of the system conditions and the protective function. In addition,
numerical relays can be directly interfaced with the control circuit via input contacts and
output contacts. Other major advantages of numerical relays are their ability to (a)
display results, operational status, logic status, etc.

on display screens via user interfaces, (b) store data when necessary (by appropriate
triggering options) for later viewing and analysis (oscillography), and (c) communicate
information with the rest of the world via different communication channels. / Figure
2.3. General Structure of a Numerical Relay Tens of protective functions can be
programmed together in one numerical relay, which reduces the cost of protective
relays a lot. However, all the protective functions just mimic the concept of old-school
electromagnetic protective functions.

Although most of the fault conditions can be protected by the coordination of complex
protective functions, protection gaps still exist. Since the microprocessor has the
capability of high speed computation, why do not we use the full potential of
microprocessor and develop a brand new protective function? With this motivation, a
dynamic state estimation based protection algorithm is proposed in this dissertation. 2.3

Survey of Legacy Machine Protection Functions This section starts with a summary of
machine stator/rotor phase faults and ground faults. The second, third and fourth
subsections provide the concept of differential protection, instantaneous/time over
current protection and negative-sequence protection and their drawbacks respectively.

The fifth subsection shows some other newly developed protection functions, like
generator harmonic protection and signal injection protection. 2.3.1 General Fault Type
of AC machines Synchronous generators should be protected against fault conditions
and abnormal operating conditions. As mentioned above, this dissertation mainly
focuses on internal fault conditions.

These internal fault conditions can occur both in synchronous generators and induction
generators. Usually, internal faults can be categorized as ground faults and phase faults.
A ground fault is a fault that creates a path for current to flow from one of the phases
directly to the neutral through the earth bypassing the load [5].

To limit the level of the ground fault current, impedance is connected between the
generator neutral and the system ground. This impedance can be in the form of a
resistor, an inductor or grounding transformer sized to ensure maximum ground fault
current is limited. A phase fault is a fault that happens within the three phase windings.

Phase faults are serious because they involve high levels of energy that can damage the
machine [6]. The common phase faults are: 1) Phase to phase faults; 2) Three phase
faults; 3) Double phase to ground faults; 4) Single phase to ground faults and 5) Turn to
turn faults. Generating unit phase faults must be immediately cleared.

For induction generators, they can experience the same ground faults and phase faults
as discussed above. 2.3.2 Differential Protection Differential protection may be
considered the first line of protection for phase-to phase or phase-to-ground faults.
Lots of research has been done on the differential protection to protect machines
[7]-[13].

In the event of such faults, the quick response of differential protection may limit the
damage that may have otherwise occurred to the machine. The differential protection is
of the percentage type due to the potentially very high currents during external faults.
The illustration of machine differential protection is shown in Figure 2.4.

The difference between the currents at neutral and at the terminal is measured, and the
ratio of this current difference and the restraining current exceeding a certain threshold
makes the relay to respond. / Figure 2.4. Machine Winding Differential Protection (One
Phase) Especially, the differential protection will trip the machine if two conditions are
satisfied: / (2.1) / (2.2) where Imin is the pickup current and Ires is the restraint current.
Some machines, due to physical construction, have windings that consist of multiple
adjacent turns. It is therefore possible for faults to develop between turns on the same
phase (inter-turn faults). These faults are not detected by the stator differential
protection, as there is no difference between the currents at neutral side phase
conductor and the phase conductor at the terminal side.

In addition, if the fault is near the machine neutral, the fault may not be detected
because it will produce current in the operating coil lower than the typical settings of
the percentage differential relay settings. Typically, faults up to 10% of the coil from the
generator neutral may not be detected. 2.3.3 Instantaneous/Time Over current
Protection Over current protection is applied for phase fault and ground fault protection
[14]- [20].

It monitors the electric current in the secondary of the current transformer that connects
to the device under protection and when this current exceeds a certain value the
breaker trips this component. Instantaneous over current protection is often used to
limit the damage brought by high fault current to the machine. The setting for the
pickup current should be greater than the locked-rotor starting current.

To provide more sensitive over current protection, time over current protection could be
used. The relay trigging criteria is the same as the instantaneous one with a delay. A
lower pickup current is used for the time over current relay to make the protection more
sensitive.

This sensitive time over current protection is usually applied for backup protection of
generators. However, coordination among different protective functions can be difficult
with multiple sources since the ground current magnitude will vary with addition or
removal of sources [20]. In addition, faults like turn-to-turn faults and faults near neutral
are still not 100% covered by the present protection technology. 2.3.4

Negative-Sequence Protection Negative-sequence current or voltage protection is

typically used to protect against machine unbalance conditions [21]-[30]. Asymmetrical
faults generate negative-sequence currents that flow in the windings of the machine.
These negative-sequence currents induce double line-frequency currents that flow in
the damper or rotor parts.

The magnitude of the double line-frequency depends on the location of the fault,
number of turns shorted, mutual induction, and system and machine impedance.
Usually machine is designed to tolerate negative-sequence currents for a short period of
time. Specifically, machine can tolerate negative-sequence current for a time duration
that meets the following rule: / (2.3) Where k is a constant depending on machine
design. 2.3.5

Other Protection Third-Harmonic Voltage-Based Machine Protection Third-harmonic

voltage components are present at the terminals of nearly every machine to varying
degrees [1]. They arise due to the non-sinusoidal nature of rotor flux and vary based on
the differences in design and manufacture. If a generator under normal operation has
sufficient amount of third-harmonic voltage at the neutral and terminals, these
third-harmonic voltages can be used to provide generator protection.

The thirdharmonic voltage at the neutral will drop when a fault near neutral occurs, and
likewise the third-harmonic voltage at the terminal will drop when a fault near terminal
occurs. Figure 2.6 shows the third-harmonic voltages present at the neutral and
terminals of a typical generator during different load conditions: (a) under normal
operation, (b) for a fault at the neutral end, and (c) for a fault at the generator terminals.
/ Figure 2.6.

Third-Harmonic Voltage for Different Conditions in a Typical Generator Typical

protection functions using third-harmonic voltage are: third-harmonic neutral under
voltage protection, third-harmonic terminal overvoltage protection and third-harmonic
comparator (differential) protection [1], Third-harmonic neutral under voltage technique
uses the fact that for a fault near the neutral, the level of third-harmonic voltage at the
neutral decreases.

Therefore, an under voltage relay operating from third-harmonic voltage measured at

the neutral end could be used to detect the faults near the neutral. Third-harmonic
terminal overvoltage technique uses the fact that for a fault near the neutral, the level of
third-harmonic voltage at the terminals increases. Therefore, an overvoltage relay using
third-harmonic voltage measured at the terminals could be used to detect the faults
near the neutral.

Third-harmonic comparator technique compares the magnitude of the third-harmonic

voltage at the neutral to that at the terminals. The scheme is based on the premise that
the ratio of the third-harmonic voltage at the terminals to that at the neutral remains
constant during the normal operating conditions.

Usually the third-harmonic based protective function provides protection for stator
ground winding up to 15% near neutral (which means the stator winding can be 100%
covered with the coordination of other protective functions). However, it still cannot
properly handle situations like machine shutdown or startup. Furthermore, sometimes
when it is not fully loaded, the generator does not develop significant third-harmonic
voltage which may result in protection failure.

Low Frequency Signal Injection Protection Due to design variations, some machines may
not produce sufficient third-harmonic voltages to apply the ground fault protection
schemes based on third-harmonic signals. In addition, the ground fault protection
cannot be applied when the machine is at standstill because no third-harmonic signals
exist at that time.

Because the measurements are needed when machine is at standstill, they should be
supplied by their own source and be immune to variable-frequency swept sine
disturbances such as those present during generator ramp-up [1]. As a result, low
frequency signal injection protection was introduced. Typically, a low frequency signal
with fixed frequency (e.g. in range from 10Hz up to 25Hz) is used as an injection signal.

Use 20Hz signal as an example, this signal is injected in the machine neutral. The
resultant 20Hz current is measured. When a ground fault occurs, the 20Hz current
increases and causes the function (64) to operate. Figure 2.7 is an illustration of low
frequency signal injection protection using 20Hz signal. / Figure 2.7.

Low Frequency Signal Injection Protection The use of low frequency signals offers
improved sensitivity because of the higher impedance path of the machine capacitances
at these frequencies. Also, the integration over a half cycle of the low frequency result in
zero contributions from the signals of the system frequency and harmonics (i.e.

60Hz, 120Hz, 180Hz, etc.) and therefore do not influence the measurements. However,
the high cost associated with providing and maintaining a reliable low frequency source
is a big disadvantage. 2.4 Parameters Estimation of the Synchronous Machine Accurate
power system models of the dynamic elements are very important for optimal decision
making, planning, efficient operation and protection of the power grid.

Parameters of generators may differ from those in the utility’s database due to aging
processes, magnetic saturation, or changes of temperature during machine operation.
As a matter of fact, many utilities around the world still use machine model parameters
calculated during generator commissioning, leading to substantial differences between
the actual and simulated dynamic behaviour. Many studies have been done to seek the
best way to estimate the generator parameters.

IEEE released Standard Procedures and Guide to obtain the synchronous generator
parameters. However, these methods can only be applied for the generator during
offline status. When the generator is put into operation, the parameters may change
again. Some other online approaches have been proposed by researchers.

In operational data from both steady state and disturbance operation are utilized to
estimate the generator parameters. Reference uses the least square algorithm to
perform the parameter estimation from experimental data. In measurements from a
hydro unit are used to extract the generator and exciter parameters.

Reference uses a simplified discrete auto-regression with an exogenous input model.

Since it is a simplified model, it cannot represent the electromagnetic. Among all the
generator parameter estimation literatures (including, most of them use the common
synchronous generator dq0 model. The widely-used dq0 model is derived from the
actual three phase model after applying Park's transformation.

The application of Park's transformation reduces the three AC quantities to three DC

quantities. In addition, it decouples the equations. Thus, the calculation can be
simplified. However, the Park's transformation is carried out based on the assumption
that the reference frame rotates at synchronous speed.

So when frequency changes and there are imbalances, the dq0 model loses accuracy
which is also amplified under asymmetrical or unbalanced generator conditions (which
is quite normal when internal faults occur in the generator). A more accurate approach
to this problem is to model the synchronous generators with physical parameters, that
is, the actual self and mutual inductances of the generator windings as a function of the
rotor position.

By this way, various loading conditions such as sudden application and removal of
balanced and unbalanced loads, rectifier loads, and symmetrical and asymmetrical faults
can be easily investigated. Chapter 3 Synchronous Generator Protection Synchronous
generators supply almost all the electric power we consume today. The rotor of a
synchronous generator needs to be driven by a source o f mechanical power or prime
mover and the field winding needs to be fed by a source o f DC power in order to
provide active and reactive power to the power system.

These exclusive combinations of electrical and mechanical equipment need to be

protected against different kinds of faults. Generator faults are always considered to be
serious since they can cause severe and costly damage to insulation, windings, core,
shafts and couplings [1]. Protective relays using variety of signals are meant to monitor
and provide proper signals to alarm or remove the generator from the system under
faulty conditions.

Such abnormal conditions and associated protective devices will be discussed in the
next section. AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD INSTITUTE [ANSI] numbers of the
protective devices are listed in [2], 3.1 Generator Protection 3.1.1 Synchronous
Generator Protection Relays Abnormal conditions of a generator could be in the stator
or in the rotor field [3]. Figure 3.l

illustrates a typical generator protective scheme. Each protective device could be a stand
alone relay or multi function relay. With the introduction of fast CPUs, numerical relays
contain more than one protective device are very common. Use of multi function relays
has advantages o f simplicity in testing qnd calibrating, saving panel space, faster and
easier installation and wiring [4], As Figure 3.1 [5] shows the relay needs different analog
signals representing generator working Conditions such as voltages, currents, and
temperature.

These signals are being provided to the relay by sensors and current and voltage
transformers. Numeric relays using digital processing techniques converts these analog
signals to a discrete signal and with different algorithm the amplitude and phasor angle
of the signal could be obtained. The numeric procedures are explained in [6]-[9].

With these signals, relay will internally calculate the other parameters needed for a
particular protective function. If calculated parameter exceeds the relay settings set for
the particular generator, the relay will provide the appropriate signal for tripping or
alarming purposes. / Fig. 1. Generator protection scheme 3.1.2

Brief Description of the Synchronous Generator Protective Devices Each protective

function represented by an ANSI number [2] is well known in industry. In this section the
devices shown in Figure 1 will be briefly explained in numerical order. Distance relay This
relay is an impedance relay which uses voltage and current phasors to measure the
impedance in front of the generator.

Basically this device protects the generator from an external fault. If this impedance falls
into the relay characteristic, relay will trip the generator. Over excitation relay This relay
uses voltage and frequency to calculate the ratio V/Hz and if the value exceeds 1.05 per
unit (pu), the relay picks up. Oveijexcitation can occur during start-up or shutdown at
reduced frequency.

This abnormal condition can cause localized hot spot in the stator, lamination damage
and field over-teniperature [3],[11]. Under-voltage relay This device monitors the
generator voltage and will provide signal if the voltage drops under the limit. Voltage
measurements can be used to detect that something unusual is happening on the
system, but generally this information will not give any indication of the location of the
problem. Hence, measurement of voltage is usually reserved for overall system
protection functions [12].

Power direction relay This device is a reverse power relay which monitors the direction
of generator power to prevent any reverse flow of active power (motoring mode o f
operation). Motoring is an abnormal condition that can cause serious mechanical
damage to prime mover. A time delay is always associated with this device to lbt normal
power swing and synchronizing. In some applications this relay could be used for load
shedding [13].

Device 40: Loss o f Excitation This device is an impedance relay connected to generator
terminals to monitor generator impedance. When a generator loses excitation, it
operates as an induction generator running above synchronous speed [14]. Undeir such
condition the generator impedance enters the relay characteristic. This relay will be
discussed in detail in this research work.

Current unbalance This device monitors the negative sequence component of the
current and if this current exceeds from the relay setting, relay will operate. The most
common causes of unbalance current are system asymmetries, unbalance loads,
unbalance fault and open phase [3]. These system conditions produce
negative-pha$e-sequence components of current which induce a double-frequency
current in the surface of the rotor, the retaining rings, the slot i wedges, and to a smaller
degree, in the field winding.

These rotor currents may cause high and possibly dangerous temperatures in a very
short time [13]. Over temperature This device senses the temperature through RT]D or
TC at different spots of the generator and provides a thermal protection. Usually this
relay is not used for primary protection [5].

Time delay over current This device monitors currents flowing through generator
windings and provide a time i delay over load protection for the particular part. The
relay has an inverse time characteristic and provides a time delay which is inversely
proportional to the over load current magnitude [15]. Device 51V is the voltage
restrained time delay over current relay which provides better protection when under
voltage condition exists [13].

Over voltage relay Over voltage relay is for monitoring the voltage and if the voltage
exceeds from the relay preset level, it will trip. Over-voltage can shorten insulation life
and accelerate insulation failure. Voltage Balance This device compares two voltages
from two different set of voltage transformers (VTs) and kicks in if these two voltages
are not balanced.

Most common use of this relay is to detect VT fuse failure. If a fuse blows in the
protective relay, the relay will alarm and block possible incorrect tripping by protective
re by the change in potential. Typical relay fun< normally blocked [13].

Relays whose performance may be affected functions such as 21V, 40V, and 51V are
Ground fault The function of this device is to detect ground fault in the stator or rotor
field winding. It is a common practice to ground all types of generators through some
form o f external impedance. The purpose o f this grounding is tp limit the mechanical
stresses and fault damage in the generator, to limit transient voltages during faults, and
to provide a means for detecting ground faults within the generator.

The magnitude of stator ground-fault current decreases almost linearly as the fault
location moves from the stator terminals ground fault near the neutral of a ground fault
current becomes small toward the neutral o f the generator [16]. For a connected
generator, the available phase-to regardless o f the grounding method. Therefore
typical over current relays are not suitable to detect ground fault.

Out-of-step relay This function o f this relay is to detect the loss-of-synchronism

condition of the generator. The relay contains o f two blinder elements supervised by a
mho relay to prevent nuisance tripping for stable swings. Figure 4 illustrates the relay
characteristics [17]. The basic operation of this relay is the same as LOF relay and it will
well explained in the next chapter.

Over/Under frequency This relay is to detect abnormal frequency conditions. The

operation of generators at abnormal frequencies (either over-frequency or
under-frequency) generally results from full or partial load rejection or from overloading
o f the generator. Full or partial load rejection may be caused by clearing o f system
major system disturbance.

Load rejection will cause the generator to over-speed and operate at some frequency
above normal [3]. Multi stage under frequency relay can be used for automatic load
shedding [18]. Differential Relay This relay looks into a zone defined by location of
current transformers and if the input current does not match with output current in that
zone, it rapidly trips the generator. The most common differential relay is variable slope
relay. In this relay there are two main parts or coils.
One is operating part and the other is restraint part. The slope of relay characteristic
varies with the values of through current. CHAPTER-4 Reverse Power Relay for Generator
Protection Protection relays play a very important role in the safe and reliable operation
of power system. Insecure or failed protection systems may make the situation worse
and lead to the system blackouts. All faulted conditions do not lead to such situations.

Faults that causes such situations include N-1 contingency of line, overloads, reverse
power flow (loss of mechanical input) and others [1]. A typical protection scheme is an
arrangement of various types of relays such as overcurrent, short circuit relay,
over-under voltage, over-under frequency relays and others. In 90’s, most of the relays
in power system were electromechanical, later on replaced with solid-state.

Now both types of relays are being replaced with digital relays. Digitals relays offer
advantage of fast in operation, small in size and reliable in operation in case of power
system fault [2-3]. The relay also offers advantage in terms of their sensitivity and wide
range controlling.

Simulation tools offer great help particularly for fresh engineers and researchers to
familiarize with real operation of power system [4]. As a researcher, the behaviour of the
system could be seen under different scenarios and results could be manipulated, which
is not possible in healthy system. MATLAB also offers simulation based Power System
Analysis Toolbox for power system engineers. However this toolbox does not have
protection relays modules.

In this paper, the design of a digital Reverse Power Relay (RPR) is constructed on
MATLAB/Simulink®. Several digitization process also include in signal processing. Such
steps are also discussed in this paper. 4.1 REVERSE POWER RELAY (ANSI CODE - 32)
Reverse Power Relays (RPR) are commonly used in power system for detecting motoring
action of synchronous generator.

This condition normally occurs when the prime mover (engine or turbine) fails, however
the field winding is still connected with the excitation system. This resulted in motoring
action and the machine behaves like a synchronous motor connected with large power
system. In such condition, the turbines become the active load on that machine.

Motoring action draws power from the system to drive the prime mover and can cause
severe damage to the prime mover. This condition is not desirable and there is an
objectionable temperature rise in case of steam turbine. Therefore such conditions need
to detect quickly and the GCB should be tripped [5].
Diesel engines and gas turbines are less susceptible to immediate damage, but
unburned fuel may present a fire or explosion hazard. TABLE I MOTORING REVERSE
POWER REQUIREMENTS AND REVERSE POWER POSSIBLE DAMAGES [6] / Table 1 gives
the details of the potential problems for various prime mover types and the typical
settings for reverse power protection [6]. The RPR is usually set to 20% to 50% of the
motoring power required by prime mover.

Here the word ‘motoring power’ means the minimum amount of power required by the
generator to run the prime mover at the rated rpm. This data is usually obtained from
the manufacturer of the prime mover [6]. For illustration of motoring power and reverse
power relay setting, an example is given below. Consider a 440MVA generator, with no
load losses of generator 1.785 MVA and permissible motoring time is 15sec.

the other necessary data include: ƒ No Load Loss of Turbine 1,350 KW No Load Loss of
TG unit 3,135 KW Permissible Motoring Time 60 Sec. Relay Constant 1 pu. = Generator
KVA The permissible motoring setting is 30%. For RPR settings, two parameters need to
be calculated include (1) Reverse power trip level (2) Time delay. For Safe Operation --
Reverse Power Trip Level: • Trip Level < No load loss of TG unit * 0.3 = 3,135 * 0.3 =
940.5

KW • Pick up = Trip level / relay constant = 941 / 440= 0.0021 pu • Setting = - 0.0021
pu (924kW) Reverse Power Trip Delay Trip Delay < Permissible Motoring time Setting =
750 Cycles for 50Hz system (15 Sec) Reverse power condition could also occur during
synchronization, when the frequency of the machine to be synchronized is slightly lesser
than the bus bar frequency and the breaker is closed.

In such condition power will flow from the bus bar to that machine. Therefore during
synchronization frequency of the incoming machine is kept slight higher than that of the
bus bar. This ensures that the machine takes on load as soon as the breaker is closed [7].
RPR could also be used for islanding detection.

Whenever the difference between load and available generation is not sufficient to
obtain an appreciable rate of change of frequency but the active power continues to
flow into the grid to feed external loads, RPR with UF can be used to detect loss of grid
supply[8]. The other applications of reverse power relay could be seen in [9]. 4.2.

PRINCIPLE OF REVERSE POWER RELAY A reverse power relay is a directional relay that is
used to monitor the power flow from generator (running in parallel with another
generator or the utility) and in case of abnormal condition take appropriate action.
Under abnormal condition, the direction of power changes from the bus bar into the
generator. This condition normally occurs when prime mover fails.

The real power drawn from the grid is quite small compared with the generator rating.
However stator current undergoes 180" phase shift normally referred as Maximum
Torque Angle (MTA) as shown in Fig. 4.1. This suggests that if we use a directional relay
with MTA of 180" (using generator phase angle conventions) then it could detect the
loss of prime mover as the current phasor would reverse and enter the trip region.

However the magnitude of this reversed current phasor is quite small compared to the
forward current as the generator draws just enough real power to meet the losses and
drive the turbine. Hence, the directional relay for detecting the loss of prime mover
needs to have a high degree of sensitivity compared to directional relays used for
over-current application [10]. / Figure 4.1.

(a) Phasor Representation (b) Block Representation of Current and Voltages under
Reverse Power Flow The installation of RPR on a power system is shown in Fig. 4.2. For
applications where a protection sensitivity of better than 3% is required, a metering class
CT should be employed to avoid incorrect protection behavior due to CT phase angle
errors when the generator supplies a significant level of reactive power at close to zero
power-factor.

The reverse power protection should be provided with a definite time delay on
operation to prevent spurious operation with transient power swings that may arise
following synchronization or in the event of a power transmission system disturbance
[6]. / Figure 4.2. Reverse Power Relay in Power System Let ‘d’ is the angle between
current and voltage on phase A, then under normal direction of load flow -90o < d <
90o and in case of reversed power flow +90o < d < 270o [11].

It has been observed that the overlapping interval between voltage and current is longer
than their non-overlapping interval during normal conditions as shown in Fig. 4.3a.
However this overlapping reduces to a low level in case of reverse power flow, shown in
Fig. 4.3b. / Figure 4.3a. Angle between Voltage and Current Waveforms under Normal
Conditions / Figure 4.3b.

Angle between Voltage and Current Waveforms under Fault Conditions This difference
of overlapping interval under normal and reversed power flow conditions will be used to
implement the directional element of the relay. CHAPTER-5 Reverse Power Detection in
Synchronous Generator 5.1 Introduction A synchronous generator is a three-phase
machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
This machine requires enough direct current and voltage in its field winding to produce
the rotor magnetic field. In order to rotate the magnetic field in the generator, a prime
mover rotates the rotor of the machine [1, 2]. Consequently, due to the rotating
magnetic field, a three-phase set of voltages is induced in the generator stator windings
(see Fig. 1a).

In general, motoring action of the generator happens when the prime mover (turbine or
engine) fails, however the excitation system is in service. Therefore, the synchronous
generator behaves like a synchronous motor connected to a large power network.
Under this condition, the turbines operate similarly to an active load of the synchronous
motor and extensive heat will be generated in the body of the turbines [5].

These situations are not desirable and must be detected as soon as possible before
severe damage to the prime mover and the generator circuit breaker must be tripped.
Directional relays are the most widely used as the main protection for these conditions.
These relays did not remove the generator from the power system as quickly as
expected, and there are concerns about potential damage to the different types of
prime movers [3, 6, 7].

For gas turbines, reverse power relays are usually set to 3–5% of the rated power,
whereas for steam turbines the relays must be set to 2–3% of the rated power,
according to the small amount of active power drawn by the motoring generator [3, 7].
In the other words, the active power drawn from the power network is actually small
compared with the machine rating. Fig.

1b shows a typical behaviour of the generator stator current that goes 180° phase shift
normally referred as maximum torque angle (MTA) following reverse power condition. It
is worth highlighting that the amplitude of this reversed current phasor is thoroughly
small compared to the forward current. Therefore, the directional relay for protecting
the reverse power condition requires to have a high degree of sensitivity compared to
these relays employed for over-current protection [4].

Another point worth highlighting is that in order to avoid maloperation due to system
disturbances, it is necessary to utilise an intentional time delay (typically around 6 s) as
part of the relay [7]. However, this intentional time delay to prevent maloperation is not
an ideal solution. As this time delay increases the relay operation time, which means that
the generator motoring persists for a longer time and would cause severe damage to
the prime mover as overheating in steam turbines and cavitation in hydro turbines.
For industrial applications with more than one machine, the settings of the reverse
power relay can be critical in the case of islanding condition. In fact, some generators
may have mistrips during a reverse power condition which depends on the different
droop settings of the governors, the amount of the machine initial loadings and the
different capabilities of the turbines [3, 4].

Power oscillations can happen between motors and generators in the site when a fault
was the cause of separation from the power network. It must be noted that similar to
external disturbances these short swings of oscillations will not cause the reverse power
relay to operate with an appropriately selected time delay.

However, as stated earlier, this intentional time delay to prevent misoperation is not an
ideal solution and this time delay increases the reverse power relay operation time.
Another important concern that should be considered is the steady-state operating
point which these initial power oscillations diminish. Fig. 1c shows how the available
load will be shared between two generators by a horizontal straight line crossing the
two droop curves.

During separation from the power system, the two machines operate at the same speed
and this horizontal straight line provides a sum of the active power output of the two
machines equal to the load [3]. In this procedure, a negative power output means that
the motoring action of the synchronous generator exists and depending on the
threshold value, the reverse power relay trips the corresponding generator (see Fig. 1d).
Fig.

1d shows that two generators have similar droops with different initial operating points
and it is supposed that the load is reduced. As illustrated in this figure, this reduced load
will not share between two generators proportion to their initial outputs, if the load is
not enough to keep both machines at positive output. In the other words, one machine
acts as a motor and may be tripped from the network by the reverse power relay.

Therefore, the initial operating point is a very important factor in this protection and will
change with time depending on machine situation. In order to compensate the loading
effect, the generator droop could be set. However, the range of the droop adjustment is
limited, and this tuning is not easy or precise [3]. The situation of a machine also / Fig.

1 Synchronous generator Configuration, (b) Phasor demonstration following reverse

power condition [4], (c Sharing a load between two generators [3], (d) Two generators
with same droops and different initial operating points [3] Affects its droop and this
characteristic is actually variable from machine to machine, even for two machines with
similar droops as the line droop curves might indicate.

Furthermore, during the procedure of droop adjustment in power plants with both
steam and gas turbines (cogeneration systems), coordination of the governor controls in
the case of islanding condition is quite complex according to their different operating
characteristics and capabilities [3]. Modelling and simulation of the directional reverse
power relay has been presented in [4]. In this reference, the digitisation process of a
signal is also discussed.

This method has been improved by presenting a double threshold reverse power relay
[6]. The double threshold method enhances the speed of the existing standard reverse
power relay, although it is not considerable. In this method, regardless of the initial
machine loading, a time delay corresponds to half the power oscillation frequency has
been used.

However, as previously described, the use of intentional time delay to prevent

misoperation is not an ideal solution. It should be noted that a few investigations exist
to detect the reverse power condition and are approximately limited to [4, 6].
Furthermore, virtually, no study has been reported for the detection of this condition by
using other criteria.

On the other hand, investigations on the fault detection of electrical machines using
magnetic flux analysis have been suggested as a topical subject of research in recent
studies [8–13]. In addition, it has been proven by the author that using the analysis of
this criterion is an efficient technique for detection of the internal faults [14–16], loss of
field condition [17–19] and out-of step protection [20] in synchronous generators.

Therefore, in order to design a comprehensive fault diagnosis system based on the

analysis of the magnetic flux criterion and in a continuation of the earlier works, this
paper presents a new flux-based predictive approach to detect reverse power condition
in the synchronous generators. The scheme uses the analysis of angular velocity and
acceleration data that are calculated from the estimated magnetic flux of the machine at
the relay location.

To demonstrate the satisfying operation of the proposed scheme, the comparison is

made with directional reverse power relay by considering different loading conditions.
The results demonstrate that the application of the suggested scheme is
straightforward, even for a power plant with different turbines without any coordination
studies. Furthermore, these results show that the proposed predictive algorithm
enhances speed, security and sensitivity to detect the reverse power condition. 5.2
Magnetic flux as the new index for reverse power protection This section describes why
magnetic flux is chosen as the new index for reverse power detection. 5.2.1 Main index
As it was mentioned above, under reverse power condition, motoring action of the
synchronous generator happens and the synchronous generator behaves like a
synchronous motor. For motor and generator operation modes, the flux phasor
diagrams under synchronism condition are illustrated in Figs. 2a and b, respectively.

In synchronous machine, two magnetic fields (i.e. BR and Bs) are present in the space of
the machine. In fact, the excitation current of the machine (IF) generates a steady-state
rotor magnetic field as BR and a three-phase set of AC currents in a stator winding
generates a uniform rotating magnetic field as Bs. Under motor operation condition, the
rotor magnetic field tends to align with the stator field.

Since magnetic field of the stator is rotating and the rotor field will try to catch up
pulling the rotor while under generator operation condition, the stator magnetic field
tends to align with the rotor magnetic field. As stated earlier, in generator operation
condition, the rotor and its magnetic field are turned by external means and the stator
field will try to follow the rotor magnetic field.

Therefore, the operation of a synchronous machine is based on the stator and rotor
fluxes aligning themselves and rotating together at synchronous speed (i.e. ns). A load
angle (d) appears between both fluxes and this phenomenon is called synchronism
condition (see Figs. 2a and b). It is worth highlighting that the load angle is negative for
motor operation and positive for generator operation.

However, this relationship disappears in the out-of-step condition of the machine [20]. It
is noteworthy that, under reverse power condition, the synchronism action of the
machine is present in both cases of generating and motoring modes. A typical
behaviour of active power and load angle of a synchronous generator following reverse
power condition are shown in Figs. 2c and d.

In these figures, it is assumed that the / Fig. 2 Synchronous machine (a) Flux phasor
diagram of a generator, (b) Flux phasor diagram of a motor, (c) Typical behaviour of
active power of a generator following reverse power condition, (d) Typical behaviour of
load angle of a generator following reverse power condition / (5.1) Where M represents
the machine inertia coefficient, Te and Tm are the electromagnetic and mechanical
torques, respectively, TA is the accelerating torque and w is the frequency of the
network. The accelerating torque will be produced by two types of changes, i.e. change
in Tm and change in Te.
In reverse power condition, due to the disruption in steam flow, the mechanical torque
decreases, the generator experiences a negative acceleration and its speed decreases.
Therefore, as stated earlier, synchronous speed of the machine will be affected by the
condition and this change will be reflected in the magnetic flux argument.

According to Figs. 2c and d, it can be seen that, under reverse power fault the power
network returns to a new stable condition with the motoring action of the synchronous
generator. In the other words, in reverse power condition the stability is not lost for both
cases of generating and motoring modes.

In fact, under reverse power condition, the load angle (i.e. d) oscillates and reaches a
maximum value and then decreases, subsequently it illustrates that the power system
has stability. At that point, because of damping inherently present in the power system,
the value of the derivative of the load angle (dd/dt) is zero.

Consequently, oscillations will be smaller and smaller. It must be noted that while load
angle varies, if at one instant of time, the derivative of the load angle (dd/dt) is zero,
subsequently the stability is ensured [22]. On the other hand, if the load angle increases
indefinitely, subsequently it illustrates that the power system is unstable (see Figs. 3a
and b).

In order to find the situation for the derivative of the load angle (dd/dt) to become zero,
both sides of (1) are multiplied by dd/dt as follows: / (5.2) / (5.3) By using (3) and doing
some trigonometric derivations, the swing equation can be written as follows: / (5.4)
Integrating (4) / (5.5) Finally, the derivative of the load angle can be found as follows: /
(5.6) Before the reverse power occurs, d0 was the load angle and at this time dd/dt?=?0.

As soon as the reverse power happens, dd/dt is no longer zero and the load angle starts
changing. Load angle will stop to vary and the generator will operate in a new stable
condition with the motoring action, when dd/dt?=?0, i.e. / (5.7) It is worth mentioning
that the generator will not stay at rest with respect to the power system at the first time
when dd/dt?=?0.

However, according to damping present in the power system, during consequent

fluctuation, maximum value of the load angle keeps on decreasing. This means that the
power system has stability and the generator will attain a new operating point with the
motoring action. A typical behaviour of load angle, angular velocity, angular acceleration
and flux of a synchronous generator following reverse power condition on the machine
basis are shown in Fig. 3c. Furthermore, a zoom in on the load angle and angular
velocity are illustrated in Fig. 3d.

In these figures, it is assumed that the generator loses its prime mover at t?=?20 s.As
stated earlier and according to these figures, it can be clearly seen that before loss of
prime mover, due to the synchronism condition of the generator, angular acceleration is
zero and after loss of the prime mover, due to the disruption in steam flow, the
Mechanical torque decreases, the generator experiences a negative acceleration and its
speed decreases. On the other hand, it is evident from Fig. 3d that after 20.5

s of simulation inception, the derivative of the load angle (dd/dt) is zero and motoring
action of the synchronous generator can be predicted. CHAPTER 6
MATLAB/SIMULATION RESULTS MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical
computing. It integrates computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use
environment where problems and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical
notation.

Typical uses include- Math and computation Algorithm development Data acquisition
Modeling, simulation, and prototyping Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
Scientific and engineering graphics MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data
element is an array that does not require dimensioning. This allows solving many
technical computing problems, especially those with matrix and vector formulations, in a
fraction of the time it would take to write a program in a scalar non-interactive language
such as C or FORTRAN.

The MATLAB system consists of six main parts: (a) Development Environment This is the
set of tools and facilities that help to use MATLAB functions and files. Many of these
tools are graphical user interfaces. It includes the MATLAB desktop and Command
Window, a command history, an editor and debugger, and browsers for viewing help,
the workspace, files, and the search path.

(b) The MATLAB Mathematical Function Library This is a vast collection of computational
algorithms ranging from elementary functions, like sum, sine, cosine, and complex
arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions like matrix inverse, matrix Eigen values,
Bessel functions, and fast Fourier transforms. (c)The MATLAB Language This is a
high-level matrix/array language with control flow statements, functions, data structures,
input/output, and object-oriented programming features.

It allows both "programming in the small" to rapidly create quick and dirty throw-away
programs, and "programming in the large" to create large and complex application
programs. (d) Graphics MATLAB has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and
matrices as graphs, as well as annotating and printing these graphs. It includes
high-level functions for two-dimensional and three-dimensional data visualization,
image processing, animation, and presentation graphics.

It also includes low-level functions that allow to fully customize the appearance of
graphics as well as to build complete graphical user interfaces on MATLAB applications.
(e)The MATLAB Application Program Interface (API) This is a library that allows writing in
C and FORTRAN programs that interact with MATLAB. It includes facilities for calling
routines from MATLAB (dynamic linking), calling MATLAB as a computational engine,
and for reading and writing MAT-files.

(f) MATLAB Documentation MATLAB provides extensive documentation, in both printed

and online format, to help to learn about and use all of its features. It covers all the
primary MATLAB features at a high level, including many examples. The MATLAB online
help provides task-oriented and reference information about MATLAB features.

MATLAB documentation is also available in printed form and in PDF format. (g) Mat lab
tools (i) Three phase source block / / The Three-Phase Source block implements a
balanced three-phase voltage source with internal R-L impedance. The three voltage
sources are connected in Y with a neutral connection that can be internally ground.

(ii) VI measurement block The Three-Phase V-I Measurement block is used to measure
three-phase voltages and currents in a circuit. When connected in series with
three-phase elements, it returns the three phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase voltages
and the three line currents / / (iii) Scope Display signals generated during a simulation.
The Scope block displays its input with respect to simulation time.

The Scope block can have multiple axes (one per port); all axes have a common time
range with independent y-axes. The Scope allows you to adjust the amount of time and
the range of input values displayed. You can move and resize the Scope window and
you can modify the Scope's parameter values during the simulation / / (iv).

Three-Phase Series RLC Load The Three-Phase Series RLC Load block implements a
three-phase balanced load as a series combination of RLC elements. At the specified
frequency, the load exhibits constant impedance. The active and reactive powers
absorbed by the load are proportional to the square of the applied voltage.

/ Three-Phase Series RLC Load (v) Three-Phase Breaker block The Three-Phase Breaker
block implements a three-phase circuit breaker where the opening and closing times
can be controlled either from an external Simulink signal or from an internal control
signal. / Three-Phase Breaker block (vi)Integrator: Library: Continuous / The integrator
block outputs the integral of its input at the current time step.

The following equation represents the output of the block y as a function of its input u
and an initial condition y0, where y and u are vector functions of the current simulation
time t. (vii)Breaker: Implement circuit breaker opening at current zero crossing. Library:
Elements / Purpose: The Breaker block implements a circuit breaker where the opening
and closing times can be controlled either from an external simulink signal (external
control mode), or from an internal control timer (internal control mode). A series Rs-Cs
snubber circuit is included in the model.

It can be connected to the circuit breaker. If the Breaker block happens to be in series
with an inductive circuit, an open circuit or a current source, you must use a snubber.
When the breaker block is set in external control mode, a Simulink input appears on the
block icon.

The control signal connected to the simulink input must be either 0 or 1 (0 to open the
breaker, 1 to close it). When the Breaker block is set in internal control mode, the
switching times are specified in the dialog box of the block. When the breaker is closed,
it is represented by a resistance Ron.

The Ron value can be set as small as necessary in order to be negligible compared with
external components (a typical value is 10 mohms). When the breaker is open, it has an
infinite resistance. (viii) Three-Phase Programmable Voltage Source Implement
three-phase voltage source with programmable time variation of amplitude, phase,
frequency, and harmonics Library: Electrical Sources
_/ Purpose: This block is used to generate a three-phase sinusoidal voltage with
time-varying parameters.

It can be programmed with the time variation for the amplitude, phase, or frequency of
the fundamental component of the source. In addition, two harmonics can be
programmed and superimposed on the fundamental signal. (ix)Trigonometric Function
Specified trigonometric function on input Library: Math Operations / Purpose: The
Trigonometric Function block performs common trigonometric functions (x)Three-Phase
Transformer (Two Windings) Implement three-phase transformer with configurable
winding connections Library: Elements / Purpose: The Three-Phase Transformer (Two
Windings) block implements a three-phase transformer using three single-phase
transformers.

The saturation characteristic, when activated, is the same as the one described for the
saturable Transformer block, and the icon of the block is automatically updated. If the
fluxes are not specified, the initial values are automatically adjusted so that the
simulation starts in steady state. (xi)Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals Implement
three single-phase, two-winding transformers where all terminals are accessible Library:
Elements / Purpose: The Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals block implements three
single-phase, two-winding linear transformers where all the twelve winding connectors
are accessible.

The block can be used in place of the Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings) block to
implement a three-phase transformer when primary and secondary are not necessarily
connected in Star or Delta. (xii)IGBT/Diode Implements ideal IGBT, GTO, or MOSFET and
anti parallel diode Library: Power Electronics / Purpose: The IGBT/Diode block is a
simplified mode of an IGBT (or GTO or MOSFET)/Diode pair where the forward voltages
of the forced-commutated device and diode are ignored.

(XII)Pulse Generator The Pulse Generator block generates square wave pulses at regular
intervals. The block's waveform parameters, Amplitude, Pulse Width, Period, and Phase
Delay, determine the shape of the output waveform. The following diagram shows how
each parameter affects the waveform.

/ Pulse generator (XIII)Repeating Sequence The Repeating Sequence block outputs a

periodic scalar signal having a waveform that you specify. You can specify any
waveform, using the Time values and Output values parameters. The Time values
parameter specifies a vector of sample times. The Output values parameter specifies a
vector of signal amplitudes at the corresponding sample times.

The Repeating Sequence block uses linear interpolation to compute the value of the
waveform between the sample points you specify. / Repeating sequence Time values A
vector of monotonically increasing time values. The default is [0 2]. Output values A
vector of output values. Each element corresponds to the time value in the same
column. The default is [0 2]. (XIV)Constant The Constant block generates a real or
complex constant value.

The block generates scalar, vector, or matrix output, depending on the dimensionality of
the Constant value parameter and the setting of the Interpret vector parameters as 1-D
parameter. Also, the block can generate either a sample-based or frame-based signal,
depending on the setting of the Sampling mode parameter. The output of the block has
the same dimensions and elements as the Constant value parameter.

If you specify a vector for this parameter, and you want the block to interpret it as a
vector, select the Interpret vector parameters as 1-D parameter. Otherwise, the block
treats the Constant value parameter as a matrix. / Constant block Constant value Specify
the constant value output of the block. 6.1) MATLAB/SIMULINK RESULTS: / Fig 6.1
simulink diagram of proposed circuit / figure 6.2 proposed circuit current wave form /
(a) / (b) Figure 6.3.

Relay performance (a) Input/Output Power (b) Relay Status CHAPTER-7 CONCLUSION It
has been proven by the author that the magnetic flux analysis is an efficient technique
for detection of the internal faults, loss of excitation and out-of-step conditions in
synchronous generators. Therefore, in order to design a comprehensive fault diagnosis
system based on the analysis of this criterion and in a continuation of the earlier works,
this paper presents a new flux-based predictive approach to detect reverse power
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