Er.

Dipesh Koirala

Chapter 1
Introduction to Hydropower Development
1.1 Sources of energy
Sources of energy are basically classified into two types:
a) Conventional sources of energy
 Those sources of energy that have been is use from the time immemorial are called
conventional sources. E.g.: water, firewood , nuclear power, coal, natural gas,
petroleum, etc
 They are exhaustible except hydro energy.
 Cause pollution.
 Generation and use involves high expenditure.
 Expensive to maintain, store and transmit
b) Non- conventional sources of energy
 Those sources of energy that have been identified in the recent past and are still in the
process of identification are called non-conventional sources. E.g.: solar energy, wind
energy, tidal energy, geothermal energy, biogas, etc
 They are inexhaustible
 Generally pollution free
 Low expenditure
 Less expensive due to local use and easy maintenance.
Note: Do not confuse conventional and non-convention sources of energy with
renewable and non- renewable sources of energy
Renewable sources of energy:
The sources of energy which are being produced continuously in nature and are inexhaustible
are called renewable sources of energy (non-conventional energy). They are available in
plenty and by far most the cleanest sources of energy available on this planet. e.g. solar,
wind, tidal hydro etc
Non-renewable sources of energy:
A nonrenewable resource is a natural resource that cannot be re-made or re-grown at a scale
comparable to its consumption. They are called non-renewable because they cannot be re-
generated within a short span of time. Non-renewable sources exist in the form of fossil fuels,
natural gas, oil and coal.

1.1.1 Different Sources of energy

Solar Energy
• Harvests the energy of the sun through using panels
• Can’t be used for national scale
• Only certain geographical ranges of the world get enough of the direct power of the
sun for long enough to generate usable power from this source.
Wind Energy
• When air moves quickly, in the form of wind, those particles are moving quickly.
(motion means kinetic energy)
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• Turbine blades capture wind energy and start moving, they spin a shaft that leads
from the hub of the rotor to a generator. The generator turns that rotational energy into
electricity.
Hydropower:
• Hydropower is power derived from the force of moving water. It is widely used to
produce electricity, among other useful purposes.
• Hydropower is a versatile, flexible technology that at its smallest can power a single
home, and at its largest can supply industry and the public with renewable electricity
on a national and even regional scale.
Geothermal Energy
• Energy that is produced from beneath the earth
• Hot rocks present below the earth heats up the water that produces steam.
• The steam is then captured that helps to move turbines. The rotating turbines then
power the generators.
• Can’t be used for national scale
Tidal energy
• Uses rise and fall of tides to convert kinetic energy of incoming and outgoing tides
into electrical energy.
• The generation of energy through tidal power is mostly prevalent in coastal areas.
• Huge investment and limited availability of sites are few of the drawbacks of tidal
energy.
Nuclear Energy
• Use of nuclear reaction that release nuclear energy to generate heat, which most
frequently is then used in steam turbines to produce electricity in a nuclear power
plant.
• Great subject of debate as to how safe it is to use, and whether or not it is really
energy efficient when you take into account the waste it produces
Biomass energy
• Produced from organic material and is commonly used throughout the world
• Generally include crops, plants, trees, yard clippings, wood chips and animal wastes.
• Used for heating and cooking in homes and as a fuel in industrial production.

Fossil fuels
• Provide the power for most of the world, primarily using coal and oil.
• To get to the fossil fuel and convert it to use, there has to be a heavy destruction
and pollution of the environment.
• The fossil fuel reserves are also limited, expecting to last only another 100 years
given the basic rate of consumption.

1.2 Introduction to Hydropower and Hydropower Engineering

 In nature, energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, but can be changed from
one form to another. Therefore, to generate electricity (i.e. electrical energy) one form
of energy has to be converted to another form.
 To generate electricity, water must be in motion. This is kinetic (moving) energy.
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 When flowing water turns blades in a turbine, the form is changed to mechanical
(machine) energy.
 The turbine turns the generator rotor which then converts this mechanical energy into
another energy form -- electricity.
 Since water is the initial source of energy, we call this hydroelectric power or
hydropower for short.

Energy of flowing
water Mechanical energy Electrical energy by
(Presure, potential, of Rotating Turbibe generator
kinetic)

Thus, Hydropower is the power that can be generated in the form of mechanical power or
electric power on account of energy head associated with the flowing or still water.

Hydropower engineering is the branch of engineering tries to tap this vast amount of energy
available in the flowing water on the earth’s surface and convert that to electricity.

1.3 Classification of Hydropower Projects

Hydropower projects can be classified on different basis:

1.3.1.1 Based on Head

Different country and different research have different classification based on head. General
Classification is as:
– High head (> 300 m) — Pelton turbine is used
– Medium head (50 m - 300 m) —Francis turbine is used
– Low head (< 50 m) — Kaplan/Francis turbine is used

1.3.1.2 Based on Installed Capacity

Classification by Professor Mosony
– Midget hydropower plant (up to 100 kW)
– Low capacity hydropower plant (100 kW – 1 MW)
– Medium hydropower plant (1 MW – 10 MW)
– High capacity hydropower plant (10 MW – 500 MW)
Classification popularly used in Nepal
– Micro hydropower (upto 100 kW)
– Mini hydropower (100 kW -1 MW)
– Small hydropower (1 MW – 25 MW)
– Medium hydropower (25 MW – 100 MW)
– Large hydropower (> 100 MW)

1.3.1.3 Based on operation

– Isolated plant
– Grid connected
• Base load power plant
• Peak load power plant
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Isolated plant:
• Not connected to National Grid
• In rural areas, many micro and mini hydropwers are in isloated system.
• Operation is difficult due to huge demand variation.
Grid connected
• Connected in grid with several other plants and operated through a single system
• INPS (Integrated Nepal Power System) has all projects connected in Nepal. This grid
is owned by NEA.
• Grid connected Plants are of further two types:
– Peak load power plant
– Base load plant

Peak load power plant

– Designated and constructed to provide peak load during peak hours of the day and
during peak season
– In Nepal, PRoR projects are designated to supply daily peak loads and storage project
are designated to supply peak load during peak season and larger peaks during festive
and dry periods

Base load plant

– Runs continuously throughout the year
– In Nepal, the run of river plant acts as a base load plant.
– In other developed countries, coal and nuclear plants serve as base load plant.

1.3.1.4 Based On Scheme of Plant

Flowing river

Weir

Flushing
Intak
arr
e
Surge tank/Forebay
Gravel trap

Settling Power House

basin
Head race
Canal / Tunnel/ pipe
Penstock

Fig: Typical layout of RoR/PRoR

plants Tailrace
Canal / Tunnel/ pipe
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• RoR Plants (Run off River Plants)

– Cannot regulate the hydrograph of the source river.
– No any significance storage capacity.
– Weir is constructed to maintain a level and divert water to the downstream.
– Constructed on perennial river with adequate discharge.
– Khimti, Bhotekoshi, Indrawati are RoR plants.

• PRoR Plants (Peaking Run off River Plants)

– Regulate the daily hydrograph of the source river
– Can obstruct the flow during the non peak hours and operates at peak hours
– Storage capacity is available to store water only for few hours.
– Operates as peaking plant during dry season and as normal run of river plant in
wet season.
– Kaligandaki, Marshyangdi, Middle Marshyangdi etc are PRoR projects.

• Storage Plants
– The plants that can regulate the seasonal hydrograph of the source river
– Dam is constructed to provide a sufficient storage capacity to regulate the
yearly flow.
– Reservoir is filled in the rainy season and the water stored is used gradually
over the dry season depending on the needs of the system.
– High investment is required but provide a controlled regulation of water
– Kulekhani I, II and III are storage projects. (II and III are cascades of
Kulekhani I)
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• Pumped Storage Plants

– A pumped-storage plant has two reservoirs:
• Upper reservoir (Head water pond) - Like a conventional hydropower
plant, a dam creates a reservoir. The water in this reservoir flows
through the hydropower plant to create electricity.
• Lower reservoir (Tail water pond) - Water exiting the hydropower
plant flows into a lower reservoir rather than re-entering the river and
flowing downstream.
– During times of peak load, water is drawn from the upper reservoir to run the
reversible turbine-pump units in the turbine mode. The water released gets
collected in the lower reservoir.
– During off-peak hours, the reversible units are supplied with the excess
electricity available in the power grid which then pumps part of the water of
the tail-water pond back into the upper reservoir.
– The excess electricity in the grid is usually the generation of the RoR, Thermal
plants which are in continuous running mode.
– Begnas Rupa Pump Storage Project (Pokhara) is being studied in Nepal.
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Operation strategy in Nepal:

– In Nepal, RoR plants are running continuously.

– The PRoR plants operate only when power produced by RoR plants can’t meet the
daily peak demand i.e. during peak morning and evening hours.
– The storage plants operate only in dry months to meet the peak loads.

1.4 Advantages and disadvantages of hydropower as a source of energy

Advantages
– Renewable and clean energy source
– Dispatchable i.e. can be made available as required by demand
– Provides long life span
– Provides low operation and maintenance cost
– Great potential in our nation
– Can be developed in national scale and can be exported as well
Disadvantages
– High initial investment and longer payback period
– Rainfall dependent (No rainfall = no water in the river = no power)
– Large scale hydropower causes great submergence and resettling of people that
increases project cost
– Often requires foreign contractors and funding
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1.5 Importance of Hydropower in Nepal

(Why we should focus on developing hydropower?)
(Justification to develop hydropower in Nepal)

– Renewable and clean source of energy

– Nepal is rich in snow fed rivers with steep gradient (discharge and head available for
power generation)
– Improved economic growth, job creation, and quality of life.
– No harmful byproducts and environmental friendly.
– Hydropower brings other infrastructural development like roads, bridges, schools, etc
as a part of community support program.
– Storage projects could be used as multipurpose – drinking water, irrigation, fishery,
tourism etc.
– Strengthened economic relationships between Nepal and its neighboring countries,
and an improved balance of trade due to energy exports
– Greater energy security due to enhanced domestic generating capacity and integration
with the Indian market
– Leaves water available for other downstream users.
1.6 Challenges in Hydropower Development in Nepal
1. Improving power system planning
– Major projects are RoR, only few are PRoR and Kulekhani is only storage
project.
– This makes difficult in power system planning and load management
– The major challenge is to develop storage projects.
– Make a hydropower master plan covering all major river basins and to
prioritize projects based on different factors, including technical, economic,
proximity to the load center, etc.
2. Increasing access to electrification in rural areas
3. Socio-economic Constraints
– Hydropower projects are more capital intensive
– Nepal doesn’t have the necessary financial resources to develop the
hydropower in its own and have to be reliant upon investment form
international financial institution and donor agencies
– Pricing Issue of electricity
– Resettlement cost is being too high
4. Policy constraints
– Different government bodies are related to development of hydropower
project which causes difficulty in project development.
– Monopoly of NEA over transmission and distribution of power
– Inconsistency among various hydropower policies
– Promoting Power exchange and power export
5. Infrastructural constraints
– Transmission line and substations are not spread across the country
– Lack of access road to project sites
– Lack of modern construction technology and equipments
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6. Technical constraints
– Lack of manpower specialized in hydropower development
– Lack of long term hydrological and sediment logical data are other technical
constraints
– Lack of GLOF study and its management

1.7 History of hydropower development in Nepal

– In Nepal, the first hydropower plant was established at Pharping (500 kW) in 1911, 29
years after the world's first plant was established, during Prime Minister Chandra
Shamsher Rana's time.
– Second hydropower plant with capacity of 900 kW was established in Sundarijal in
1936.
– Similarly, Morang hydropower company established in 1939, built 677 kW
Shikharbas hydro plant at Chisang Khola in 1942. Sadly, it was destroyed by
landslide in the 1960s.
– In 1965, the 2.4 MW Panauti hydropower plant was installed.
– Sunkoshi hydropower of 10 MW installed capacity was erected in 1973 AD with the
aid of government of China
– 92 MW Kulekhani Hydropower Plant (I and II) commissioned in 1982, is the only
project offering seasonal water storage in Nepal.
– Seti power station of 1.5 MW was built in 1985 with grant assistance of the
government of China.
– 60 MW Marsyangdi Power station was built in 1989 with the loan assistance of
Germany, Japan, Kuwait and other multilateral agencies.
– The biggest hydropower of Nepal; Kaligandaki- A, of capacity 144 MW was
commissioned in 2003.
– Karnali- Chisapani, 10,800 MW is the biggest identified hydropower of Nepal.

Table 1: Top 5 largest existing hydropower plants of Nepal

Project Name Capacity (MW) District
Kaligandaki 144 Lamjung
Kulekhani I,II and III =60+32+14= 106 Makwanpur
Middle Marshyangdi 70 Lamjung
Marshyangdi 69 Lamjung
Khimti 60 Dolakha

1.8 Hydropower Potential and Present Status of Hydropower Development in Nepal

Hydropower Potential of Nepal
• The high specific runoff and steep gradient of the rivers of Nepal provide a huge
potential for hydropower generation.
• Claims of Nepal as "second richest country" in the world after Brazil in hydropower
potential has never been validated.
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Gross / Theoretical Potential

• It includes the total potential energy from all water resources within specified spatial
boundaries without any physical, technical and economic usage limitations.
• In practice, only a small percentage of theoretical potential can be harvested.
Students and general public have been inundated with the 83,000 MW potential -
based on a 1966 PhD of Dr. Hari Man Shrestha.
Technical potential:
• Due to some reasons like unfavorable geology, topography, climatic condition,
accessibility etc. all the theoretical power cannot be obtained. Thus, the power which
can be technically produced is called technical potential.
• Technical power potential of Nepal has been estimated as 44,000 MW.
Economically potential:
• A project is economically feasible if its benefit cost ratio is greater than 1. The project
which is technically feasible may not be economically feasible.
• It is defined as the energy capacity that is economically exploitable relative to
alternative energy forms (without environmental and other special restrictions).
• Thus, the power that can be economically produced is called economic power
potential.
• Economically potential power of Nepal has been estimated as 42,000 MW.
Exploitable potential:
• Not all areas can realistically be used for hydropower development. Exploitable
hydropower potential is defined as the competitive annual energy with the
consideration of environmental or other special restrictions.

Present Status of Hydropower Development in Nepal

• The total population with access to grid electricity has reached about 78% in FY
2019/20.
• As per Annual report of NEA (FY 2019/20), the installed capacity (grid connected) of
Nepal is 1177.679 MW.
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Table 3: Installed Capacity of Nepal

Power Plants Capacity(MW)

Total Major Hydro(NEA)-Grid Connected 563.394
Total Small Hydro(NEA)-Isolated 4.536
Total Hydro(NEA) 567.93
Total Hydro(IPP) 560.775
Total Hydro(Nepal) 1128.705
Total Thermal(NEA) 53.41
Total Solar(NEA) 0.1
Total Installed Capacity(NEA & IPP)-Grid 1177.679
Total Installed Capacity 1182.215
(Source: NEA, 2019/20)

• There are several ongoing hydropower developments due to come into operation in
the next couple of years. Construction of the 456 MW Upper Tamakoshi project is
close to completion. The plant will be the country’s largest hydropower station
expanding national capacity significantly and has been fully funded by domestic
sources including the NEA and other local organizations.
Other major projects that are under construction are as below:

Table 2: Major Hydropower plants under construction in Nepal

Project Name Capacity (MW) District

Upper Tamakoshi 456 Dolakha
Upper Trishuli I 216 Rasuwa
Tanahun 140 Tanahun
Middle Bhotekoshi 102 Sindhupalchok
Rasuwaghadi 111 Rasuwa

• Major transmission line projects within the country and cross border are being
developed to aid the development of hydropower projects.

1.9 Introduction to large hydropower plants in the world.

a) Three gorges
The 22,500MW Three Gorges hydroelectric power plant in Yichang, Hubei province,
China, is the largest hydropower station in the world. It is a conventional impoundment
hydropower facility exploiting the water resource of the Yangtze River. The project is
owned and operated by China Three Gorges Corporation through its subsidiary China
Yangtze Power.
b) Itaipu
The Itaipu hydroelectric power plant with an installed capacity of 14,000MW ranks as the
world’s second largest hydropower plant. The project is located on the Parana River, at
the border between Brazil and Paraguay. The facility is operated by Itaipu Binacional.
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c) Guri
The Guri power project, also known as the Simón Bolívar hydroelectric power station,
ranks as the world’s third biggest hydroelectric power station, with an installed capacity
of 10,200MW. The Venezuelan power facility is located on the Caroni River in the
Bolívar State of southeastern Venezuela. CVG Electrification del Caroni owns and
operates the plant.
d) Tucuruí
The Tucuruí Hydropower Complex situated on the lower Tocantins River in Tucuruí,
Pará, Brazil, ranks as fourth largest hydroelectric power plant in the world. The 8,370MW
power plant was built in two phases and has been producing since 1984.
e) Grand Coulee
The 6,809MW Grand Coulee hydropower project located on the Columbia River in
Washington, US, is currently the world’s fifth biggest hydroelectric power station. The
project, built in three phases, is owned and operated by the US Bureau of Reclamation.
The power facility commenced operation in 1941. The annual generating capacity of the
plant is more than 24TWh.

1.10 A brief introduction to government policy and major institutions related to

hydropower development in Nepal
Government policy related to hydropower development

The latest hydropower development policy was promulgated in 2001 A.D. (2058 B.S.) The
objectives of this policy were:
– To generate electricity at low cost by utilizing the water resources available in the
country.
– To extend reliable and qualitative electric service throughout the nation at reasonable
price.
– To tie-up electrification with the economic activities.
– To render support to the development of rural economy by extending the rural
electrification
– To develop hydropower as an exportable commodity
Major institutions related to hydropower development in Nepal:
i. Governmental bodies
ii. Private sectors
iii. International institutions

Government Bodies
a) Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and Irrigation (MoEWRI)
MoEWRI issues directives, rules, regulations and acts related to water resources,
hydropower, irrigation and every energy related development and are responsible for its
implementation by coordinating at local to international levels.
b) Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS)
WECS was established by the government in 1975 AD with the objective of developing
water and energy resource in an integrated and accelerated manner.
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c) Department of Electricity Development (DoED)

DoED was established in 2050 B.S. The main aim of this institution is to develop and
promote electricity sector and to improve financial effectiveness of this sector at the national
level by attracting private sector investment. It mainly deals with licensing, royalty
management and granting various facilities to private sector. This office was established to
serve under the purpose of ―One Window Policy‖ for the power producers.
d) Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA)
NEA was established in 2042 B.S. The main objective on NEA is to generate, transmit and
distribute adequate, reliable and affordable power by planning, constructing, operating and
maintenance of all generation, transmissions and distribution facilities in Nepal’s power
system both interconnected and isolated.
e) Electricity Regulatory Commission (ERC)
ERC was established in 2076 B.S. The main objective on ERC is to regulate the generation,
transmission, distribution and business of electricity. This body has other major
responsibilities like tariff fixation, dispute management, imposing fines, investing and
inspection and formulating policies as well.
Private sectors
a) Independent Power Producers Association Nepal (IPPAN)
It was established in the year 2001 with the intention of encouraging the private sector to
work in the area of hydropower in Nepal. One of its main purposes is to act as a link between
the private sector and government organizations involved in developing hydropower in the
country. Butwal power company (BPC), Himal power limited (HPL), Bhotekoshi power
company (BKPC), Hydro solutions, Sanima hydropower, National hydropower company
(NHPC) are some examples of independent producers that have already started generation.

b)Nepal Micro Hydro Development Association (NMHDA)

This is an umbrella organization of private firms or companies who are involved actively in
development of micro hydropower in the count. The main objective is to contribute to
national economic progress by advancing micro hydropower industry in Nepal and to assist
its members in fulfilling the task.

International Institutions
These institutions help in providing technical and financial assistance in the study and
development of hydropower projects. Some international institutions actively working in
Nepal in hydropower sector are:
– World Bank
– Asian development bank (ADB)
– JICA
– US-AID
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Chapter 2
Planning and Layout of Hydropower Project
Planning of the hydropower project needs to be done based on scientific and systematic
studies with long term vision. Proper planning in hydropower is a must because of following
reasons:
i. High investment and long gestation period
ii. Large number of risks (Hydrological risks, geological risks, financial risks,
environmental risks, socio economic risks)
iii. Complex construction
iv. Taking the confidence of related sectors (Investors, NEA etc)

2.1 Site Selection for Hydropower Projects

1. Accessibility
– Site for project components should be easily accessible.
– This helps in transport of construction materials, machines etc and economizes
the project cost
2. Near to load center
– Reduce the transmission cost and power loss in transmission
– Shorter the length of transmission line , better and economic is the project
3. Topography
– Topography with steep gradient provides favorable head required for hydropower
project
– High head within low longitudinal distance will reduce the conveyance length
and economize the project
– Too steep topography will however challenge the construction and stability of
project components
4. Geological conditions
– Geology should be sound to bear the load of structures
– Surrounding geology should be stable, free from landslide else there may be
catastrophic damage to the project
5. Catchment functions (Hydrology and Sediment)
– Flow is very important and directly affects the energy generation from the plant
– Rivers with sustained dry weather flow are good to generate considerable firm
energy
– Snow fed and perennial rivers are suitable for hydropower generation
– Smaller the flood magnitude, smaller will be the size of project components and
thus economic will be the project
– Rivers with relatively low sediment concentration are suitable because the
settling basin will be small and the turbines will have longer life
– Catchment that are less vulnerable to Glacier Lake Outburst Flood are favorable
6. Sociopolitical
– Lesser is the resettlement, attractive is the project
– Regional balance and load center should also be considered
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2.2 Hydropower project planning stages: reconnaissance, pre-feasibility & feasibility

studies
2.2.1 Reconnaissance:
 First stage of project planning.
 Forms the basis for the need of the project and the identification of various project
alternatives that are suitable for stated purpose.
 The major objectives are:
– To identify the suitable project for the stated purpose.
– To investigate and study various projects and their alternatives.
– To compare the projects and formulate the project best suited for the stated
purpose.
– To record lower ranked projects and project alternatives for future reference.
Major steps and activities in this stage are: (D2FE3R)
a) Data collection
– General data and information of power market, hydrology, geology, geotechnical
conditions, environment and social economical aspects.
b) Desk studies
– Define main project elements
– Prepare the tentative layout of project
– Basic engineering principles are applied for the planning and design of the project.
c) Field work and design
– Field trip for the verification of layouts
– Reselection of permissible alternatives and other related study
d) Estimates and schedules
– Preliminary cost estimate is prepared based on experience.
– Tentative implementation schedule is prepared.
e) Environmental and social studies
– It is assessed that the project requires EIA or IEE.
– Determine environmental disturbances which the project is likely to bring
f) Economic assessment
– Simple economic parameters are related to find out the economic capability of the
project.
g) Report
– Report will conclude with a statement on viability and suitability of project.
– It recommends the planners opinion on soundness and reliability of investigations.

2.2.2 Pre-feasibility Study

 Second stage of the project planning
 Projects identified in reconnaissance are forwarded for the prefeasibility study.
 The major objectives of pre-feasibility study are:
– Establish the need and justification for the project.
– Formulate the plan for developing the project.
– Determine the technical, economic and environmental practicability of the
project.
– Define the limitations of the project.
– Ascertain local interest for the project.
– Make recommendations for further action.
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Major steps and activities in this stage are: (D2FE3R)

a) Data collection
– Collection of available hydrological data, meteorological data
– correlation of hydrological data to headworks site
– Study of topographical map, geological mapping, walkover survey
b) Desk studies
– Review and verify the report prepared in reconnaissance stage.
c) Field work and design
– Topographic survey, geological survey, hydrological study, preliminary hydraulics
calculation using thumb rules
– Components sizing
d) Estimates and schedules
– Preliminary costs estimations based on component sizing
e) Environmental and social studies
– Field visit to affected areas to identify potential social issues
– If IEE is necessary TOR should be prepared and if EIA is necessary TOR and SD
(Scoping Document) shall be carried out.
f) Economic assessment
– Preliminary cost of project per kW
g) Report
– It should include the firm statement on the suitability of the project
– Recommendations on the further development of project if any.

2.2.3 Feasibility:
 This phase includes the detailed study of the project.
 It is carried out in order to determine the technical, economic and environmental
feasibility of the project.
 The major objective of the feasibility study are:
– To ascertain the identified project for the implementation.
– To sought the measures for financing the project.
– To carry out detail design of the project.
– To direct project towards construction.
Major steps and activities in this stage are: (D2FE3R)
a) Data collection
– Hydrological data from established gauging station
– Topographic survey, geological mapping and geotechnical tests
– Detailed environmental and socio-economic data compilation from the field.
b) Desk studies
– Review of the pre-feasibility report and other relevant study report.
c) Field work and design
– Field trip for layouts and additional survey,
– Establishment of gauge stations, sediment sampling
– Detailed investigation for structure location and geotechnical data collections
(drillings, test pits etc)
– Installed capacity optimization
– Detailed design of each component.
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d) Estimates and schedules

– Detailed cost estimate
– Detailed implementation schedules and planning
e) Environmental and social studies
– Public hearing and detailed IEE or EIA report
– Environmental management/mitigation plans
– Building harmony with the project affected people for smooth execution of the project
f) Economic assessment
– Financial evaluation (NPV, IRR, B/C, RoE etc)
– Sensitivity analysis
g) Report
– Called Detailed Project Report (DPR)
– It is a bankable document.
– It includes the overall information of the study, conclusion and recommendation.
– It is required for the PPA of the project, financial closure, obtain generation license
and other requirement of DoED.
Note: DoED has published “GUIDELINES FOR STUDY OF HYDROPOWER
PROJECTS 2018”. This report has defined the work scope and investigations to be
covered based on the capacity and scheme of the project.
2.3 Requirements for Hydropower: Use of Flow Duration and Mass Curves, Energy
Flow Diagram, Estimation of Power Potential, Demand and Prediction
Flow duration curve (FDC):
• It is the curve obtained by plotting discharge on Y axis vs. percentage of time
exceedence of discharge on X axis.
• Flow duration curve can be plotted for daily discharge, weekly discharge or monthly
discharge.
Uses of flow duration curve:
– Useful in planning and designing of water resource projects.
– It helps to evaluate the flow expected corresponding to a certain percentage of
exceedence of time.
– Helps to evaluate firm energy, secondary energy and total energy.
– Flow duration curve helps to plot power duration curve as well.
– Helps in the design of drainage systems and in the flood control studies.
– Flow duration curve plotted in log graph provides the qualitative description of the
runoff variability in the stream.
– Assists in evaluation of low flows.
Note:
Q100 means that discharge is available for 100% of time period.
(Q100 = 0.653 m3/s in example below)
Q50 means that discharge is available for 50% of time period.
(Q50 = 2.156 m3/s in example below)

Q40 means that discharge is available for 40% of time period. (Since Q40 is not directly in the
table, it can be obtained from studying the graph or linear interpolation)
(Q40 = around 3.7 m3/s in example below)
 Er. Dipesh Koirala

Plotting of FDC:
Steps for computation of FDC:
– Calculate the total number of discharge data N (In our example below, N =12)
– Place discharge data in descending order (Ranked in column 3)
– Give each data a rank 1, 2, 3, …….., N, represented by n (As in column 4, यो column
ले हाम्रो data कति पटक पाईन्छ भन्ने बुतिन्छ, for e.g. 7.161 m3/s वर्षको एक वटा मतहनामा
पाईन्छ, 6.911 m3/s वर्षको दुइ वटा मतहनामा पाईन्छ, त्यस्िै 0.653 m3/s वर्षको बाह्र वटै
मतहनामा पाईन्छ । एकपटक बुिेपतछ यो column 4 बनाई राख्नु पदैन ।)
– Compute probability of exceedence as p= n/N (Calculated in column 5)
– Plot discharge vs. exceedence probability to get flow duration curve.

Column 3 Column 4 Column 5

MONTH Flow Flow in Des Order Rank (n) % of exceedence
JAN 0.839 7.161 1 8.33%
FEB 0.708 6.911 2 16.67%
MAR 0.653 6.461 3 25%
APR 0.876 4.454 4 33.33%
MAY 2.156 3.457 5 41.67%
JUN 4.454 2.156 6 50%
JUL 6.911 1.719 7 58.33%
AUG 7.161 1.102 8 66.67%
SEP 6.461 0.876 9 75%
OCT 3.457 0.839 10 83.33%
NOV 1.719 0.708 11 91.67%
DEC 1.102 0.653 12 100%

5
Discharge

0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Probability of Exceedence
 Er. Dipesh Koirala

Mass curve: (Ripple curve)

• Mass inflow curve or cumulative runoff curve is a plot of cumulative inflow volume
against time.
• Mass outflow or demand curve is a plot of cumulative demand or supply against time.
• It is suitable when
– Demand/withdrawal from the reservoir is constant for all time period
– Total inflow volume is greater than total outflow volume
Characteristics of the mass curve:
– It is continuously raising curve.
– The slope at any point on the curve represents the inflow rate.
– If the curve is horizontal, it represents no inflow at that time. Mass curve never fall
down.
– If the curve rises sharply, it indicates the high rate of inflow within that period.
– Relatively convex rise indicate flood while concave depression indicate drought.
Uses of Mass Curve
– Determine reservoir capacity for a uniform demand of flow and
– Safe yield/withdrawal from reservoir from reservoir capacity.
Reservoir capacity by graphical method, using mass curve of inflow and demand
– Draw the mass curve of the inflow
– Draw the mass demand curve
– From peak draw tangents parallel to the demand line
– The maximum vertical ordinate between the mass curve and tangent gives the storage
capacity of the reservoir that should be provided.

Ex: The monthly flows of a river are given below in cumec. Find out the minimum reservoir
capacity in order to meet the constant demand of 85 cumecs.

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Inflow, cumecs 110 90 70 50 30 25 65 220 300 190 115 110

Soln:

Month Inflow Demand Cumulative Inflow Cumulative demand

Jan 110 85 110 85
Feb 90 85 200 170
Mar 70 85 270 255
Apr 50 85 320 340
May 30 85 350 425
Jun 25 85 375 510
Jul 65 85 440 595
Aug 220 85 660 680
Sep 300 85 960 765
Oct 190 85 1150 850
Nov 115 85 1265 935
Dec 110 85 1375 1020
 Er. Dipesh Koirala

1600

1400
Cumulative
Inflow

1200

Tangent Cumulative
Line from Demand
Cumulative inflow/Demand

1000
parallel to
demand
curve
800

600

400

Tangent
Line from
200 parallel to
demand
curve

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Month

From graph, the required volume is about 185 cumec month.

This could also be solved analytically as below:
Month Inflow Demand Surplus Deficit
Note:
Jan 110 85 25
Feb 90 85 5 Minimum Reservoir Capacity =
Mar 70 85 -15 Total Deficit
Apr 50 85 -35
May 30 85 -55
Jun 25 85 -60
Jul 65 85 -20
Aug 220 85 135
Sep 300 85 215
Oct 190 85 105
Nov 115 85 30
Dec 110 85 25
 Er. Dipesh Koirala

Total deficit = 185 cumec month

Therefore, Reservoir capacity = 185 cumec month (Can be changed to m3 by multiplying by
1 months time)
i.e 185*30*24*60*60 = 479520000 m3

Energy Flow Diagram

Water Stored in
Flowing Water Rotation of Turbine
Dam (Potential
(Kinetic energy) (Mechanical energy)
Energy)

Heat energy

Rotating Generator
Light energy
(Electrical Energy)

Sound energy

Demand and Prediction

Demand is the need of energy that is requested by the consumer in the market. It can be
studied under residential demand, commercial demand, industrial demands and other
demands.
Prediction of power demand plays an essential role in the electric industry, as it provides the
basis for making decisions in power system planning and operation.
A demand forecasting is a projection of required electricity generation in the system for the
electric load that the existing and potential consumers will like to be served in future. The
electricity demand in future depends upon following factors:
– Willingness and affordability to pay
– Frequency
– Time (time of the day, season)
A great variety of methods for predicting electricity demand are being used by electrical
companies, which are applicable to short-term, medium-term or long-term forecasting. The
suitability of any method depends on the availability of data, degree of accuracy required,
prevailing circumstances etc.
Short term Prediction:
– Covers 4-5 years period.
– Done mainly for the designing of operation plans and identifying the areas of deficit
and surplus power.
Medium Term Prediction
– Covers 8-10 years period.
– Done mainly for the formulation of expansion program of power generation and
transmission facilities
 Er. Dipesh Koirala

Long Term Prediction

– Covers more than 20 years period.
– Done mainly for the formulation of country’s plan for power resources, hydropower
generation, transmission and voltage.
Demand prediction/forecasting methods:
1. Class wise consumption
Electricity is consumed at different rate by different people. Residential area will have
different energy consumption than commercial area. Similarly, industrial area will have its
own power demand. So, the analysis of the class wise consumption will assist in forecasting
the future demand.
2. Historical trends
The past recorded data play an important role in forecasting electrical demand. The recorded
data can be mathematically interpreted and hence the future demand can be forecasted using
regression analysis.
3. Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
There exists a good correlation between power development and economic development
GDP. The data of GDP and per capita energy consumption of the country are used to find the
relationship between the economic development and power consumption. After a relationship
is sought, it can be used to find the energy demand for targeted economic development.
4. Mathematical formulae
a) Incremental rate formula
The electricity consumption varies with the population size. So, the forecast of power can
also be done like population forecast.
𝑃 = 𝑃0(1 +𝑅/100)𝑁
Where, P= power demand after n years, 𝑃0= present power demand, R= incremental rate of
power demand
b) Country specific formula
Belgium formula
𝐸 = 𝐾 × 𝑀0.6 × 20.465𝑇
Where, E= electricity consumption in tth years
M= index of manufacture production
T=time to which consumption is to be projected
K= adjustment factor
Scheer formula
log10 𝐺 = 𝐶 − 0.15 log10 𝑈
Where, G= annual growth in generation/demand %
U= per capita generation or demand
C= constant =0.02* Population growth rate +1.33
 Er. Dipesh Koirala

Estimation of Power Potential

2
Z1

Z2
Reference Datum

Applying Bernoulli’s principle at 1 and 2,

 Er. Dipesh Koirala

2.4 Reservoir Regulation: Peak and Normal Flow Discharges, Distribution of

Sediments and their Control, Life of Reservoir
Reservoir:
When a barrier is constructed across the river, the pool of water formed on the upstream side
of the barrier is called reservoir. Generally, the barrier may be weir or dam. Dam and
reservoir are complementary to each other.
Classification of reservoir:
Reservoir is mainly categorized into two types depending upon the purpose:
a) Flood control reservoir
As we know that the reservoir can regulate the inflow hydrograph. During the time of the
flood, the inflow hydrograph has high peak which can cause a serious effect on the
downstream. Thus, if a reservoir is constructed then, the hydrograph is regulated i.e. peak is
reduced and the time base is enlarged so that the possible effects on downstream is reduced.
b) Storage reservoir
The basic purpose of the storage reservoir is to store water when it is available in excess so
that it can be used in the time deficit.
The storage of water may be for different purpose as:
– Hydropower
– Irrigation
– Water supply to public or industries
– Navigation
– Fishery and wild life
– Recreation
– Debris control
– Sediment control etc.
Also, depending upon the purpose of the reservoir, it may be classified into single purpose or
multipurpose reservoir.
Site selection for reservoir: (Same as site selection for dam)
Following points should be borne in mind while selecting the site for reservoir:
– It should be located in the area of maximum inflow and minimum percolation.
– The site should be located at the narrow opening of the basin so that the length of the
dam and its appurtenance works is reduced.
– Geology should be sound to bear the load of dam.
– Site should be easily accessible by road and if required to construct them, cost of
construction should be minimum.
– Topography of the location should be such that there will be less submergence of the
land and properties.
– Site should be free from objectionable minerals and salts.
– Located area should provide sufficient water depth with smaller water area so that the
possibility of weed growth is reduced and evaporation loss is less.
– Construction materials for the dam should be available locally.
– Suitable area should be available for the construction of staff quarters, labor colonies.
– Heavy silt laden tributaries should not lead their discharge into the reservoir.
 Er. Dipesh Koirala

Regulation of reservoir:
• Reservoir needs to be operated with high degree of intelligence, intuition and
experience, in order to ensure that they are neither left partially empty at the end of
rainy season nor they are found full at the time of arrival of peak floods.
• Reservoir regulation manuals are prepared and made available to the officers dealing
with the operation of the gates of the reservoir.
It is defined as the rational distribution of flow in time and space among different fields of
water resource system.
Need of reservoir regulation:
– To prevent the excessive silting in the reservoir; under sluice should be regulated
accordingly.
– The hydroelectric plant will not operate with efficiency if it is operated below certain
head.
– To prevent heavy releases during flood time.
Zones of storage in reservoir:
The various pool levels of the reservoir are:
– Maximum pool level : Maximum level up to which the water can be stored with the
help of crest gates
– Normal pool level : Level up to which the water can be stored under normal operating
conditions
– Minimum pool level : Water level below which the reservoir will not be drawn down

Maximum Pool Level Spillway Gate

Surcharge Storage
Normal Pool Level
Useful Storage

Minimum Pool Level

Outlet

Dead Storage
Valley Storage

The various zones of storage in a reservoir are:

– Surcharge storage: Storage between maximum and normal pool level. It is
uncontrolled storage during flood period and may be disposed downstream by overall
spillway
– Live storage / Useful Storage: Storage between normal pool level and minimum pool
level.
– Dead storage: Storage between the minimum pool level. It is below the outlet and
hence cannot be used for any purpose
– Valley storage: the amount of water stored in the river before the construction of dam
is valley storage.
 Er. Dipesh Koirala

Life of reservoir:
It is impossible to completely stop the flow of sediment of water into the reservoir. A part of
storage called dead storage is made available to accommodate the volume of the sediment.
However, with the passage of time the deposition of sediment starts to reduce the useful
storage of the reservoir.
The deposition of sediment depends upon:
– Capacity-inflow ratio
– Sediment size and content in the flow
– Reservoir operation
– Characteristics of the valley
Some terms related to life of reservoir:
a) Trap efficiency
It is the ratio of total sediment deposited in the reservoir to the total sediment flowing in the
river.
Total sediment deposited in the river
Trap Efficiency =
Total sediment flowing in the river

Most of the reservoirs trap 95 % to 100% of the sediment load flowing in them.
b) Capacity inflow ratio
It is the ratio of total capacity of the reservoir to the total inflow of water into the reservoir.

Capacity of reservoir
Capacity inflow ratio =
Total inflow of water into the reservoir

The trap efficiency is a function of capacity inflow ratio.

Note:
River is large and reservoir is small
means the capacity inflow ratio is
small and trap efficiency is also
small. Such reservoirs silt very little.

River is small and reservoir is large

means the capacity inflow ratio is
high and trap efficiency is also very
high. Such reservoirs silt extremely.

From the graph, if the capacity reduces with constant inflow, trap efficiency reduces and
hence less sediment is trapped. Therefore the silting rate in the reservoir shall be more in the
beginning and as the capacity gradually reduces due to silting, the silting rate will reduce.
Hence, complete reservoir silting takes longer period.
 Er. Dipesh Koirala

Estimation of life of reservoir:

The useful life of reservoir can be estimated by:
1. Working out capacity-inflow ratio and finding the annual loss of reservoir capacity.
2. Finding the correction factor for the settlement and consolidation of deposited
sediment which is about 15% of total over a period of 200 years.
3. Working out trap efficiency for different reservoir capacity, which may be obtained
from graphs or tables.
4. Capacity curves are determined at intervals of 25, 50, 75, 100 years etc.
5. A plot may be developed to show available capacity in different zones and total
capacity against time period.
6. The time when the reservoir fails to meet minimum basic demand as originally fixed
is the useful life of the reservoir.

Solved Question
A reservoir has the following available data. Find the probable useful life of the reservoir.
– Reservoir capacity: 20 Mm3
– Average annual flood volume: 40 Mm3
– Annual sediment: 13.33*104 tons
– Specific gravity of sediment: 2.2
– Life of reservoir terminates when 80% of initial capacity is filled up.
– Capacity-inflow ratio vs. trap efficiency is given:
Capacity Inflow Ratio 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Trap efficiency 87 93 95 95.5 96 96.5 97 97 97.5 98
Soln:
Assume 20% is filled in each interval.
Reservoir Capacity 20000000 m3 =given Note: 1 Mm3 = 1000000 m3
20% of capacity is filled i.e 4000000 m3
Annual sediment 133300 tonne =given
Sediment volume 60590.909 m3 =tonne/specific gravity

Avg trap
Capacity at Capacity Years
Trap eff. for Sediment
Interval Inflow beginning of to be CIR required
Eff the trapped
interval filled to fill
interval
m3 m3 m3 m3 years
Start 40000000 20000000 0.5 0.96
First 40000000 16000000 4000000 0.4 0.95 0.955 57864.32 69.127
Second 40000000 12000000 4000000 0.3 0.95 0.95 57561.36 69.491
Third 40000000 8000000 4000000 0.2 0.93 0.94 56955.45 70.230
Fourth 40000000 4000000 4000000 0.1 0.87 0.9 54531.82 73.352
Fifth 40000000
282.2003

So, the life of reservoir (when it is 80% filled) is 282.2 years.

 Er. Dipesh Koirala

Reservoir Sedimentation
Reservoir sedimentation occurs when sediment carried by a river flowing into a reservoir is
deposited in the reservoir upstream of a dam. The sediment carried by the inflowing river is
deposited in a reservoir because the water slows down after entering it and no longer has the
ability to transport the sediment.
Reservoir sediment management is vitally important for preserving reservoir storage space
and minimizing long-term maintenance costs.
Extending life of reservoir
Sediment management is the key to extending life of reservoirs. Sediment management
activity is the key to extend the life of reservoir. This may be classified into four broad
categories:
1) Reduce Sediment inflow from upstream
1. Reduce Sediment Production
a. Soil Erosion control (vegetation techniques)
b. Channel Erosion control
i. Gully stabilization
ii. Stream channel stabilization
2. Sediment Trapping above Reservoir
a. Large Dams
b. Dispersed Structures (Check dam, farm pond)
2) Pass sediment through/around the reservoir to minimize sediment trapping
1. Sediment Bypass
a. Flood Bypass Channel
b. Bypass tunnel
c. Off stream reservoirs
2. Sediment Pass through
a. Reservoir drawdown and sluicing
i. Flood Event
ii. Seasonal
b. Vent Turbid density currents
3) Redistribute or remove sediment deposits
1. Mechanical Excavation
a. Dry Excavation
b. Dredging
i. Hydraulic dredge
ii. Hydro suction Note: You can refer this link to understand
iii. Air lift dredge details of each method.
iv. Mechanical lift
http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/fil
2. Modify operating rule es/file/Extending%20the%20Life%20of%20Re
3. Hydraulic Scour servoirs.pdf .
a. Pressure flushing
b. Empty flushing
4) Adapt to sedimentation
1. Improve operational efficiency
2. Modify intakes, turbines to handle sediments
3. Raise dam to increase volume
 Er. Dipesh Koirala

2.5 Environmental study policy based on type & size (IEE/EIA)

With an aim to make development through hydropower a sustainable development, its effect
on the environment is taken into major concern. In order to check whether the proposed
project has significant effect on the environment and whether such effects could be avoided
or mitigated by any means or not, various studies are carried out at different stages of project
planning which is known as Environmental Assessment (EA).
There are two types of environmental study policy:
– IEE (Initial Environmental Examination)
– EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment)

2.5.1 EIA/IEE process in hydropower

a) Environmental screening
This process determines whether EIA is required. As per EPR 1997 (Environment Protection
Rules), all the projects listed in schedule 2 must undergo EIA.
Hydropower Projects Requiring IEE (Schedule 1, EPR, 1997)
1. Electricity generation projects of 1 to 50 MW.
2. Supply of electricity through the installation of transmission lines of 132 kV and
above
3. Any water resources development activity which displaces 25 persons to 100 persons
from permanent residence.
4. Clear felling of forest with an area not more than 5 ha.
Hydropower Projects Requiring EIA (Schedule 2, EPR, 1997)
1. Electricity generation projects with capacity of more than 50 MW
2. Construction of multipurpose reservoirs
3. Inter-basin water transfer and use
4. Any water resources development activity which displaces more than 100 people
from permanent residence
5. Clear felling or rehabilitation of forests with an area of more than 5 ha
6. Project proposed in National Park, Wildlife Reserve and Conservation Area or in
historical, cultural and archeological sites.
b) Scoping Document (SD)
After it has been determined that EIA is required, scoping is the first process. It is carried out
to ascertain the major issues that are likely to arise due to the project implementation. The
first amendment of EPR (Environment Protection Rules) has deleted the provision of scoping
in case of IEE.
It involves the following tasks:
– Involvement of relevant authorities, interested parties and affected groups.
– Identification of relevant or significant issues to be examined.
– Identification and selection of alternatives and development of TOR for further
studies.
– Collection of suggestion from the local authorities after 15 days of providing notice to
them.
c) Terms of Reference (ToR)
ToR provides basic guidelines to conduct project specific EIA or IEE. In EIA, scoping
identifies the issues to be addressed, whereas ToR provides a complete guidance on how to
address these issues. The contents of ToR should include the critical environmental issues
identified in the scoping process.
 Er. Dipesh Koirala

In case of IEE, since scoping is not necessary ToR is the first step. Basically ToR includes
the contents defining what studies will be performed, explaining who will conduct the
studies, stating when the studies will be conducted and outlining the basic structure of IEE.
d) EIA/IEE report
IEE report will be review by MOEWRI and in cases where such examination shows the
implementation of such proposal will have no substantial adverse effect on the environment,
the MOEWRI shall grant approval for its implementation.
Similarly, EIA report will be reviewed by MOEWRI and forwarded to MOFE. MOFE shall
then issue a 30 days public notice in any one of daily newspaper to the general public to make
a copy themselves of the report received along with the proposal on their own or to study it
offering their opinions and suggestions. If the evaluation shows that the project will have no
significant effect on the environment, MOFE shall grant approval.

2.6 Climate change and ecology: river engineering, social costs, population
displacement, change in lifestyle, global worry and clean energy alternatives
River engineering
River morphology is concerned with channel configuration and geometry and with
longitudinal profile; it is time dependent and varies particularly with discharge, sediment
input and characteristics, and with bank material. River morphology can be substantially
influenced by engineering works, although this influence is not necessarily beneficial.
Natural river channels are straight (usually only very short reaches), meandering, i.e.
consisting of a series of bends of alternate curvature connected by short, straight reaches
(crossings), or braided, i.e. the river divides into several channels which continuously join
and separate.
There is large variation in topography of Nepal. The rivers of Nepal originate in the lap of
Himalayas. Rivers at the initial stage has low discharge as the catchment is small and
gradually increases moving downstream as the tributary contributes its flow. The rivers in
upper reaches have rigid boundary. The cross section being small, the flow velocity is high.
As the river reaches the plain, the velocity gets reduced and the flood plain increases and the
meandering behavior become dominant. This may lead to the outflanking of hydraulic
structures. So, various river training structures like guide bank may be required for the
regulation of flow.
Social costs
– Hydropower project becomes a barrier to the aquatic lives upstream and downstream.
– Due to large hydraulic structures, it changes the flow regime of the river.
– Large settlement of people has to be resettled.
– Hydropower project may affect particular social group of the community.
– Different religious places and conservation area may lie within the project area.
Population displacement
The size of the reservoir created by a hydroelectric project can vary widely, depending
largely on the size of the hydroelectric generators and the topography of the land.
Hydroelectric plants in flat areas tend to require much more land than those in hilly areas or
canyons where deeper reservoirs can hold more volume of water in a smaller space. Flooding
land for a hydroelectric reservoir has an extreme environmental impact: it destroys forest,
wildlife habitat, agricultural land, and scenic lands.
 Er. Dipesh Koirala

And on the top it causes large volume of population displacement. The displaced population
may be provided with low compensation and may be obliged to live together in small areas
with congestion.
Change in lifestyle
Amongst other issues, dust and pollution top the list and most people reported that it is a
major problem that constantly affects the health and livelihood of the people. Roads are
damaged by trucks carrying heavy loads. Drainage systems are spoiled while Irrigation canals
located along the road are hampered. Cultivation of major crops and vegetables are
compromised due to an erratic supply of water. Drinking water may become scarcer than
before, as it is drained to meet the needs of thousands of project staff and workers. The heavy
trucks not only pollute the air, but the community as a whole because of the disturbing noise
and commotion they create. Dust particles are visible during the day time and are felt and
experienced at night. It even dirties the dried laundry. The dust contaminates stored drinking
water in the bucket and also food. Altars and offerings set with statues are also affected by
the dust. Though most paddy fields are left fallow due to incessant ravages of the wild boar
another reason is the erratic supply of water for the field. Paddy cultivated with huge costs
and hardships are lost to pollution and damages from construction activities. So, hydropower
affects lifestyle of people.
Global worry
Reservoir water is usually more stagnant than normal river water. As a result, the reservoir
will have higher than normal amounts of sediments and nutrients, which can cultivate an
excess of algae and other aquatic weeds. After the area is flooded, the vegetation and soil in
these areas decomposes and releases both carbon dioxide and methane.
Hydropower dams can contribute to global warming pollution: When a forest is cut down to
make way for a dam and reservoir, those trees are no longer available to absorb the carbon
dioxide added by fossil fuels. This can contribute to global warming.

Clean energy alternatives

Solar energy
In one form or another, solar power has been around for thousands of years. As a renewable
source of free, green energy, technology has found a way of harnessing the sun’s energy via
solar panels.
There are 2 types of solar panels: solar photovoltaic and solar thermal. Solar PV systems
capture the energy from the sun’s light and convert it into usable electricity which we can use
to power appliances, electric heating or even run electric cars. Solar thermal panels use the
sun’s energy to heat water which can then be used in taps, showers and wet central heating
systems. A popular choice in a growing renewable energy market, solar energy is free and
means owners need to buy less energy from a supplier.
Wind energy
An abundant source of renewable energy, the very air around us can be used to generate both
heat and electricity. Air source heat pumps are becoming more and more popular with
homeowners and businesses looking to heat buildings with a renewable energy source. An air
source heat pump includes a fan unit which sits outside where it can extract heat from the air,
even in temperatures as low as -15°C. This natural heat can then heat rooms (air-to-air heat
pumps) or produces hot water for radiators or under floor heating (air-to-water heat pumps).
Wind power is used as a means of generating electricity by wind turbines which are capable
of harnessing the power derived from the wind, converting kinetic energy into mechanical
energy. A source of clean, green renewable energy, favorable climate conditions in Europe
 Er. Dipesh Koirala

means wind energy is a highly viable method for electricity generation. And none more so
than in the UK, with 40% of all wind energy in Europe blowing over the country.
Geo-thermal energy
Geothermal comes from the original Greek word “Geo” which means Earth, so geothermal
energy is derived heat from the Earth. For example, steam energy or hot water that is
generated by the Earth can be used to generate energy. It is considered to be a renewable
source of energy as the water in the Earth is replenished by regular rainfall and the heat used
is regularly produced by the planet. Ground source heat pumps can be installed to harness the
natural heat from underground using tubes of fluid buried outside the property. This fluid
absorbs the heat from the ground so it can be used to heat your home and water. For
properties situated near a lake, river or stream it’s possible to install a water source heat
pump. Pipes are submerged in the water and a heat pump pushes a heat absorbing fluid
through the network of piping; this fluid extracts natural heat from the surrounding water to
be used in the heating system.
 Er. Dipesh Koirala

Chapter 3
Power and energy potential study

3.1 Gross, net, operating, rated and design head.

Some basic terms related to energy, power and efficiency:

a) Gross head (H)
For hydropower with Pelton turbine,
Gross head (H) =difference of water level at intake and central level of turbine axis
For hydropower with Francis turbine,
Gross head (H) =difference of water level at intake and water level in tailrace
b) Net head (H)
The head available at the turbine after deducting the head losses within the system is called
net head.
Net Head = Gross Head- Head Losses
c) Operating head
It is the difference of water surface elevation in the forebay and tailrace after making due
allowance of approach and exit velocity heads.
Operating head = total energy level at forebay entrance – total energy level at exit
d) Rated head
It is the head, at which the turbine functioning at full gate opening will produce a power
output, equal to that specified in the name plate of the turbine.
e) Design head
It is the net head under which the turbine reached peak efficiency at synchronous speed.
f) Power potential (P)
The power potential for a head of H and a discharge of Q is
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟(𝑃) = 𝜂𝛾𝑄𝐻
P= Power in kilowatt
𝜂 = Overall Efficiency
𝛾 = unit weight of water = 9.81 KN/m3
H= Net Head
Overall efficiency (η) is the product of hydraulic efficiency, turbine efficiency and generator
efficiency
𝜂 = 𝜂h × 𝜂𝑡 × 𝜂𝑔

3.2 Plant and installed capacity

Plant capacity:
It is the capacity of the plant with respect to available head, discharge and efficiency. Plant
capacity may be selected from two considerations:
i. Run the plant at the base portion of the load curve to utilize maximum energy of
flowing water
 Er. Dipesh Koirala

ii. Run the power plant at the peak load period for better operational convenience
and efficiency.
Installed capacity:
The maximum power which can be developed by all generators of the plant at the normal
head and with full flow is called installed capacity. In other words, the plant capacity which is
economically viable is called installed capacity.
Thus, Installed Capacity = 𝜂𝛾𝑄𝑑𝐻
Where, Qd = design discharge
The installed capacity of a power project can be fixed using economic analysis. The basic two
approaches are discussed below:
1. Marginal cost benefit approach Note: In Nepal, dry energy is also considered to fix
2. Optimization approach the installed Capacity so as to meet PPA
requirements.
1. Marginal Cost Benefit Approach
In this approach, installed capacity is determined by equating marginal cost with marginal
benefit.
Marginal cost is the cost of production of one additional unit of power. And marginal benefit
is the benefit obtained from that additional power.
Let x% of duration corresponds to the best installed capacity for 1 kW power generation.
(From Power duration curve)

We assume the civil cost as fixed cost.

Variable cost = cost of electromechanical installation = US $ Vcost/Kwh
Operation and maintenance cost = % of variable cost
Life of plant = N years
Interest rate = i% per annum
Energy Selling Price = US $ E/MWh
1
Energy generated per year = 1000 × 𝑥% × 365 × 24 = 8.76x% MWh = 0.0876x

Annual Marginal Benefit = 0.876x MWh * US $ E/MWh = US $ 0.876xE … (𝑖)

Total Marginal Cost = Variable Cost + O/M Cost

1+𝑖 𝑁 ×𝑖
Annual Marginal Cost = + % 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡…. (𝑖𝑖)
1+𝑖 𝑁 − 1

Note: Vcost Present मा हुन्छ र त्यसलाई annual form मा लगेर मात्र Compare गर्न ममल्र्े हुुँदा find A
given P को formula use गरे को र O/M cost already annual form मा हर्े हुुँदा add गर्न ममल्यो

Thus, equating above two equations we get value of x that corresponds to best installed
capacity.
 Er. Dipesh Koirala

Solved Question:
The average monthly discharge is given below:
MONTH JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Flow 0.839 0.708 0.653 0.876 2.156 4.454 6.911 7.161 6.461 3.457 1.719 1.102

Determine the best installed capacity with the given data.

Interest rate: 13%
Energy price: US$ 30/MWH
Fixed cost: US$ 2800/kW (Civil cost)
Variable cost: US$ 600/ kW (Electromechanical)
O & M: 2.5% of variable cost
Economic life of plant: 40 years
Net head: 100 m
Overall efficiency of the system: 85%

Soln:
Assuming x% of the duration corresponds to the best installed capacity for 1Kw ppwer
generation.
Step 1: Obtain power duration curve.
Power duration curve can be obtained from flow duration curve as below.

Sometimes question ले र्ै power र probability of exceedence ददएको हुन्छ । power र

probability of exceedence भर्ेको र्ै Power duration curve हो । This is required for
interpolation at the end. PDC graph plot गर्नन पदैर् unless question asks. But this table is needed.

Column 3 Column 4 Column 5 Column 6

MONTH Flow Flow in Des Order Rank (n) % of exceedence Power (MW)
JAN 0.839 7.161 1 8.33% 5.9708
FEB 0.708 6.911 2 16.67% 5.7630
MAR 0.653 6.461 3 25% 5.3878
APR 0.876 4.454 4 33.33% 3.7142
MAY 2.156 3.457 5 41.67% 2.8824
JUN 4.454 2.156 6 50% 1.7979
JUL 6.911 1.719 7 58.33% 1.4330
AUG 7.161 1.102 8 66.67% 0.9189
SEP 6.461 0.876 9 75% 0.7304
OCT 3.457 0.839 10 83.33% 0.6998
NOV 1.719 0.708 11 91.67% 0.5905
DEC 1.102 0.653 12 100% 0.5447

Power duration curve can be obtained by plotting percentage of exceedence (column 5) on x

axis and power in Y axis (column 6).
 Er. Dipesh Koirala

7.0000
Power Duration Curve
6.0000

5.0000
Power (MW)

4.0000

3.0000 1 KW

2.0000
X%
1.0000

0.0000
0.00% 20.00% 40.00% 60.00% 80.00% 100.00%

Percentage of exceedence

Step 2: Calculate annual benefit corresponding to 1KW power.

Energy Selling Price = US $ 30/MWh

1
Energy generated per year = 1000 × 𝑥% × 365 × 24 = 8.76x% MWh = 0.0876x

Annual Marginal Benefit = 0.876x MWh * US $ 30/MWh = US $ 2.628x …...... (𝑖)

Step 3: Calculate annual cost corresponding to 1KW power.

Total Marginal Cost = Variable Cost + O/M Cost

1+𝑖 𝑁 ×𝑖
Annual Marginal Cost = + % 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
1+𝑖 𝑁 − 1

1+0.13 40 ×0.13
= + 2.5% 𝑜𝑓 600 = 93.59 ……………. (𝑖𝑖)
1+0.13 40 − 1
Equating i and ii, we get
x = 35.61

Hence, power corresponding to 35.61% of time is the installed capacity. Now by

interpolating,
35.61 − 33.33 𝑥 − 3.71
=
41.67 − 33.33 2.88 − 3.71

Therefore, best installed capacity = 3.48 MW.

2. Optimization approach:
Power is the function of head and discharge. Increasing the percentile of available flow,
design discharge decreases. For the low design discharge, the size of hydropower and hence
its components will decrease. This will reduce the project cost. However, the power
generation will also reduce thus reducing the annual revenue. Thus, the discharge for
different percentile time is calculated from flow duration curve and corresponding revenue
and cost are calculated. The optimum capacity is fixed as the installed capacity.
 Benefit Curve Er. Dipesh Koirala
B/C or IRR

Cost curve

3.3 Load curve (mean and peak load), load factor, utilization and diversity factors.
Load is the measure of power consumption/demand. Its unit is KW, MW, GW.
Load consumed is energy. Its unit is KWh, MWh, GWh.
In other words, when we say 1 unit energy is consumed, it means 1KWh energy is consumed.
i.e 1 unit energy = 1KWh energy.
The load on a power station varies from time to time due to uncertain demands of the
consumers.
Load curve:
The curve showing the variation of load on the power station with respect to time is known as
a load curve.
It is a graphical representation of power consumption with respect to any time. Area under
load curve gives the total energy consumption. Load curve could be daily, weekly, monthly,
yearly.
The daily load curves have attained a great importance in generation. Apart from identifying
peak, base and average load, daily load curve is important in selecting the size and number of
generating units and preparing the operation schedule of the station.

Load Curve
90
80
70
Load (KW)

60
50
40
30
20 Base load
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hours
 Er. Dipesh Koirala

Peak load:
The highest of loads occurring on the power station in a given period (day or month or year)
is known as average load or average demand
Base load:
The load which is continuously exceeded in a given time duration is called base load.
Mean/Average load:
The average of loads occurring on the power station in a given period (day or month or year)
is known as average load or average demand.
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

𝐾𝑤ℎ 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝐷𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝐾𝑤ℎ 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ

𝑀𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑦 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ
𝐾𝑤ℎ 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑌𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

Load factor: (LF)

It is the ratio of average load to peak load.

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

Note: The load factor may be daily load factor, monthly load factor or annual load factor if
the time period considered is a day or month or year. Load factor is always less than 1
because average load is smaller than the maximum demand. The load factor plays key role in
determining the overall cost per unit generated. Higher the load factor of the power station,
lesser will be the cost per unit generated.
Plant factor / Plant capacity factor: (CF)
It is the ratio of average energy produced by the plant to the maximum energy that can be
produced.
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑜𝑟 =
𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Plant capacity = Installed Capacity

Note: This factor is always less than or equal to unity value. The plant capacity factor is an
indication of the reserve capacity of the plant. A power station is so designed that it has some
reserve capacity for meeting the increased load demand in future. Therefore, the installed
capacity of the plant is always somewhat greater than the maximum demand on the plant.
Installed capacity = Reserve capacity + Max. demand
 Er. Dipesh Koirala

Utilization factor / Plant Use Factor: (UF)

It is the ratio of peak load developed during certain period of time to the installed capacity of
the plant.
𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟/𝑈𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑
𝑜𝑟 =
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

Plant capacity = Installed Capacity

This factor is always less than or equal to unity value. Utilization factor generally varies from
0.4 to 0.9 for a hydropower.
Reserve Factor:
This is reciprocal of utilization factor.
Reserve Factor =1/UF
This factor is always greater than or equal to unity value

Relation between load factor (LF), plant capacity factor (PCF) and utilization factor
(UF)

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑈𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

LF × UF = ×
𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
LF × UF =
𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

LF × UF = CF

∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 × 𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

Diversity factor:

𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑

Note: The diversity factor is greater than or equal to unity.

Demand factor:

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
 Er. Dipesh Koirala

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Availability factor:

𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑜

𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑎 𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

If a power plant can run for 6 hours in a day, availability factor = 6/24 = 0.25.

3.4 Power demand variation: daily, weekly, monthly and annual variation of power.
Power demand depends on:
1. Population (Higher the population, more will be the demand)
2. Climate (Power demand is higher in winter season in Nepal, For India, its higher in
summer season due to excessive heat)
3. Living standard (higher living standard of people means there will be higher demand)
Daily variation of power:
Electricity demand is usually lower during the night hours, with little domestic or commercial
consumption. Demand then begins to fall and drops off as people begin to retire to bed.
Power demand at residence reduces during office hours.
Weekly variation of power
Daily routine changes at weekend. If people stay at home during the weekend, power demand
is more and if people spend time on travels, the power demand at home reduces.
Monthly variation of power
We have different sorts of festivals throughout the years in different months. Festivals are the
time when people gather and celebrate. So power demand increases on gathering. Some
festivals are celebrated by more people for longer duration while some may be celebrated by
some groups for different duration. Hence, power demand varies accordingly.
Annual variation of power
We go through different seasons in a year. During winter we require more power for heating
and lighting purposes. When the days are longer, lights are used for shorter duration while for
the short days; lights are used for longer period. During summer, we use electricity for
cooling purposes. So, there are many variations in power consumptions annually.

3.5 Power grid: introduction and components of power grid system.

Power grid:
A power grid (electrical grid or electric grid) is an interconnected network or grid
for delivering electricity from producers to consumers. It is a system in which the power
producers (hydropower, solar, wind, thermal etc) are functioning at same time to satisfy the
demands of electricity without disturbance, even when any station needs to be stopped.
The various problems facing the power engineers are considerably reduced by
interconnecting different power stations in parallel. Although interconnection of station
involves extra cost, yet considering the benefits derived from such an arrangement, it is
gaining much favor these days. Some of the advantages of interconnected system are listed
below:
– Exchange of peak loads: An important advantage of interconnected system is that the
peak load of the power station can be exchanged. If the load curve of a power station
 Er. Dipesh Koirala

shows a peak demand that is greater than the rated capacity of the plant, then the excess
load can be shared by other stations interconnected with it.
– Use of older plants: The interconnected system makes it possible to use the older and less
efficient plants to carry peak loads of short durations. Although such plants may be
inadequate when used alone, yet they have sufficient capacity to carry short peaks of
loads when interconnected with other modern plants. Therefore, interconnected system
gives a direct key to the use of obsolete plants.
– Ensures economical operation: The interconnected system makes the operation of
concerned power stations quite economical. It is because sharing of load among the
stations is arranged in such a way that more efficient stations work continuously
throughout the year at a high load factor and the less efficient plants work for peak load
hours only.
– Increases diversity factor: The load curves of different interconnected stations are
generally different. The result is that the maximum demand on the system is much
reduced as compared to the sum of individual maximum demands on different stations. In
other words, the diversity factor of the system is improved, thereby increasing the
effective capacity of the system.
– Reduces plant reserve capacity: Every power station is required to have a standby unit for
emergencies. However, when several power stations are connected in parallel, the reserve
capacity of the system is much reduced. This increases the efficiency of the system.
– Increases reliability of supply: The interconnected system increases the reliability of
supply. If a major breakdown occurs in one station, continuity of supply can be
maintained by other healthy stations
Components of power grid system:
The components of power grid system are:
DL
Power station Power station DL
A (Hydro) C (Thermal)

TL TL
LDC
TL TL
DL
Power station Power station
B (Solar) DL D (Hydro)

TL = Transmission Line
DL = Distribution Line
LDC = Load Dispatch Center

1) Generation stations (Powerhouse, generators, transformers, switchgear)

Electricity is produced in the powerhouse at 11KV. Thus produced electricity is stepped up
using transformers (to 33KV or 132KV). It is because transmission of electricity at high
voltage increases transmission efficiency. Switch gear is device or a combination of device,
intended for purpose of making, carrying and breaking electric currents in circuits under
normal condition as well as under abnormal conditions.
 Er. Dipesh Koirala

2) Transmission lines
Transmission lines are designed to carry electricity or an electrical signal over large distances
with minimum losses and distortion.
3) Load dispatch center
Load dispatch center is a coordinating agency for state electricity boards for ensuring a
mechanism for safe and secure grid operation. Load dispatch center is an important link
between generation and transmission, which co- ordinates the power requirements of
consumers of electricity.
4) Substations
Sub-station includes various equipments and is responsible for stepping up voltage levels for
transmission or stepping down voltage levels for distribution purpose. A transformer is the
heart of a sub-station which is responsible for changing the voltage levels without changing
the frequency.
5) Distribution transformers
Before the power is supplied to the consumers, it should be stepped down to the suitable
voltage so that it can be safely used for the desired purposes.
6) Household/ consumers
Consumers are the ultimate components of the power system. They use electricity for various
purposes. In Nepal, the electrical equipment of 220-240 volt is used at a frequency of 50 Hz.

132 KV
Power house Secondary
Main sub Distribution
substation sub
station transformer
station

132 KV

11 KV
33 KV 11 KV 220 V
Generating Transmission
Power station line To heavy To light To
industries industries residential
consumer
s

Power system Planning

1. Demand forecasting
2. Energy planning
3. Generation expansion plan
4. Project rationalization
5. Transmission line planning
6. Load forecasting, load management, demand side management etc
 Er. Dipesh Koirala

3.6 Firm Power, Firm Energy, Secondary Power and Secondary Energy

Firm (primary) power: The power, which can be produced by a plant with no risk. For a
single hydroelectric plant, it corresponds to the minimum available discharge
Secondary power: All the power available in excess of firm power. Secondary power cannot
be relied upon.

Note:
Primary energy, secondary energy वाला question मा, first step भर्ेको तल list out गरे को कन रा
find out गर्े:

१. Design discharge
a. यो कन र्ै % of time बराबर ददएको हुर् सक्छ (like design flow is corresponding to
40% time of exceedence or design discharge is corresponding to 70% time of
exceedence)
(यो case हो भर्े flow duration curve बाट interpolate गरे र question ले भर्ेको % of
time बराबरको discharge मर्काल्र्े)
b. Design discharge को fixed value ददर् सक्छ (like design flow is 5 m3/s or take
design discharge is corresponding to 8 m3/s )
(यो case हो भर्े flow duration curve बाट interpolate गरे र question ले भर्ेको
discharge कमत % of time बराबरको हो मर्काल्र्े)
c. Question may be silent on design discharge
यो case हो भर्े 40% time of exceendence बराबर design discharge हुन्छ भन्ने
assumption गरे र flow duration curve बाट interpolate गरे र 40 % of time
बराबरको discharge मर्काल्र्े)

२. Environmental flow
a. Fixed value ददएको हुर् सक्छ (like environmental flow is 1 m3/s or take riparian
release as 2 m3/s)
(यो case हो भर्े available flow मर्काल्र् monthly flow बाट यही fixed value
subtract गर्े)
b. Fixed percentage ददएको हुर् सक्छ ( like environmental flow is 10% of
minimum monthly flow or 10% of dry weather flow)
(यो case हो भर्े minimum monthly flow (its same as dry weather flow) को 10%
कमत हुन्छ महसाब गर्े र प्रत्येक monthly flow बाट यही fixed value subtract गर्े)
c. Question may be silent on environmental release
यो case हो भर्े case b assume गरे र 10% of minimum monthly flow घटाउर्े
every month)
 Er. Dipesh Koirala

Question: (Design discharge silent type)

Calculate installed capacity, firm capacity, firm energy, secondary energy and total energy
for a Nepalese River with mean monthly flow tabulated as below. Take efficiency as 85%,
Net Head 100m, design flow corresponding to time of exceedence. Consider 10% of driest
flow as environmental release.

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Flow 1.94 1.69 1.61 1.82 2.61 7.72 20.01 24.91 17.20 7.69 3.81 2.58

Soln:
a. Design discharge = silent (assume design discharge is corresponding to 40% time of
exceedence)
b. Environmental release = 10% of driest flow
= 0.1*1.61 = 0.161 m3/s

Column Column Column Column Column

1 2 Column 3 Column 4 Column 5 6 7 8
Discharge
% of Flow after
Flow in in turbine Power Energy
Month exceedenc environmenta
river descendin flow (MW) (GWH)
e l release
g order
Jan 1.940 24.91 8.33% 24.75 7.70 6.417 4.685
Feb 1.690 20.01 16.67% 19.85 7.70 6.417 4.685
Mar 1.610 17.20 25.00% 17.04 7.70 6.417 4.685
Apr 1.820 7.72 33.33% 7.56 7.56 6.303 4.643
7.70 40.00% 7.54 7.54 6.283 3.675
May 2.610 7.69 41.67% 7.53 7.53 6.278 0.917
June 7.720 3.81 50.00% 3.65 3.65 3.043 3.402
July 20.010 2.61 58.33% 2.45 2.45 2.042 1.856
Aug 24.910 2.58 66.67% 2.42 2.42 2.017 1.482
Sept 17.200 1.94 75.00% 1.78 1.78 1.483 1.278
Oct 7.690 1.82 83.33% 1.66 1.66 1.383 1.046
Nov 3.810 1.69 91.67% 1.53 1.53 1.275 0.970
Dec 2.580 1.61 100.00% 1.45 1.45 1.208 0.906

Total (GWh) 34.229

Firm Energy (GWh) 10.584
Secondary energy (GWh) 23.645

Answers:
Installed Capacity = 6.417 MW (power column को सबै भन्दा ठन लो)
Firm power = 1.208 MW (power column को सबै भन्दा सार्ो )

𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 100−0

Firm energy = × × 365 × 24 = 10.584 𝐺𝑊ℎ
1000 100

Secondary energy = total energy – firm energy

 Er. Dipesh Koirala

Steps to make Table:

– Column 1 and column 2 as per question
– Column 3 (Discharge in descending order) भर्ेको column 2 को data लाइ descending
order मा arrange गर्े
– Column 4 भर्ेको column 2 को data अर्नसार flow duration curve को % of exceedence find
out गर्े (refer flow duration curve in previous chapter for detail)
– Column 5 (Column 3 बाट environmental flow subtract गरे र लेख्ने )
– अब column 6 भन्दा पमहले design discharge वाला row (मामि table मा italics र
highlighted) add गर्े
 Design discharge को value कन र्ै % of time given छ or 40% assume गरे को हो
भर्े , त्यो value column 4 मा कहाुँ मर्र पछन, त्यो locate गरे र लेख्ने
 Design discharge को value fix छ भर्े (मामि note को case b) , त्यो value column
3 मा कहाुँ मर्र पछन, त्यो locate गरे र लेख्ने
(In this question, Design discharge = silent (we assumed design discharge to be
corresponding to 40% time of exceedence, so we write 40% after 33.33% and before
41.67% in the descending order)
अब design discharge कमत हुन्छ मर्काल्र्े (Interpolate गरे र )
In this question, flow corresponding to 40% time of exceedence = Qd = 7.70 m3/s (design
discharge)
We write this value in column 3 corresponding to 40% time of exceedence
We write the corresponding value in column 5 after subtracting environmental release.

– अब column 6 मा turbine flow लेख्ने ( design discharge भन्दा available flow धेरै छ भर्े ,
turbine flow = design discharge , if design discharge भन्दा available flow िोरै छ भर्े
छ भर्े , turbine flow = available flow) (Concept is: खोलामा design discharge भन्दा
धेरै पार्ी available भए पमर् turbine मा design discharge भन्दा धेरै पार्ी जार् सक्दैर् र खोला
मा design discharge भन्दा िोरै पार्ी छ available भर्े , turbine मा तेही िोरै पार्ी जान्छ
because design discharge पनग्दैर् )
– अब column 6 मा Power calculate गरे र fill up गर्े ( P = 𝜂𝛾𝑄𝐻 ) (Megawat मा लेख्ने )
– अब column 7 मा energy calculate गरे र fill up गर्े
(Energy र power fill गदान 13 ओटा rows मै गर्े)
 Er. Dipesh Koirala

Sample Calculation of energy:

7.0
Power Duration Curve

6.0

5.0
Power (MW)

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0
0.00% 8.33% 16.66% 24.99% 33.32% 41.65% 49.98% 58.31% 66.64% 74.97% 83.30% 91.63% 99.96%

% of exceedence

First row भन्दा अगाडी power को value first row कै हुन्छ र % of exceedence को value 0 हुन्छ (Refer
graph for formula, formula is just the area under curve and matches with power × time concept
as well)

अगाडी को Line त्यमह Line को % of

को power exceedence अगाडीको Line को % of
त्यमह Line को power exceedence

6.417+6.417 8.33−0
E1 = × × 365 × 24 = 4.685 𝐺𝑊ℎ
2×1000 100

Divide by 2 means % भएको भएर divide 365 * 24 = hours in

average and divide by 100 one year
by 1000 means
converting MW to
GW

Similar calculations should be done till E13.

𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 100−0

Firm energy = × × 365 × 24
1000 100
 Er. Dipesh Koirala

Question: (Design discharge fixed value given type)

For same question as above, design discharge is fixed 5m3/s.

Column Column Column Column Column

1 2 Column 3 Column 4 Column 5 6 7 8
Discharge
% of Flow after
Flow in in turbine Power Energy
Month exceedenc environmenta
river descendin flow (MW) (GWH)
e l release
g order
Jan 1.940 24.91 8.33% 24.75 5.00 4.169 3.0436
Feb 1.690 20.01 16.67% 19.85 5.00 4.169 3.0436
Mar 1.610 17.20 25.00% 17.04 5.00 4.169 3.0436
Apr 1.820 7.72 33.33% 7.56 5.00 4.169 3.0436
May 2.610 7.69 41.67% 7.53 5.00 4.169 3.0436
5.00 47.44% 4.84 4.84 4.035 2.0761
June 7.720 3.81 50.00% 3.65 3.65 3.043 0.7923
July 20.010 2.61 58.33% 2.45 2.45 2.042 1.8560
Aug 24.910 2.58 66.67% 2.42 2.42 2.017 1.4816
Sept 17.200 1.94 75.00% 1.78 1.78 1.483 1.2777
Oct 7.690 1.82 83.33% 1.66 1.66 1.383 1.0464
Nov 3.810 1.69 91.67% 1.53 1.53 1.275 0.9703
Dec 2.580 1.61 100.00% 1.45 1.45 1.208 0.9064

Total (GWh) 25.624

Firm Energy (GWh) 10.584
Secondary energy (GWh) 15.040

Answers:
Installed Capacity = 4.169 MW (power column को सबै भन्दा ठन लो)
Firm power = 1.208 MW (power column को सबै भन्दा सार्ो)

𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 100−0

Firm energy = × × 365 × 24 = 10.584 𝐺𝑊ℎ
1000 100

Secondary energy = total energy – firm energy

Note:
(In this question, Design discharge = 5 m3/s, so we write 5 m3/s after 7.69 m3/s and before
3.81 m3/s in the descending order)
अब design discharge कमत हुन्छ मर्काल्र्े (Interpolate गरे र )
In this question, design discharge corresponding to कमत % time of exceedence हुन्छ, मर्काल्र्े)
From interpolation, it’s corresponding to 47.44%.
(Other concepts are same)