Course Outcome 1

Intermolecular Forces in Liquids and

Solids

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to:

 To comprehend the kinetic molecular description of liquids and

solids
 To understand dipole-dipole attraction, hydrogen bonding and
London dispersion forces; and the effect of these forces on the
properties of liquids.
 To learn about the various types of crystalline solids.
 To understand the interparticle forces in crystalline solids.
 To illustrate the relationship between phases through phase
diagrams.

1.1 Kinetic Molecular Model of Liquids and Solids

1.1.1 Properties of the condensed states

 They have high density.
 They are generally considered incompressible.
 They undergo little thermal expansion.
 They have a fixed volume.

1.1.2 The condensed states and kinetic theory

 The basic particles (molecules or ions) have significant attraction for
each other and so are held close together.
 Since the basic particles are close together, the particles occupy a
significant portion of the volume occupied by the substance.
 The basic particles are not in random motion; their motion is restricted
by interactions with other, neighboring particles.

1.2 Intermolecular Forces

Definition 1.2.1 Intermolecular Forces

 Intermolecular forces are attractive forces between molecules, unlike

intramolecular forces which hold atoms together in a molecule.
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Intermolecular forces influence (1) rate of evaporation, (2) boiling point, (3)
solubility.

1.2.2 Influence on rate of evaporation

 Evaporation requires the input of energy, specifically the enthalpy of
vaporization ( ∆ H ¿ ¿ vapo ) ¿.
 The greater the forces of attraction between molecules in a liquid, the
greater the energy that must be supplied to separate them.
 Since evaporation is an endothermic process, the value for the enthalpy
of vaporization has a positive sign.
 Polar compounds typically have a higher enthalpy of vaporization than
nonpolar compounds with similar molar masses.

1.2.3 Influence on boiling point

 As the temperature of a substance is raised, its molecules gain kinetic
energy.
 When the boiling point is reached, the molecules have sufficient kinetic
energy to escape the forces of attraction of their neighbors.
 Higher polarity means higher temperature for boiling.

1.2.4 Influence on solubility

 “Like dissolves like”

1.2.5 Types of Intermolecular Forces

Definition 1.2.5 Review

 Dipole – a molecule that has both positive and negative regions.

 Polar – a molecule with slightly positive side a slightly negative side.
 Nonpolar – a molecule with no separation of charge.
 Ion – atom that has gained or lost one or more electrons.
 Electronegativity – a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a
bonding pair of electron.
 Polarizability - ease with which the electron distribution in the atom or
molecule can be distorted.

 Ion-dipole (strongest)
o Attractive forces between polar molecules.
 Hydrogen bonding
o The hydrogen bond is a special dipole-dipole interaction
between the hydrogen atom in a polar N-H, O-H, or F-H bond
and an electronegative O, N, or F atom.
 Dipole-dipole
 Dispersion (weakest)
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o Attractive forces that arise as a result of temporary dipoles

induced in atoms or molecules.
o Dispersion forces usually increase with molar mass.
o Ion-induced dipole interaction and dipole-induced dipole
interaction (London dispersion)

1.3 Properties of Liquids

Definition 1.3.1 Surface Tension

 Surface tension is the amount of energy required to stretch or increase the

surface of a liquid by a unit area.
 Strong intermolecular forces mean high surface tension.

Definition 1.3.2 Capillary Action

 Capillary action is the tendency of a liquid to rise in narrow tubes or be

drawn into small openings such as those between grains of a rock.

Definition 1.3.3 Cohesion and Adhesion

 Cohesion is the intermolecular attraction between like molecules.

 Adhesion is an attraction between unlike molecules.

Definition 1.3.4 Viscosity

 Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow.

 Higher temperature typically results to lower viscosity.

Definition 1.3.5 Vapor Pressure

 The pressure exerted by the vapor above its liquid at a given temperature
is called its equilibrium vapor pressure or simply vapor pressure.
 Higher temperature typically leads to higher vapor pressure.
 The energy required to vaporize 1 mole of a liquid at a given temperature is
called the molar heat of vaporization ( ∆ H ¿ ¿ vapo ) ¿.
Chemistry 4

Definition 1.3.6 Boiling Point

1.3.7 Unique Properties of Water
  The
Water is a good at
temperature solvent.
which the liquid converts into a gas.

 A liquid boils whenspecific
Water has a high heat.
its vapor pressure equals the pressure acting on the
o Specific heat –
surface of the liquid.amount of heat or energy needed to raise the
 Thetemperature
boiling pointofisone
the ogram of a substance
temperature ato whichby 1 oC.
the Thepressure
vapor specific heat of
of a liquid
water is 1 calorie/g- C or
is equal to the external pressure.4.18 J/g- C.
 The boiling point of water is unusually high.
 Solid water is less dense, and in fact floats on liquid water.
Definition
1.4 Types 1.3.6 Relative
and Properties Humidity
of Solids

1.4.1 Amorphous
Measured Solids
how near the air is to saturation with vapor at a particular
 temperature.
Solids with no defined shape.
 When heated, amorphous solids soften gradually and tend to melt over
wide range of temperature.

1.4.2 Crystalline Solids

 Solids in which molecules or ions are arranged in a regular, symmetrical
structure called crystal lattice.
 When heated, the attractive forces in crystalline solids are broken by the
same amount of energy, becoming liquid at a specific temperature (i.e.
the melting point).
 Unit cell – smallest repeating unit that has all of the symmetry
characteristic of the way the atoms, ions, or molecules are arranged in
the solid.
 Seven basic unit cells: simple cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic,
rhombohedral, monoclinic, triclinic, and hexagonal
Chemistry 5

 Cell symmetries: primitive cubic, body-centered cubic (BCC), and face-

centered cubic (FCC)
 Primitive cubic – has one net atom within the unit cell.
 BCC – has an additional particle, of the same type as those at the
corners, at the center of the cube.
 FCC – has a particle, of the same type as the corner atoms, in the center
of each of the six faces of the cube.

1.4.3 Four Types of Crystalline Solids

 Ionic Solids
o Crystalline solids in which ions are the basic particles making up the
crystal lattice.
o Solid compounds that have relatively high melting points (can be as
high as 3000 ºC.
o Comprise much of the solid surface of Earth.
o Very hard and brittle

 Molecular Solids
o The basic particles of the crystal lattice are individual molecules,
which are held together by London forces and, in some cases, dipole–
dipole attractions or hydrogen bonding.
o Have low melting points compared to ionic solids.

 Network Solids
o Atoms are covalently bonded throughout the entire sample of the solid
o Have very high melting points.
o Examples: diamond and graphite

 Metallic Solids
o Outer electrons of metals are loosely held.
o The positive metal ions occupy regular positions in the crystal lattice,
with the valence electrons moving freely among these positive ions.
into sheets).

Solids and Forces

Type of Solid Forces Compounds Examples

London All molecules CCl4, CO2

Molecular Dipole-dipole Polar molecules SO2, CH3Cl
Hydrogen Bonding Mainly O-H and N-H NH2Cl, HOCl

Ionic Ion-ion Ionic compounds NaCl, K2SO4

Network Covalent bonds SiO2, diamond
Metallic Cation-electron Solid metals Fe, Ni, Co
Chemistry 6

1.5 Phase Changes

1.5.1 Melting
 The melting point of a solid is the temperature at which the lattice
collapses and the solid is converted into a liquid.
 Requires energy, called the enthalpy of fusion ( ∆ H ¿¿ fusion )¿.
❑

1.5.2 Sublimation
 Endothermic process
 The energy required as heat is called the enthalpy of sublimation
(kJ/mol).
 Water has a molar enthalpy of sublimation of 51 kJ/mol

1.6 Phase Diagrams

Definition 1.6.1 Phase Diagram

 Used to illustrate the relationship between phases of matter and the

pressure and temperature.

1.6.2 Phase Diagram of Water

 Negative slope
Chemistry 7

1.6.2 Phase Diagram of Carbon Dioxide

 Positive slope
 Solid CO2 is denser than the liquid, the newly formed solid CO 2 would
sink to the bottom in a container of liquid CO2.
Chemistry 8