Chapter 16 Digestion and Absorption

Nutrition: The process of taking in food by an organism and its utilization by the body is called
nutrition.

Nutrients: Components of food which cannot synthesized by body and must be obtained from
outside.

Macronutrients or Proximate Principles of food:

 These are required in large quantities.
 Source of energy and building block of body.
 Carbohydrates, proteins and fats are macronutrients.

Micronutrients or Protective principles of food:

 Required in very less amounts.
 Regulatory in function. Many enzymes work in their presence only.
 Their presence prevents appearing of various deficiency diseases hence named protective food.
 Minerals and vitamins are micronutrients.

Steps in Holozoic nutrition in Animals:

1. Ingestion: Taking in food
2. Digestion: Break down of complex components of food into simpler substances.
3. Absorption: Digested food is passed in blood.
4. Assimilation: Utilization of absorbed food by body.
5. Egestion: Throwing out undigested waste products of body.

Human Digestive System (Figure 1):

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Teeth (Figures 2, 3, 4 and 5):
 Teeth are diphyodont, heterodont and thecodont.
 Mammals including human beings form two sets of teeth during their life; a set of temporary milk
teeth replaced by a set permanent teeth. This type of dentition is called diphyodont.
 Permanent teeth are of four types which serve different purposes. Such dentition is called
heterodont.
 Teeth are firmly embedded in deep sockets of jaw bone. This type of attachment is called
thecodont.
 Dental formula of human child is .

 Dental formula of human adult is .

 The hard chewing surface of teeth is made of enamel which helps in mastication of food.

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 Knowledge Box

 Enamel is the hardest substance in living world.

 Last molars of lower and upper jaws are called wisdom teeth. These are vestigial teeth i.e.,
perform no function. (Figure 5)

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Tongue:
 It is a freely movable muscular organ attached floor of oral cavity by a flap like structure called
frenulum.
 Upper surface of tongue has small projections called papillae which bear taste buds.

Pharynx (Figure 6):

 Oral cavity leads to a short pharynx which serves as a common passage for food and air.
 Oesophagus and trachea open into the pharynx. Opening of oesophagus is called gullet.
 A cartilaginous flap called epiglottis prevents entry of food into glottis (opening of trachea)
during swallowing.
Note: Sometimes when we eat in a hurry, talk or laugh while eating, we may cough or get a
choking sensation. This happens when food particles enter the wind pipe.

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Oesophagus: It joins buccal cavity with stomach.

Peristalsis (Figure 7): Muscles of digestive track produce wave like movement called peristalsis. It
pushes the food in forward direction.

Layers of Alimentary Canal (Figure 8):

 Wall of alimentary canal from oesophagus to rectum consists of four layers- serosa, muscularis,
sub–mucosa and mucosa.
 Serosa is the outermost layer made up of thin mesothelium (squamous epithelium of visceral
organs).

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 Muscularis consists of smooth muscles arranged in inner circular and outer longitudinal layer.
Oblique muscle forms the inner most layer in stomach region only. Muscularis is responsible for
peristalsis and mixing of food with digestive juices.
 Sub-mucosa consists of areolar connective tissue containing nerve, blood and lymph vessels.
Note: In duodenum only, glands are also present in sub-mucosa. These glands secrete alkaline
fluid to neutralize acidity of chyme coming from stomach.
 Mucosa:
 It is the inner most layer made up of simple columnar epithelium.
 It forms irregular folds called rugae in an empty stomach.
 It also forms small finger like folding called villi in small intestine. (Figure 9)
 Villi are supplied with a network of capillaries and large lymphatic vessels called lacteals.
 Mucosa of intestine forms Crypts of Leiberkuhn in between the bases of villi which secrete
intestinal juice.
 Villi produce numerous microscopic projections called microvilli giving a brush border
appearance.
 This modification increases the surface area of small intestine enormously for efficient
absorption of digested food.

Knowledge Box
Two networks of nerves in the wall of alimentary canal are:
 Meissner’s plexus in sub-mucosa which regulates secretion of digestive juices in various
regions of gut.
 Aurbach’s plexus in Muscularis which controls peristalsis.

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Stomach (Figure 10):

 It is ‘J’ shaped bag like muscular structure. It is the widest part of alimentary canal.
 A muscular gastro–oesophageal sphincter regulates the opening of oesophagus into the
stomach.
 Stomach consists of four parts: cardiac, fundus, body and pyloric.
 Oesophagus opens into cardiac region.
 Pyloric region opens into duodenum. This opening is guarded by pyloric sphincter.
 Mucosal wall of stomach has gastric glands which secrete gastric juice.
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 Cells of Gastric Glands Secretion
Chief/ Zymogenic/ Peptic cells Pepsinogen, pro-rennin, gastric lipase
Parietal/ oxyntic cells Hydrochloric acid, Intrinsic factor of Castle
Goblet cells Mucus
G cells Gastrin hormone

 Rennin helps in digestion of milk in infants.

 Intrinsic factor of castle helps in absorption of vitamin B12.
 The hormone gastrin stimulates secretion of gastric juice.
Note: Protein digesting enzymes are secreted in inactive forms called proenzymes or zymogens;
so that they do not start acting within the cell where they are produced which can damage the cell.

Knowledge Box

Gastric barrier: The features of inner wall of stomach which prevent the stomach wall from ill–effects
of HCl and digestive enzymes; together form gastric barrier. These are:
 Inner wall is lined with highly resistant mucous cells that secrete thick alkaline mucous.
 Tight junctions between adjacent epithelial cells prevent leakage of digestive juice and HCl into
the mucosa lining.

Peptic ulcer: Erosion of inner wall of stomach by digestive action of gastric juice causes peptic ulcer.
Following are the causes of peptic ulcer:
 Bacterial infection of Helicobacter pylori disrupts gastric barrier.
 Smoking increases nervous stimulation of gastric glands.
 Alcohol and aspirin tend to breakdown mucosal barrier.

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Regulation of gastric secretion and motility:

Regulation of gastric secretion and motility:

Note: Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) secreted by small intestine, inhibits gastric secretion and
motility.

Small intestine (Figure 11):

 It is the longest part of alimentary canal and is about 7.5 meters in length.
 It is distinguishable into three regions- a ‘U’ shaped duodenum, jejunum and highly coiled ileum
Note: ‘Ileum’ is a part of small intestine while ‘ilium’ is a bone of pelvic girdle.
 Duodenum is the shortest part whereas ileum is the longest part of small intestine.
 Opening of ileum into large intestine is guarded by ileo–caecal sphincter.

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 Small intestine receives secretions form liver, pancreas and its own inner wall.
 It is the site of the complete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats and also absorption of
digested food.

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Note:
 The length of the small intestine differs in various animals depending on the food they eat.
 Herbivores need a longer small intestine to allow digestion of cellulose.
 Meat is easier to digest; hence carnivores have a shorter small intestine.

Knowledge Box
Brush border enzymes (Figure 11 b):
 Epithelial cells of intestine synthesize enzymes and insert them in plasma membrane of microvilli.
Thus some digestion occurs at epithelial surface rather than in lumen. These studded enzymes are
called brush border enzymes.
 Brush border enzymes catalyze last step in digestion. Thus, end products of digestion are absorbed
immediately by microvilli.
 Brush border enzymes are:
 Carbohydrate digesting enzymes: maltase, sucrase and lactase.
 Protein digesting enzymes: aminopeptidase (erepsin) and dipeptidase.
 Nucleotide digesting enzymes: nucleotidase and nucleosidase.

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Large intestine (Figure 12):
 It is wider and shorter than small intestine.
 It consists of caecum, colon and rectum.
 Caecum is a small blind sac which hosts symbiotic microbes.
 A narrow finger like structure, vermiform appendix (a vestigeal organ) arises from caecum.
 Colon is divided into three parts – ascending, transverse and descending part.
 Descending colon opens into rectum which opens out through the anus.

Knowledge Box
 Appendicitis is the inflammation of vermiform appendix due to obstruction by fecal matter.
 Appendectomy; surgical removal of appendix; is the only measure.

Associated digestive glands are salivary glands, liver and pancreas.

Salivary glands (Figure 13):

 There are three pairs of salivary glands: parotids, sub–maxillary, and sublingual. These glands
secrete saliva in the buccal cavity.
 Saliva consists of water (99%), HCO3−, mucin, lysozyme, IgA and ptylin (salivary amylase).
 Mucin lubricates the food during chewing.
 Lysozyme is an enzyme with antibacterial activity.
 IgA is a type of antibody (immunoglobulin) which fights against germs in oral cavity.
 Ptylin is a starch digesting enzyme.
Note:
 About 30% of starch is hydrolysed in oral cavity by ptylin.

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  When we chew chapatti for a while, it tastes sweet because some of the starch of chapatti is
converted into sugar by the action of enzyme present in saliva.

Regulation of saliva secretion:

 Sight, smell and/or presence of food in oral cavity stimulate secretion of saliva.
 Parasympathetic nervous stimulation increases salivation whereas sympathetic nervous
stimulation during stress decreases salivation which causes dryness of mouth.

Liver (Figure 14):

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 It is the heaviest gland in the body weighing about 1.5 Kg.
 It is the second largest organ after skin.
 It is situated in the abdominal cavity, just below the diaphragm and consists of two lobes.
 Each lobe of liver consists of many functional units called hepatic lobules.
Note: Hepatic lobules are the structural and functional units of liver.
 Each hepatic lobule consists of hepatic cells (hepatocytes) arranged in the form of cords.
 Each lobule is covered by thin connective tissue sheath called Glisson’s capsule.
 Kupffer cells are the phagocytic cells present in liver.
 The opening of hepato–pancreatic duct into the duodenum is guarded by sphincter of Oddi.

Gall bladder: Bile from liver passes through hepatic duct and is stored and concentrated in a thin
muscular sac called gall bladder.

Duct system of liver, gall bladder and pancreas (Figure 15 a and b):

Regulation of bile secretion: Cholecystokinin (CCK) stimulates secretion of bile gall bladder.
Note: CCK causes contraction of gall bladder wall and relaxation of Sphincter of Oddi that results in
release of bile from gall bladder into duodenum.

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 Knowledge Box
Bile:
 It is mixture of water, NaHCO3, bile salts (Na+/K+ taurocholate and glycocholate) and bile
pigments (Bilirubin).
 Bilirubin is the breakdown product of heam.
 In large intestine, bilirubin changes to stercobilin which gives brown colour to feces.
Note: Bile is partially digestive and partially excretory product.
 Bile salts emulsify fat, activate lipase and help in absorption of fatty acids and fat soluble vitamins.

Pancreas (Figure 16):

 It is a compound/mixed gland, i.e., functions both as exocrine and endocrine gland.

 The exocrine portion secretes alkaline pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes.
 Endocrine portion secretes hormones, insulin and glucagon.
 Pancreatic juice is a complete digestive juice because it contains all four categories of digestive
enzymes involved in digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, fats and nucleic acids.
 Carbohydrate digesting enzymes: Pancreatic amylase.
 Protein digesting enzymes: Trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen and procarboxypeptidase.
 Lipid digesting enzyme: Pancreatic lipase (Steapsin)
 Nucleic acid digesting enzymes: DNAase, RNAase.

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Regulation of pancreatic secretion:
 Secretin acts on exocrine pancreas and stimulates secretion of water and bicarbonate ions which
neutralize acidity of chyme coming from stomach.
 Cholecystokinin (CCK) stimulates secretion of pancreatic enzymes.

Digestion of food is accomplished by mechanical and chemical processes.

Digestion of Carbohydrate:
In mouth:

In small intestine:

Lactose intolerance:
 Deficiency of enzyme ‘lactase’ results in a condition called lactose intolerance.
 Such person is not able to digest lactose.
 If consumed, lactose undergoes bacterial fermentation that results in production of gases.
 Symptoms include diarrhea, abdominal cramps after consumption of dairy products.
 However such person can consume curd because during curdling of milk, lactose is converted into
lactic acid.

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Digestion of Proteins:
In stomach:

Note: The semi–digested acidic food in stomach is called chyme.

In small intestine:

Digestion of lipids: It occurs in small intestine.

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Digestion of Nucleic Acids:

Absorption of food: It is a process by which end products of digestion pass through small intestinal
mucosa into blood or lymph.
 Simple diffusion: Small amounts of glucose, amino acids and electrolytes like Cl− are absorbed by
simple diffusion; along concentration gradient.
 Facilitated transport: Some substances like fructose and a few amino acids are absorbed with
the help of carrier protein; along concentration gradient without expenditure of energy.
 Osmosis occurs for absorption of water.
 Active transport: nutrients like monosaccharides, amino acids and electrolytes are absorbed
against the concentration gradient with expenditure of energy.

Absorption of digested fat (Figure 17):

 Fatty acids and glycerol being insoluble in water and bigger in size cannot be absorbed into the
blood.
 Bile salts form tiny spheres called micelles and trap fatty acids and monoglycerides in the core of
micelles.

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 At the apical surface of epithelial cells, fatty acids and monoglycerides diffuse into the cells, leaving
the micelles repeat this ferrying function.
 Fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) are also absorbed in the same way.
 Within epithelial cells, fatty acids and glycerol recombine to form triglycerides.
 Triglycerides along with phospholipids and cholesterol aggregate into globules and become
coated with proteins. These spherical masses are called chylomicrons.
 Because chylomicrons are so bulky, these cannot enter blood capillaries in the small intestine.
Therefore, these enter more leaky lacteals (lymphatic capillaries) present in villi.
 These lymphatic vessels ultimately release the absorbed substances in blood.

Absorption of substances in different parts of digestive system (Figure 18):

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In mouth: Certain drugs are absorbed in mucosa of mouth and lower surface of tongue.
Note: Homeopathic doctor advices to put medicine under the tongue for its efficient absorption.
In stomach: Absorption of water, simple sugars and alcohol etc. takes place.
Small intestine:
 Principal organ for absorption of nutrients.
 The digestion is completed here and the final products of digestion such as glucose, fructose, fatty
acids, glycerol and amino acids are absorbed through mucosa into the blood capillaries and
lacteals.
Large intestine: Absorption of water, some bivalent minerals (Ca2+, Mg2+) and drugs takes place.
Note:
 Absorbed substances finally reach tissues which utilize them according to their requirements. This
process is called assimilation.
 The digestive waste solidifies into feces and accumulates in rectum.
 Egestion of feces to outside through anus is called defecation.

Disorders of Digestive system:

Dental caries:
 Masses of bacteria together with food particles stick to teeth form dental plaque.
 Brushing teeth after eating removes plaque before bacteria produce acids.
 Tooth decay begins when mouth is not cleaned properly and bacteria acting on sugars produce
acids.
 The acids gradually demineralize the enamel that causes tooth decay or dental caries.
 If it is not treated in time, it causes severe toothache.
 Chocolates, sweets, soft drinks and other sugar products are main causes of tooth decay as
bacteria grow rapidly in presence of sugars.
Indigestion:
 Too much of acid in the stomach causes indigestion.
 To relive indigestion, we take an antacid such as milk of magnesia, which contains magnesium
hydroxide.
 It neutralizes the effect of excessive acid in stomach.
Hepatic Cirrhosis: Excessive fat deposition in liver due to alcoholism.
Jaundice: Liver is affected, skin and eyes turn yellow due to deposition of bile.
Vomiting: It is the ejection of stomach contents through mouth. This reflex action is controlled by
vomiting center in medulla.
Diarrhoea is the abnormal frequency of bowel movement and increased liquidity of the fecal
discharge. It reduces absorption of food.
Constipation: The feces is retained within rectum due to irregular bowel movement.

Ruminant stomach (Figure 19):

 Ruminant stomach occurs in ruminating animals like cattle, goat, sheep, camel etc.
 It has four chambers: rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum.
 Rumen and reticulum harbor symbiotic bacteria for cellulosic digestion.
 Omasum absorbs water.
 Abomasum is true stomach meant for protein digestion.

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