International Journal of Literature, Language and Linguistics

Vol. 6(1), pp. 255-262, April, 2020. © www.premierpublishers.org. ISSN: 2401-0932

Research Article

Phonological Variations and Language Exposure as Correlates

of Achievement in Silent Sounds in ESL Classrooms in Ibadan
South-East LGA, Nigeria
*1Oladotun Opeoluwa OLAGBAJU, 2Kehinde Olufemi OGUNYEMI
1Department of Linguistic Education, College of Education & Social Sciences, Legacy University, P.M.B. 32, Banjul, The
Gambia
2Department of Arts Education, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko, Ondo State, Nigeria

The mispronunciation of English words with silent sounds is a common problem in ESL
classrooms in Ibadan South-east Local Government Area. Although there have been several
efforts within and outside the classroom to improve the quality of ESL learners’ pronunciation of
silent sounds in English language, the problem still persists. Age, maturation, language
environment, poor quality of instruction, exposure and other causative factors have been
identified to be responsible for the problem of mispronunciation in ESL classroom. Therefore,
this study determines the relationship between ESL students’ phonological variations, language
exposureand their achievement in selected silent sounds. Three null hypotheses were generated,
and the study adopted a descriptive research design of survey type with a population of 207
students in intact classes from four randomly selected schools. Two research instruments were
used and the data were analyzed using regression statistics. Results show that phonological
variations had no significant relationship with achievement in silent sounds, language exposure
had no significant relation with students’ achievement in silent sounds and the two independent
variables had no composite contribution to achievement in silent sounds. It was recommended
that teachers should ensure that students are adequately exposed to native-like pronunciation in
the target language.

Key words: Phonological Variations, Language Exposure, Achievement, Silent Sounds, Pronunciation

INTRODUCTION
Proficiency in a second language is often measured by the
language user’s ability and fluency in the use of the target
language both in speech and writing. In formal and
informal situations, second language learners’ proficiency
is adjudged by the quality of their literacy and oratory skills
in the L2. In a country with several ethnic identities and
diverse languages like Nigeria,English language is the
official language, language of instruction and taught as a
core subject in Nigerian schools (Urua,2003; Olagbaju,
2014).Proficiency in English language, especially with
regards to the four language skills taught and examined in
the Nigerian educational system is non-negotiable.
English is taught as a Second Language (ESL) in most
Nigerian schools because a typical child would have
acquired a first language before school enrolment. Yoruba
is predominantly spoken as the first language by most of
the students in the government-owned primary and
secondary schools in Ibadan metropolis. Usually, there are
many errors that occur in the spoken English of ESL
speakers whose first language is Yoruba, especially in the
pronunciation ofwords with silent sounds. Pronunciation is
critical to successful communication and it remains a
subject of concern among second language learners
especially in the aspect of proficiency inoratory skills. A
problem that is common with most ESL learners is thatpoor
pronunciation of some of the words in the target language
which fosters ambiguity or impedes intelligibility during
conversation with native speakers/listeners.
*Corresponding Author: Oladotun Opeoluwa
OLAGBAJU, PhD, Department of Linguistic Education,
College of Education & Social Sciences, Legacy
University, P.M.B. 32, Banjul, The Gambia.
E-Mail: dotunolagbaju@yahoo.com
Co-Author 2Email: luckykenny4u@yahoo.com

Phonological Variations and Language Exposure as Correlates of Achievement in Silent Sounds in ESL Classrooms in Ibadan South-East LGA, Nigeria
Olagbaju and Ogunyemi 256
However, some of the goals of instructionin spoken
English are forESL learners to attain native-like
competence in the target language, pronounce words and
mark stress correctly, and make use of rhymes and
intonation when necessary.Instruction and evaluation in
the aspect of spoken English in Nigeria is not oral/audio
approach because most schools lack the required
equipment or facilities such as power supply and language
laboratory. Therefore, the West African Examination
Council (WAEC) and other examination bodies have
adopted an alternative to practical oral-type examination
known as the Test of Orals. While significant gains have
been made in students’ achievement in several aspects of
the Test of Oral English instruction and evaluation,
students’ pronunciation and the achievement in words with
silent sounds have not improved significantly. A silent
sound in this regard is a letter or combination of letters
(sounds) usually left unpronounced in a word. For
example, ‘k’ in knock, ‘b’ in comb, and the ‘t’ in listen.
These letters are not pronounced in words because they
remain silent as they do not correspond to any sound in
the pronunciation of each of the word.
Efforts to improve ESL learners’ pronunciation and
learning outcome in Oral English include the use of active
teaching or communicative competence instruction
(Goldsmith, 2002), and audio-visual resources (Olagbaju&
Popoola2020) among other interventions. Although these
studies provided enough insights on how the quality of
instruction can be improved in spoken English among ESL
learners, the problems of poor pronunciation and
achievement in silent sounds stills persists.Gilakjani and
Ahmadi (2011) opine that ESL learners often adopt the
sounds of their mother tongue when speaking English
especially for sounds which they are unfamiliar with in their
first language. To Umeru-Okeke (2008) and Adedeji
(2011), the teaching and learning of English in Nigeria is
greatly influenced by the learner’s L1 in so many ways
because unwholesome speech habits formed overtime
from the first language are often transferred to hinder the
effective learning of the second language.
Other factors such as large classroom sizes,absence of
target language environment, phonological variations,
poor teaching methodology, and Language exposure,
have contributed to students’ learning outcomes in Spoken
English.Also, some teachers are not passionate enough to
motivate ESLlearners to become aware of variations that
can improve or worsen their second language learning
experiences.Jubril (1982) avers that phonological
variations are concerned with disparity in the way certain
sounds or words are pronounced as a result of people’s
linguistic background or experiences. It is a common
occurrence in a second language classroom and it can
enhance or impede instruction in the target language. For
example, phonological variation exists between some of
the sounds of Yoruba (the dominant first language in
Ibadan South-East LGA) and English (the target language)
in the areas of phonemic awareness, phonotactics, and
Phonological Variations and Language Exposure as Correlates of Achievement in Silent Sounds in ESL Classrooms in Ibadan South-East LGA, Nigeria
orthography because the two languages do not have the
same phonological inventories and structures. In English
language, there exists no obvious relationship between
pronunciation and orthography to a large extent, this is
very much unlike the structure of Yoruba language.
The purpose of learning asecond language is to
communicate effectively and failure to properly pronounce
the sounds of a language can lead to a breakdown in the
process of communication (Goldsmith, 2002). Several
factors such as dialects and accents contribute to
variations in phonology to impede effective communication
and proper pronunciation of English words (Idowu, 2019;
Nelson-Sathi, 2013; Idowu, 1999). Problems associated
with phonological variationsamong speakers of other
languages are similar but differ according to each
speaker’s linguistic backgroundand experience.
Bamgbose (1995) posits that it is difficult for mostESL
learners to attain a native-like pronunciation because of
these variations. In addition, Tanner (2012) and Ikhsan
(2017) identify some of the factors that affect native-like
pronunciation in ESL classrooms to which include
phonological variations, age, culture, exposure to the right
or correct pronunciation, level of interaction, innate
phonetic ability, motivation, identity and language ego.
Phonological variations affect the pronunciation of sounds,
especially the silent sounds in spoken English in ESL
classrooms. Some of the accent/dialect-related errors
common with ESL students’ pronunciation include the
adoption of thevowel /i/ for the consonant /h/ in words like
[hill, hink, hiccups] that are pronounced as [ill, ink, iccups]
(Idowu, 2019). Also, Priva(2015) maintains that
phonological variations are largely influenced by dialects
and accents of the locality.Also, ESL students’ poor or low
level of concentration in the classroom and other attitudinal
problems have contributed to phonological variations in
ESL classrooms.
Obanya (2002) submits that instruction in a second
language classroom should be multidimensional in
approach taking into cognizance learner-related factors
that can influence their communicative competence.In the
process of instruction in ESL classroom, learners should
have adequate exposure in terms of volume in quality and
quantity of the target language that they come in contact
with. Exposure in second language learning refers to the
contact that the learners have with the language that they
are trying to learn within and outside the classroom.
Language exposure could be in the form of access to the
target language in daily communication or the volume of
the contact situations that the ESL learner has acquired
through instruction in the target language over a period of
time.
Language learners often acquire language primarily from
the input they receive, and they must receive large
amounts of comprehensible input before they will be able
to communicate or make use of the skills of the target

language effective (Gilakjani, 2011). The implication of this
is that ESL learners must be adequately exposed to the
right pronunciations, words with silent sounds inclusive, to
be able to achieve the native speaker’s level of proficiency
in English.Gilakjani (2011) avers that exposure to verbal
communication in ESL learning situations affects the
supra-segmental features of speech such as pitch, stress
and intonation which cannot be thoroughlytaught or
learned from reading a textbook or dictionary. However,
Shumin (1997) posits that when ESL learners are not
adequately exposed to the target language through
contact situations with native speakers, acquisition of a
native-like level of pronunciation, fluency, control of
idiomatic expressions and cultural pragmatics such as
gestures, body language, and facial expressions becomes
difficult.
The pronunciation of English silent sounds remains a
major problem in second language teaching and learning
in secondary schools within Ibadan metropolis. This is
because languages differ in terms of orthographies and
phonological rules. Apart from this, majority of the ESL
learners in Ibadan South-East LGA speak the dominant
indigenous language (Yoruba) with diverse dialects, and
there are others who speak the languages of other tribes
and cultures of the Nigerian people within the same ESL
classroom. Therefore, ESL learnersshould be exposed to
the target language in and out of the classroom. Similarly,
ESL teachers need to consciously call the learners’
attention to numerous phonological variations that exist in
the multicultural/multilingual L2 classroom which can
impede good pronunciation in the target
language.Therefore, examining the relationship between
phonological variations, language exposure and
achievement in English pronunciation, especially with
regards to selected silent sounds forms the rationale for
this study.
Several studies (Jubril, 1982; Gilakjani, 2011; Sathi, 2013)
suggest that phonological variations and exposure hinder
students’ achievement in second language learning while
others (Shumin, 1997; Tanner, 2012; Mohammed, 2014)
submit that it does not. In view of the inconclusive findings
on the relationship between phonological variation and
second language learning, this studydetermines ESL
learners’ phonological variations, language exposure and
their achievement in silent sounds in Senior Secondary
Schools in Ibadan South-east Local Government Area.The
pronunciation of most of the English words with silent
sounds poses a huge challenge to most ESL learners in
Ibadan South-east Local Government Area, Nigeria. This
has attracted much interest among scholars in applied
linguistics because poor pronunciation of English words
hinders effective communication in the target language.
This problem has been attributed to phonological
variations and poor language exposure that exist in most
ESL classrooms. Several studies on the effects of
phonological variations and language exposure on English
pronunciation have not yielded significant changes. Also,
Phonological Variations and Language Exposure as Correlates of Achievement in Silent Sounds in ESL Classrooms in Ibadan South-East LGA, Nigeria
Int. J. of Lit., Lang. Ling. 257
none of the studies focused on silent sounds as an aspect
of English pronunciation in Ibadan South East LGA.This
study determines the relationship between phonological
variations and language exposure and ESL students’
achievement in silent sounds in Senior Secondary Schools
in Ibadan South East LGA.
RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
Ho1: There is no significant relationship between
phonological variations and students’ achievement in
silent sounds.
Ho2: There is no significant relationship between
language exposure and students’ achievement in silent
sounds.
Ho3: There is no significant composite contribution of
phonological variations and language exposure on
students’ achievement in silent sounds.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Krashen’s Theory of Linguistic Relativity
Krashen’s Theory of linguistic relationship was employed
in this study. The theory of linguistic relativity states that a
language structure affects the way its speakers
conceptualize the world around them. Stephen Krashen is
an expert in the field of linguistics, specializing in theories
of language acquisition and development. Much of his
recent research has covered non- English and bilingual
language acquisition. Krashen’s Theory of Second
Language Acquisition is made up of five main hypotheses.
According to Krashen, two independent systems of second
language performance exist: the acquired system and the
learned system. The acquired system deals with the
subconscious process very similar to the process that
children undergo when they acquire their first language
while the learned system is the result of a formal instruction
and conscious process.Thetheoryis applicable to this
study in the aspect of learned system because it
explainshow learners improve and progress insecond
language learning situation along the natural order when
they receive second language input by examining the
influence of phonological variations and language
exposure in second language learning.
PHONOLOGICAL VARIATIONS AND LANGUAGE
EXPOSURE IN ESL CLASSROOMS
There are several errors that occur in second language
learning situations because some of the sounds in English
language, especially the silent sounds, are uncommon in
the learners’ mother-tongue. Several studies have
confirmed that first language acquisition experience is
usually highly motivating for children because they
unconsciously operate in a conductive linguistics
environment. According to Aladeyomi and Adetunde
(2007), the processes in second language learning are
generally difficult. Bhelda (1999) posits that the learning
Olagbaju and Ogunyemi 258
experience of ESL learners can be enriched by creating
the right learning environment through exposure to the
target language in form of everything the language
learners hear and see.
Exposure helps ESL learners to acquire or learn the target
language steadily by accumulating the grammar,
pronunciation and other non-verbal properties of the target
language until they attain proficiency in the target
language. Quality exposure of ESL learners through
communicative engagements and interactions develops
both the segmental and supra-segmental features of
speech such as phoneme identification and realization,
pitch, stress, intonation and the non-linguistic elements
involved in language, such as gestures, sign language,
and facial expressions that carry so much meaning yet are
not learned through explicit instruction. According to
Gilakjani (2011) and Gilakjani and Ahmadi (2011),
language exposure allows the ESL or EFL learners to
encounter the target language through sheer experience
of the language and culture.
Phonological variation on the other hand is a product of
language interference which is common in a
multilingual/multicultural classroom. Interference refers to
a situation where two different languages overlap and
these overlapping can either be positive or negative. When
a learner’s first language overlaps into the second
language or vice versa, there is often a variation in the
product of such interference. These variations could cut
across areas such as phonology, grammar and lexis.
Idowu (1999) suggests that there are English
pronunciations that are flawed with ethnic group accents
or simply peculiar to members of an ethnic group by birth
or upbringing, or both. According to Bamgbose (1995),
most of the phonetic characteristics in the spoken English
of Nigerians are traceable to ethnic-based phonological
variations in the ESL classroom.
Onike (2009) states that phonological variation is a
psycho-linguistic concept and a reality in learning a second
language. For instance, the absence of certain consonants
and vowels (sounds) in some of the Nigerian indigenous
languages makes the pronunciation of similar sounds in
the target language extremely difficult because ESL
learners need to substitute such sounds with a version that
is closest to it. Simple but unique sounds, such as bilabial
plosive voiced /b/, voiceless alveolar plosive /t/, /d/ and
short vowels such as /i/, /u/, and /e/ can create problems
and constitute cases of phonological variations in the ESL
classroom.
Further still, Idowu (1999) suggests that other sounds such
as the voiced labiodentals /v/ and the voiceless fricative /f/
which are present in English but do not exist in Yoruba and
this makes it very hard for Yoruba learners of English as a
second language to correctly pronounce the English
sounds. In the same way, the lack of long vowels in Yoruba
Phonological Variations and Language Exposure as Correlates of Achievement in Silent Sounds in ESL Classrooms in Ibadan South-East LGA, Nigeria
prohibits the acquisition of long vowels in English by
Yoruba-English bilingual. For example, it is hard
sometimes for these learners to differentiate between such
words sit, /sit/ and seat /si:t/. Also, Krashen (2004) stated
that many skills acquired in the first language can be easily
transferred to the English language. For example, if a child
has developed very good language skills in Korean,
he/she is likely able to apply these skills when reading
English.
IMPLICATIONS OF SILENT SOUNDS FOR ESL
INSTRUCTION IN CLASSROOM
A number of researchers have studied different distinctive
features of variety of English spoken and written in Nigeria
(Oladipupo, 2014; Adedeji, 2011; Nwanyanwu, 2017;
Awonusi, 1994, 2004). In a study that explores the aspects
of connected speech processes in Nigerian English,
Oladipupo(2014) states that acquiring the phonology of a
particular language requires learning to gradually
constrain, suppress, or order the application of these
processes rather than following rules. A similar study on
Phonetic and Phonological Variation of Received
Pronunciation and the Nigerian English Accent, Adedeji
(2011) posits that phonological considerations generally
involve segmental and supra-segmental sounds.
Consonants and vowels constitute the segmentals while
the supra-segmental sounds include the features of stress,
rhythm and intonation. Ellis (1985) posits that when a
Frenchman speaks English, his English sounds French
because the learner’s L1 also affects the other language
levels – vocabulary and grammar with some tracesof L1
phonology will be evident in spoken L2. ESL learners from
different linguisticbackgrounds may find that many words
in English with silent sounds could be challenging to
pronounce. For example, there are several English words
with silent letters such as ‘design’ (g is silent) and
‘designation’ (/g/ is pronounced). Other examples of silent
letters are seen in words like ‘prawn’ (/w/ is silent), ‘listen’
and ‘island’(/s/ is silent), ‘knock’, ‘knight’, ‘knit’ (/k/ is silent),
‘honest’ (h is silent); and ‘comb’, ‘plumber’, ‘subtle’ (b is
silent). These sets of silent sounds/letters often create
confusion for ESL learners.
Second Language learners often find aspects of the
spelling or pronunciation of English words challenging
because of silent letters or sounds. The fact that silent
letters are so prevalent should be reason enough for
teachers to learn more about them. A combination of
factors has influenced the English language and will most
likely continue to do so. The silent letters often have a
purpose, even though it might not be evident at first.
Information about phonological variations and quality
exposure to the target language are beneficial to ESL
students’ achievement in silent letters or sounds. The
knowledge of these variables can help to enrich ESL
learners’ language experience.
 Int. J. of Lit., Lang. Ling. 259

METHODOLOGY RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Research Design Ho1: There is no significant relationship between

phonological variations and students’ achievement in
The research design adopted for this study is a descriptive silent sounds.
research of survey type. The study explored quantitative
methods of data analysis. Table 1: Phonological variations and achievement in
Silent Sounds in English language
Population and Sampling Procedure
Variables N Mean SD P- R
Remark
The study population consists of all the senior secondary value
school students in Ibadan Southeast LGA of Oyo State, Phonological 207 52.68 13.72 .061 .383 Not Sig.
Nigeria.A simple random sampling was used to selectfour variations
schools from the public schools in the LGA and a total of Students’ 207 28.91 17.72
207senior secondary school 2 students from intact classes achievement
were randomly selected for the purpose of this study. in silent
Participants were grouped according to their tribes and sounds.
linguistic backgrounds for the purpose of this study.
Table 1 shows the patterns of relationship between
Variables phonological variations and students’ achievement in
silent sounds in English language. The result indicates that
There are two variables in the study, independent there is no significant relationship between phonological
variables which are Phonological variation and Language variations and students’ achievement in silent sounds (r =
exposure and the dependent variable which is ESL .061; p>.05), implying that phonological variations did not
students’ achievement in silent sounds. significantly correlate with students’ achievement in silent
sounds. Therefore, the null hypothesis 1 was not rejected.
Research Instruments Ho2: There is no significant relationship between
language exposure and students’ achievement in silent
Instruments used for data collection arePhonological sounds.
Variations and Language Exposure Analysis
Questionnaire (PVLEASQ) and Silent Sound Test (SST) Table 2: Language exposure and achievement in silent
that were designed by the researcher. PVLEASQ is a20- sounds in English language
item instrument with three-point likert scale of Always (3),
Sometime (2) and Never (1). It comprises 10 items for Variables N Mean SD P- R Remark
each of Phonological Variations and Language value
Exposure.SST consists of 20 multiple choice questions. Language 207 28.91 17.74 .037 .224 Sig.
Questions in the SST were derived from WASSCE past exposure
questions for English on selected silent sounds commonly Students’ 207 52.25 13.41
mispronounced and misspelled. The selected words achievement
contained silent sounds in the initial, middle and final in silent
positions. The participants were allowed to pronounce the sounds.
words quietly to themselves before choosing their answers
in SST.The choices made showed participants’ knowledge Table 2 shows the patterns of relationship between
of silent sounds as influenced by phonological variations. language exposure and students’ achievement in silent
The instruments were trial-tested on a sample of 30 sounds. The result indicates that there is no significant
students that were not part of the study sample. Their relationship between language exposure and students’
responses were analyzed statistically using test-retest and achievement in silent sounds (r = .037; p>.05), implying
Cronbach alpha statistics, a coefficient of 0.74 and 0.79 that language exposure had a significant correlation with
were recorded respectively. students’ achievement in silent sounds. Thus, the null
hypothesis 2 was not rejected.
Method of Data Analysis
Ho3: There is no significant composite contribution of
The results were analyzed for each question using phonological variations and language exposure on
inferential statistics such as Pearson Product Moment students’ achievement in silent sounds.
Correlation (PPMC), Multiple Regression Analysis (MRA),
mean and standard deviation. Adequate and well-detailed
tables were used to clarify the results.

Phonological Variations and Language Exposure as Correlates of Achievement in Silent Sounds in ESL Classrooms in Ibadan South-East LGA, Nigeria
Olagbaju and Ogunyemi 260
Table 3: Composite Contribution of the Independent Variables to Achievement in Silent Sounds in English language
Model = 1; R = .061; R Square = .004; Adjusted R Square = -.006; Std. Error of the Estimate = 17.79320
Model Sum of Squares Df
1 Regression 244.445 2 122.222
Residual 64585.990 204
Total 64830.435 206
Table 3 shows that there was no significant composite
contribution of phonological variations and language
exposure on students’ achievement in silent sounds (F (2;
2
204) = .386; Adj. R = -.006; p>.05). The regression analysis
shows that when phonological variations and language
exposure are taken together, they did not significantly
contribute to students’ achievement in English silent
sounds. Therefore, the hypothesis was not rejected.
From the results above, there was no significant
relationship between Phonological Variations and
achievement in silent sounds. This result does not agree
with the findings of Bamgbose (1995) and Idowu (1999)
that phonological variations affect the quality of ESL
students’ pronunciation in English language and
achievement in Oral English. The result also negates with
the view of Ellis (1985) and Onike (2009) that phonological
variation is a psycho-linguistic concept and a reality that
impedes learning in second language classrooms.
However, the result of the study on the relationship
between phonological variation and students’ achievement
in silent sounds supports the finding of Pitt (2009) and
Mohammed (2014) that although phonological variations
are potentially sensitive issues in second language
instruction, they cannot affect students’ learning
outcomes. This is perhaps because the quality of the
instructions that the students are exposed to over the time
can ameliorate whatever phonological inferences that
existed in the classroom prior to the instruction or
administration of the achievement test.
The result also showed a significant relationship between
language exposure and achievement in silent sounds. The
result is not in consensus with the findings of Shumin
(1997), and Gilakjani and Ahmadi (2011) that ESL learners
must be adequately exposed to the right pronunciation of
words, silent sounds inclusive, to be able to achieve the
native speaker’s level of proficiency in English. The result
is not in support of the findings of Chan (2013) and Mazra
(2014) that modelling and adequate exposure to the target
language contributes positively to the quality of
pronunciation in ESL learning situations. This is perhaps
because most of the language teachers are products of the
same system because they are mostly taught by
experienced ESL learners and within ESL classrooms with
little or no exposure to standard or quality materials to help
their pronunciation in and out of the classroom. However,
exposure to quality instruction and the modelling of the
native-like pronunciation have been found to contribute
effectively to ESL students’ achievement in silent sounds
(Gilakjani, 2011).
Phonological Variations and Language Exposure as Correlates of Achievement in Silent Sounds in ESL Classrooms in Ibadan South-East LGA, Nigeria
Mean Square F Sig.
.386 .680b
316.598
Another result from of this study is that there is no
composite contribution of Phonological Variations and
Language Exposure on achievement in silent sounds. This
result agrees with the findings of similar studies like
Shumin (1997) and Tanner (2012) these two variables did
not contribute to students’ pronunciation significantly. The
result disagrees with the findings of other studies like
Bamgbose (1971), Gilakjani, (2011) and Nelson-Sathi
(2013) that factors like phonological variations and
exposure are capable of hindering students’ learning
outcomes in ESL classrooms. In view of these results,
language teachers must ensure that the quality of
instruction in ESL classrooms, especially in the area of
pronunciation is very high and students are adequately
exposed to native-like pronunciation.
The findings of this study show that the two variables
(phonological variations and language exposure) do not
have a significant relationship with the dependent variable
(achievement in silent English sounds). Similarly,
language exposure was not found to have a relative
relationship with achievement in silent sounds. The
implication of this finding is that for an improvement in the
pronunciation of ESL students in silent sounds, instruction
in ESL classroom should be thoroughly planned, enriched
and engaging. Language teachers should spare no effort
to expose learners to the target language through learner-
centered and hands-on activities that can expose learners
to the rudiments of the target language within and outside
the classroom. Such activities could include vocabulary
self-collection, dictionary searches for differentiation in
American and British spellings, audio recordings of news
or documentaries to access native speaker-like
pronunciation. The quality of exposure to the target
language should be high and the process should be
consistent and engaging to improve ESL learners’ learning
outcomes.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Nigeria is a multilingual statewith ESL learners that are
from different and often dissimilar linguistic backgrounds.
The reality and interference of phonological variations in a
typical Nigeria classroom canno longer be denied.
Therefore, language teachers in Ibadan metropolis need
to be conscious of these variations and develop strategies
to overcome this challenge. The study examined the
relationship between two independent variables
(Phonological Variations and Language Exposure) and
students’ achievement in English silent sounds. The

results showed that there was no significant relation
between Phonological Variations and students’
achievement in silent sounds. Also, there was no
significant relationship between Language Exposure and
achievement in silent sounds and no composite
contribution of Phonological; Variations and Language
Exposure on students’ achievement in silent sounds.
Based on the findings of this study, it was recommended
that:
1. Language teachers should endeavor to model the
correct native-like pronunciation during the process of
instruction.
2. Language exposure can also influence ESL students’
achievement in other skills of the target language.
Therefore, teachers should expose learners to good
materials and a variety of learner-centered activities
across all the language skills in the second language
classroom.
3. Learners should be thoroughly exposed to the target
language through the use of audio-visual resources
such as multimedia devices, ICT-enhanced materials,
downloadable audio dictionaries, recordings, and so
on.
4. The quality of instruction in ESL classrooms in Nigeria
should be improved upon through the analysis and
correction of common pronunciation errors.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to appreciate all the research assistants,
students and management staff of the schools that were
used for this study.
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Accepted 16 March 2020
Citation: Olagbaju OO, Ogunyemi KO (2020).
Phonological Variations and Language Exposure as
Correlates of Achievement in Silent Sounds in ESL
Classrooms in Ibadan South-East LGA, Nigeria.
International Journal of Literature, Language and
Linguistics, 6(1): 255-262.
Copyright: © 2020 Olagbaju and Ogunyemi. This is an
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