Q#1

What is the importance of receptors in our sensory system? Give a detailed description on types and
functions of these categories.

Receptors:

Receptors are the protein molecules inside the target cell or on its surface that receive a
chemical signal. Chemical signals are released by signaling cells in the form of small, usually volatile or
soluble molecules called ligands.

Sensory Receptors:

Sensory receptors are specialized to respond to changes in their environment; such

environmental changes are called stimuli. Activation of a sensory receptor by an adequate stimulus
results in graded potentials that in turn trigger nerve impulses along the afferent PNS fibers coursing to
the CNS.

 Sensation (awareness of the stimulus) and perception (interpretation of the meaning of the
stimulus) occur in the brain.
 Sensory neurons also known as afferent neurons are neurons that convert a specific type of
stimulus, via their receptors, into action potentials or graded potentials. This process is called
sensory transduction. i.e. conversion of one form of energy to another.

Importance:

Receptor are considered to be part of the peripheral nervous system, as they are the first step in
conveying information from the periphery to the brain.
Many receptor cells do not fire action potentials. Action potentials are widely considered to be a
key property of neurons.
Receptors often operate by graded responses. For example, upon illumination photoreceptors
gradually hyperpolarize.
Cochlear hair cells gradually depolarize when the stereo-cilia are bent into one direction and
hyperpolarize when they go in the opposite direction.
Receptors are in fact analog sensors, whereas spiking neurons can be considered to be
operating in binary (all-or-nothing) mode.

Classification of Sensory Receptors:

Sensory receptors are classified by three methods:

 Classification by receptor complexity.
Classification by location.
Classification by type of stimulus detected.

Classification by receptor complexity

 Free nerve endings: Dendrites whose terminal ends have little or no physical specialization.
 Encapsulated nerve endings: Dendrites whose terminal ends are enclosed in a capsule of
connective tissue.
 Sense organs: (such as the eyes and ears) consist of sensory neurons with receptors for the
special senses (vision, hearing, smell, taste, and equilibrium) together with connective,
epithelial, or other tissues.

Classification by Location

 Exteroceptors: Sensitive to stimuli arising outside the body (extero = outside), so most
exteroceptors are near or at the body surface. i.e. touch, pressure, pain, and temperature
receptors in the skin and most receptors of the special senses (vision, hearing, equilibrium,
taste, smell).
 Interoceptors: also called visceroceptors, respond to stimuli within the body (intero=inside),
such as from the internal viscera and blood vessels.

i.e. They monitor a variety of stimuli, including chemical changes, tissue stretch, and temperature.
Sometimes their activity causes us to feel pain, discomfort, hunger, or thirst. However, we are usually
unaware of their workings.

 Proprioceptors: like interoceptors, respond to internal stimuli; however, their location is much
more restricted. i.e. Proprioceptors occur in skeletal muscles, tendons, joints, and ligaments and
in connective tissue coverings of bones and muscles.

(Some authorities include the equilibrium receptors of the inner ear in this class.)

 Proprioceptors: constantly advise the brain of our body movements (propria = one’s own) by
monitoring how much the organs containing these receptors are stretched.

Classification by Stimulus Type:

 Mechanoreceptors: They generate nerve impulses when they, or adjacent tissues, are deformed
by a mechanical force such as touch, pressure (including blood pressure), vibration, and stretch.
 Thermo-receptors: They are sensitive to temperature changes.
 Photoreceptors: such as those of the retina of the eye, respond to light energy.
 Chemoreceptor: Respond to chemicals in solution (molecules smelled or tasted, or changes in
blood or interstitial fluid chemistry).
 In somatic senses, chemoreceptor can detect ionic, glucose O₂ and CO₂ concentrations in the blood and
tissue fluids. While in special senses chemoreceptors are responsible for the senses of and smell

 Nociceptors: (noci = harm); respond to potentially damaging stimuli that result in pain.

i.e. Searing heat, extreme cold, excessive pressure, and inflammatory chemicals are all interpreted as
painful.

These signals stimulate subtypes of thermo receptors, mechanoreceptors, and chemoreceptors.