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ABSTRACT
The global competitiveness (GC) literature has proven to be a developing, yet critical element in international marketing
research. Broadly, GC studies have become a part of the marketing, international business, and strategic management
fields. In light of this far-reaching topic and to gain a unique understanding of the dynamics across the GC domain, this
study examines the intellectual structure of GC research at two distinct levels of analysis: overall GC publications and
marketing and international business GC articles. This review of the literature uses cocitation data to provide insight to
the field and develop a research-based model for future consideration. A total of 48 journals are included, providing
1,819 articles with 115,462 citations for examination. Applying multidimensional scaling to analyze the data, the study
introduces a GC-focused model and provides possible topics for research. The proposed organizing framework includes
elements of a market-based perspective (offering development, market orientation, and process emphasis), strategy
implementation (firm-related advantages, strategic approach, and international focus), and performance to advance the
critical nature of the marketing function in the GC literature.
Keywords: global competitiveness, international competitiveness, multidimensional scaling, cocitation analysis, in-
tellectual structure
W
ith the growing pace of globalization, competition competition are continually changing the rules of the game
on a global scale among companies has become and call for more agile and aggressive competitive moves
increasingly intense. The number of multinational (e.g., Dobbs et al. 2015; McManus, White, and Botten 2008).
enterprises (MNEs) in the world has doubled since 1990, In particular, global competition is characterized by how “a
with companies based in emerging countries driving much firm’s actions in one market affect its own and its competitors’
of this growth (Cavusgil and Cavusgil 2012; Dobbs et al. actions in another” (Luehrman 1990, p. 229). Accordingly,
2015). These new players are introducing entirely new to compete effectively, companies must develop tactics and
business models that are reflective of their unique home strategies that coordinate and integrate internationally dis-
country’s business climate, market structure, and man- persed activities, while considering the interdependence of
agement style (Porter 1990; Rugman, Oh, and Lim 2012; competitive positions across countries (Homburg, Fürst, and
Wagstyl 2011). In addition, the rise of new technologies has Kuehnl 2012; Zou and Cavusgil 2002).
enabled small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to
participate in global markets, bringing even more com- In view of this challenging business environment, it is not
petitors to the scene (e.g., Ernst & Young 2015; World surprising that researchers in various disciplines, including
Trade Organization 2016). These new forms of global marketing, international business, and strategic management,
Brian R. Chabowski is Associate Professor of Marketing, Collins College Journal of International Marketing
of Business, University of Tulsa (email: brian-chabowski@utulsa.edu). ©2017, American Marketing Association
Jeannette A. Mena is Associate Professor of Marketing, Muma College of Vol. 25, No. 4, 2017, pp. 1–24
Business, University of South Florida (email: mena@usf.edu). Bulent DOI: 10.1509/jim.16.0053
Menguc served as associate editor for this article. ISSN 1069-031X (print) 1547-7215 (electronic)
Resource-based view of the firm (RBV) Firm resources that are valuable, rare, difficult to Strategic resources and capabilities such as in-
imitate, and nonsubstitutable are the main drivers novation ambidexterity (Hughes et al. 2010),
of competitive advantage (e.g., Barney 1991; customer relationships (Luo et al. 2004), social
Wernerfelt 1984). capital (Luo et al. 2004), product development
(Kaleka 2011; Zou, Fang, and Zhao 2003), and
channel relationships (Kaleka 2011; Lages, Silva,
and Styles 2009) can enhance the GC of the firm.
Dynamic capabilities framework In fast-moving markets, the possession and ex- The development of dynamic capabilities can
ploitation of unique dynamic capabilities can generate competitive advantages and result in
Industrial organization (IO) theory External forces, such as the structural character- A global marketing strategy can be a key driver of
istics of an industry, dictate the strategies that firm performance when it is congruent with the
firms can implement, which, in turn, affect the firm’s external environment and internal char-
competitiveness of firms (e.g., Porter 1980; acteristics (Zou and Cavusgil 2002). This “fit” is
Roquebert, Phillips, and Westfall 1996). also important in export market ventures (e.g.,
Cavusgil and Zou 1994) and environmental
marketing in international markets (e.g., Leonidou
et al. 2013).
Table 1. Continued
Institutional theory Institutional forces in the external environment The institutional environment shapes the firm’s
shape the structures, strategies, and practices of international CSR practices (e.g., Jean et al. 2016;
firms, leading firms to copy others in their field to Khan, Lew, and Park 2015; Rathert 2016; Young
achieve legitimacy. In turn, legitimacy contributes and Makhija 2014), global marketing strategies
to the firm’s success and survival by enabling the (e.g., Rao-Nicholson and Khan 2017), and entry
firm to gain the support of key stakeholders and mode decisions (e.g., Davis, Desai, and Francis
access to important resources (e.g., DiMaggio 2000).
and Powell 1983; Meyer and Rowan 1977).
Eclectic (OLI) paradigm Three sets of advantages (ownership, location, and The configuration of firm-specific, host country–
internalization) determine the extent, form, and specific, and internalization factors influences the
pattern of international production undertaken firm’s entry mode selection (e.g., Agarwal and
(Dunning 1980, 1988). In turn, international Ramaswami 1992; Brouthers, Brouthers, and
production can enhance the competitive position Werner 1996, 1999), which in turn, can explain
of the company (e.g., Dunning 1988, 1998). firm performance (e.g., Brouthers, Brouthers, and
Werner 1999).
Transaction cost economics (TCE) The appropriate governance structure selection, Firms that make entry mode choices based on the
given the interplay between behavioral assump- prescriptions of TCE perform significantly better
tions and various transaction dimensions, can than other firms (e.g., Brouthers 2002; Brouthers,
enhance firm competitiveness by minimizing Brouthers, and Werner 2003; Brouthers and
transaction costs (e.g., Rindfleisch and Heide Nakos 2004). Thus, if transaction costs are high,
1997). hierarchies and hybrids should be favored. If such
costs are low or nonexistent, market governance
becomes efficient (e.g., Rindfleisch and Heide
1997).
Internationalization process model Firms seek to increase long-term profitability (i.e., Foreign market experiential knowledge, one of the
growth) through international expansion, key drivers of internationalization, positively
whereby a firm progressively increases its inter- influences firm performance (e.g., Luo 1999; Luo
national involvement based on the interplay be- and Peng 1999). The effect of this relationship is
tween two state aspects (market knowledge and moderated by cultural distance from a host
market commitment) and two change aspects country (Luo 1999), environmental hostility,
(commitment decision and current activities) dynamism, and complexity (Luo and Peng 1999).
(Johanson and Vahlne 1977, 1990).
Notes: Stress value = .09; standardized Euclidean distance £ .25; boldface research
group indicates research clique. V1 = Aaby and Slater (1989); V2 = Agarwal and
Ramaswami (1992); V3 = Anderson and Gatignon (1986); V4 = Anderson and Narus
(1990); V5 = Buckley and Ghauri (2004); V6 = Cavusgil and Zou (1994); V7 = Day
DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS
(1994); V8 = Day and Wensley (1988); V9 = Dunning (1980); V10 = Dunning (1988);
V11 = Jain (1989); V12 = Jaworski and Kohli (1993); V13 = Johanson and Vahlne In this section, we respond to calls in the literature for more
(1977); V14 = Johanson and Vahlne (1990); V15 = Knight and Cavusgil (2004); V16 =
Kogut and Singh (1988); V17 = Kogut and Zander (1993); V18 = Kohli and Jaworski conceptual development in the field of marketing at large
(1990); V19 = Luo and Tung (2007); V20 = Narver and Slater (1990); V21 = Oviatt (MacInnis 2011; Yadav 2010). Basing our approach on the
and McDougall (1994); V22 = Rugman and Verbeke (2004); V23 = Samiee and Roth
(1992); V24 = Slater and Narver (1995); V25 = Webster (1992). Group 1 (V15 and premise that potential future research is driven by past and
V21): Organizational Capabilities and International New Ventures; Group 2 (V4 and present research (Kuhn 1996), we propose an organizing
V25): Marketing Channel Relationships; Group 3 (V7 and V12): Market Orientation
and Capabilities; Group 4 (V12, V18, and V20): Market Orientation and Profitability; framework to provide insights into GC research and ad-
Group 5 (V11 and V23): International Marketing Strategy, Standardization, and
Performance; Group 6 (V1 and V6): Export Marketing Strategy and Performance;
vance the domain based on the findings of this study. We
Group 7 (V3 and V17): Firm Knowledge and Foreign Entry Mode; Group 8 (V2 relate our discussion to the recent IM literature, which is
and V3): Multinational Factors and Foreign Entry Mode; Group 9 (V9 and V10):
Ownership, Location, and Internalization in International Production; Group 10 most relevant to extant research and can provide insight
(V10 and V16): National Culture and International Production; Group 11 (V13, into immediate trends and possible extensions in the field
V14, and V16): Entry Mode, Culture, and the Internationalization Process.
(Burrell 2003). As noted in Figure 3 and Table 2, two as-
pects of the framework are discussed and related to
established as well as emergent GC topics. Possible research
shows this topic’s wide-ranging application in this domain related to the relationship between a market-based per-
(Jain 1989; Samiee and Roth 1992). spective and strategy implementation is presented. Then, the
potential for studies emphasizing the impact of strategy
Additionally, focusing on a general theme in the GC lit- implementation on performance, within the context of the
erature emphasizing marketing and international business, ideas introduced, is provided.
the role of export marketing strategy and performance
(Group 6) provides a starting point to present topics related GC Framework for Future Research
to different forms of market entry and expansion. This
subject highlights the relevance of managerial perceptions The proposed organizing framework introduced in Figure
and commitment, as well as other internal and external 3 is based on the critical aspects of the GC literature
forces that are influential (Aaby and Slater 1989; Cavusgil uncovered in this study’s evaluation of the domain’s
Firm-Related
Offering Development Advantages Performance
Product Satisfaction
Ownership
Loyalty
Promotion Location Market Share
Sales Increase
Distribution Internalization Globalization
Glocalization Profitability
Localization
Price Cost Differen- Focus International
tiation Relationship Value
Internal Focus
Inter- External Strategic Approach
Cust. Compet.
functional
Orient. Orient.Coordination Process
Emphasis
Market Orientation
intellectual structure. In fact, based on the theoretical (e.g., satisfaction, loyalty, market share, sales increase,
perspective of a capabilities–implementation–performance profitability, relationship value) (Asmussen 2009; Bonaglia,
relationship (Morgan, Katsikeas, and Vorhies 2012), we Goldstein, and Mathews 2007; Diamantopoulos et al.
acknowledge the critical role of a market orientation in the 2014; Magnusson et al. 2013; Pehrsson 2012; Talay,
establishment of resources and capabilities to implement
strategy (Hultman, Katsikeas, and Robson 2011; Kemper,
Engelen, and Brettel 2011; Leonidou, Palihawadana, and
Theodosiou 2011). As a part of developing this market- Table 2. Recent Frequently Cited GC Research
based perspective, the role of learning is critical for orga-
nizational advancement and strategy execution (Slater and
Times Cited Per
Narver 1995). Included in this approach is the notion
Article Year
that once implementation has begun, performance can be
measured to derive the chosen strategy’s relative success. Morgan, Katsikeas, and Vorhies (2012) 2.00
Chandra, Styles, and Wilkinson (2012) 1.40
As it concerns GC research, a market-based perspective Sheng, Zhou, and Li (2011) 1.33
that includes offering development (product, promotion,
Rugman, Oh, and Lim (2012) 1.20
distribution, or price), market orientation (customer ori-
entation, competitor orientation, or interfunctional co- Hultman, Katsikeas, and Robson (2011) 1.17
ordination), and a process emphasis (internal or external) Barnes et al. (2015) 1.00
should impact strategy implementation, which consists Boso et al. (2013) 1.00
of firm-related advantages (ownership, location, or in- Jones, Coviello, and Tang (2011) 1.00
ternalization), a strategic approach (cost, differentia-
Kemper, Engelen, and Brettel (2011) 1.00
tion, or focus), and an international focus (localization,
glocalization, or globalization) (Buckley and Ghauri 2004; Leonidou, Palihawadana, and Theodosiou 1.00
Dunning 1980, 1988; Francis and Collins-Dodd 2004; (2011)
Hsu 2011; Leonidou, Palihawadana, and Theodosiou Samaha, Beck, and Palmatier (2014) 1.00
2011; Oladottir et al. 2012; Prime, Subrahmanyam, and Sheth (2011) 1.00
Lin 2012). In turn, the joint impact developed by a specific Teece (2014) 1.00
strategy implementation should influence performance
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