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Syllabus:
The design of any product involves a broad approach to the designing and making of innovative /
new products. However, the existing product can also be improved as per the demand of
customers. Contact with potential customers is very important. Designers and manufacturers try
to find out what the customer want from old products - how they can be improved. Designers
also want to know what the customer wants from new designs. This is often carried out through
questionnaires and surveys.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
3. Tensile Stress:
When a body is subjected to equal and opposite axial forces P (called as tensile load), the
stress induced at any section ofthe body is called as 'Tensile stress',
Tensile stress is denoted by σt.
σt = P/A
4. Tensile Strain:
Due to tensile load, there will be decrease in cross sectional area and increase in the length
of body.
The ratio of increase in length to the original length is known as 'Tensile strain'.
Tensile Strain εt = Increase in length Original length
Original Length
5. Compressive Stress:
When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite forces, then the stress induced at any
section of the body is called as 'Compressive stress',
When force is applied to elastic material, it deforms. If the external force is shear force
then the defornlation is in the form of change in shape.
The angular distortion of the body under the action of shear force is called as 'Shear strain'.
Consider a rectangular element as shown in Fig. 8.5.4. It is fixed at the bottom face CD. Under the
action of shear force, face ABCD is distorted to the shape A' B' CD. The angular displacement' f' is the
shear strain.
Hooke's Law states that within elastic limits, the stress is directly proportional to strain.
Stress α strain
Stress/ strain= constant
The ratio of stress to strain is constant and is called as 'Modulus of elasticity or Young's
modulus'. It is denoted by 'E'
E=σ/ε
Unit of Young's Modulus (E) is N/m2 or N/mm2
11. Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus:
Up to elastic limit shear stress is directly proportional to shear strain and the ratio of shear stress to shear
strain is constant. This ratio is called modulus of Rigidity and denoted by G.
Modulus of Rigidity , (G) = Shear Stress/ Shear Strain= σs/φ
Unit of Modulus of Rigidity (G) is N/m2 or N/mm2.
In ductile materials, the cross sectional area of the specimen decrease rapidly beyond point U.
This leads to the formation of neck and subsequent fracture at the neck.
The stress corresponding to point 'B' is called Breaking strength or fracture strength.
The stress strain diagram for brittle material does not have yield point. The fracture occurs
suddenly with very little plastic deformation and without formation of neck.
When the tensile stress induced in the component is more than the material strength
(i.e. yield strength for ductile material and ultimate strength for brittle material),
component fails. Such failure is known as Tensile failure.
2. Compressive or Crushing Failure (Fig.8.6.2)
When the compressive stress induced in the component is more than the material strength (i.e. yield
strength for ductile material and ultimate strength for brittle material), a component fails. Such
failure is known as compressive failure.
In case of ductile materials, e.g. mild steel, the failure is due to yielding. Therefore the factor of safety
for ductile materials is based on yield strength.
Factor of Safety = Yield Stress/ Working or allowable Stress
In case of brittle material e.g. cast iron, factor of safety is based upon ultimate stress.
Factor of Safety= Ultimate stress/ Working or allowable stress
8.7.1 Selection of Factor of Safety:
The selection of factor of safety rests with design engineer, who has to make the decision by balancing
the cost and safety. When the higher factor of safety is selected, the
possibility of failure is reduced but cost is increased due to large dimensions of component. The
selection of factor of safety is based on the following factors:
1. The reliability of the properties of the material and change of these properties during
service.
2. The reliability of test results and accuracy of application of these results to actual
machine parts.
3. The reliability of applied load.
4. The certainty as to exact mode of failure.
5. The extent of simplifying assumptions.
6. The extent of localized stresses.
7. The extent of initial stresses set up during manufacture. 8.
8. The extent of loss of life if failure occurs; and.
9. The extent of loss of property if failure occurs.
Table 8.10.1
Color Meaning
Danger-Hazard-
Red
Hot.
Yellow Caution
Green Safety
Orange Possible-danger
Blue Caution-Cold
Gray Dull
There is specific relationship functional requirement and appearance of the product. In many cases,
functional requirements results in shapes which are aesthetically pleasing. The job of industrial engineer
is to create new forms and shapes which are aesthetically pleasing and thus the industrial engineer
therefore compared with fashion engineer.
Following examples will make aesthetic design considerations more clear. The appearance of cars and
computers (desk tops) are improved in the course of time along with the functional requirements. (Fig.
8.10.1) and (Fig. 8.10.2).
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8.11 ERGONOMIC CONSIDERATION IN DESIGN:
In the machine design, the machine is considered as an entity. In reality, the manmachine-working
environment forms the system and this needs to be considered as a single unit.
By referring this data, the parts are designed in such a way that the user does not get any
kind of strain in his body while operating the machine.
Ergonomics, involves balancing the physiological, physiological and environmental
factors ofthe work place, so as to achieve efficient production and distribution of work.
Purpose:
Purpose of ergonomics is to design equipments and working environments which fit into
capacities, needs and comfort of the user.
Applications:
Ergonomics will ensure that the employees work in an ergonomically sound environment
so as to achieve:
a) Minimum work fatigue, stress and injury.
b) Improved efficiency, by making the best use of our employees capacity.
Following example will be helpful to understand ergonomic design considerations easily.
While designing the furniture (chair and computer table) for the computer operator who works for12-15
hours on computer, the data mentioned in table (Fig.8.11.3) is referred fordeciding the dimensions of the
chair and table, which will be very comfortable for the operator for continuous working hours.
Female Male
All measurements in mm. (A) Eye height sitting (B) Elbow rest FIG height (C) Forearm-hand length (D)
Buttock-pop teal length (E)Buttock-knee length (F) Popiteal height - no shoes (G) Knee height sitting -
no shoes. To adjust for shoe height, add 25 mm for men or 45 mm for women.