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CHAPTER 7

Mechanical Engineering Design

Syllabus:

Need, Design Considerations, Modes of Failure, factor of Safety, Aesthetic and


Ergonomic Design (Theoretical Treatment Only)
8.1 INTRODUCTION:
In an engineering context, the word "Design" implies problem solving: the application of
engineering science and technology to solve real world problems. Design is the underlying
process of applied mechanical, civil, electrical, chemical, and computer engineering. Much of
what practicing engineers do can be considered as design. Even engineers and scientists whose
primary focus is research must often design instruments in the course of their work. Design is
simultaneously a creative, analytical, and cumulative process.
While a certain amount of design can be taught in a lecture format, design is often best learned
by experience. While this course will attempt to introduce students to the broader notion of
design, it will primarily focus on the design domain traditionally known as "mechanical design."
The term design in other words can be defined as the formulation of a plan for the satisfaction of
human need.
Design means: 1) Recognition of need

2) Create something new or arrange existing things in a new order to satisfy a


recognized need.

3) Using resources like: Imagination, scientific principles, technical


information and computers.

The design of any product involves a broad approach to the designing and making of innovative /
new products. However, the existing product can also be improved as per the demand of
customers. Contact with potential customers is very important. Designers and manufacturers try
to find out what the customer want from old products - how they can be improved. Designers
also want to know what the customer wants from new designs. This is often carried out through
questionnaires and surveys.

8.2 NEED OF DESIGN:


Every year a large number of engineering products are designed and put into use.
Thereafter the products are redesigned and modified periodically for improvement.
Each year, hundreds of engineering products are designed and put into use.
The reasons for the need of design are as follows:
1. Design for Performance:
The system or component is designed so that it performs its prescribed task.
2. Design for Safety:
The system or component is designed so that there is no failure during the operation.
The failure during the operation may lead to inconvenience, hazard to human life or
financial loss.
3. Design for Economy:
Designing will help to produce the component with optimum size and shape. This reduces the
cost of the system or component.
4. Design for Compactness
Proper designing helps to produce the component of compact size, shape and weight.
5. Design for Comfort
Nowadays, with many identical products available in market, human comfort plays
significant role in selecting the products. By proper designing, the component or product can
be made more human friendly.
6. Design for Appearance
Proper designing helps to improve the appearance of the component.
7. Design for Innovation
Human being is always looking for new ideas and design helps to incorporate these ideas into product.
Occasionally, when newly built objects are used in the field, catastrophic failure occur, even though
the items were designed with utmost care.
Common sources of engineering failures, errors and omissions are as follows:
Poor understanding of the problem to be solved.
Incorrect design specifications.
Faulty manufacture and assembly.
Error in design calculations.
Inadequate data collection and incorrect or incomplete experimentation.
Errors in drawings.
Errors in packaging and shipping.
Incorrect storage and / orpoor storage facility.
Incorrect installation and use.
Engineering designers must be aware of such sources of failures in order to avoid or minimize future
problems with newly designed item.
8.3 TYPES OF DESIGN:
In general the designs may be classified in three main categories
(1) Creative design:
This is the design of totally new product. This type of design work requires high degree of
competence. Relatively few design engineers will be employed in this type of activity.
(2) Adoptive design:
This is the adoption of existing designs to meet new purpose. A major portion of the design
work undertaken by engineers falls in this category. This type of activity generally requires
at least basic technical skills and some level of creativity.
(3) Development design:
To a certain degree, this is also the adoption of an existing design, but only as a basis. This
type of work may also involve considerable amount of technical work, and the final product
could be quite different from the original one.
8.4 DESIGN PROCESS:
Generally design of any mechanical component or system or mechanism is done by
following the procedure which is compatible for manufacturing.
A design process consists different steps which includes: (Fig 8.4.1)

Step 1: Identification of Need


Every design process starts with the identification of need. It is the outcome of either the
requirement or any problem with the existing system. For example a car is the outcome of the need of
traveling at higher speed with comfort.

Step 2: Definition of Problem


Define the problem giving all the input parameters, output parameters and constraints. For example, in
design of car, the input parameters is source of energy, (petrol/diesel/gas/ electricity/solar energy). The
output parameters are maximum speed, fuel economy, space occupied on road and fuel economy etc.
The constraints are cost, pollution norms, etc.
Step 3: Synthesis of Mechanism
The next step is creating and selecting the configuration of the system (mechanism), and its synthesis
so as to get the desired output with given input. At this stage the large number of alternatives are
possible.
Step 4: Analysis of Mechanism
It is the process of critically examining the proposed mechanism for the suitability. It determines
whether the performance matches with the requirements. All possible solutions are analyzed and
suitable one is selected.
Step 5: Design of Individual Components
It consists of determination of forces acting on each component, selection of suitable material
for each component and determination of dimensions of each component.
Step 6: Preparation of Drawings
In this step the design of component is drafted. The drawing of individual component and the
assembly drawing are prepared.
Step 7: Evaluation
Evaluation involves the testing of prototype in the laboratory or creating the model on
computer. If this testing shows failure of component, the process is repeated from step 3.
Step 8: Presentation
Communicating or presenting the design to others is the final step in the
design process.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

8.5 STRESSAND STRAIN:


In engineering practice, the machine parts are subjected to various forces. The different force acting on
machine parts produces various types of stresses. So, we will study the various terms along with stress,
strain to understand the meaning of various other related terms.
1 Stress:
When some external systems of forces or loads act on the body, the internal forces are
setup at various sections of body, which resist the external forces.
This internal force per unit area at any section of the body is known as unit stress or simply
stress.The resisting force developed in the body per unit area is known as stress.

It is denoted by Greek letter, σ. Stress, =

Where, P = force or load acting on the body.


A= Cross sectional area oft he body. m2
Unit of stress : In S.I. unit, stress is expressed in Pascal(Pa)or N/m2
2. Strain:
When a system of forces or load acts on a body, it undergoes some deformation. These
deformation per unit length is called as a 'Strain'. It is denoted by ε.
Strain ε = Change in length /Original length= δl/l

Where δl/l = Change in length under load. Strain has no unit.

3. Tensile Stress:

When a body is subjected to equal and opposite axial forces P (called as tensile load), the
stress induced at any section ofthe body is called as 'Tensile stress',
Tensile stress is denoted by σt.
σt = P/A

Where, P = Axial tensile force acting on the body.


A = Cross sectional area of the bod

4. Tensile Strain:

Due to tensile load, there will be decrease in cross sectional area and increase in the length
of body.
The ratio of increase in length to the original length is known as 'Tensile strain'.
Tensile Strain εt = Increase in length Original length
Original Length
5. Compressive Stress:

When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite forces, then the stress induced at any
section of the body is called as 'Compressive stress',

Compressive stress , σc= P/A


Where, P = Axial compressive force acting on the body.
A = Cross sectional area of the body.
6. Compressive Strain:
Due to compressive load there will be increase in cross sectional area and decrease in the
length of the body. The ratio of decrease in length to the original length is known as
compressive strain.

Compressive Strain, εc= Decrease in length/ Original length=δl/l


7. Shear force:
If the force acting is parallel to the plane of section then it is called shear force at that section.
A shear force produces shear stress. The average shear stress is calculated as the resisting shear
force developed per unit area.
8. Shear Stress:
When the body is subjected to two equal and opposite forces acting tangentially across the
section, the stress induced in the section is known as shear stress.
If the stress developed on the plane of section is parallel to the plane then it is called shear stress.
Consider two plates connected by a rivet as shown in Fig. 8.5.3. Ifa force of 'Ps 'is applied to the plates
then stress developed in the rivet is parallel to the area of cross section and it is shear stress.

Shear stress, τs= Ps/A


9. Shear Strain:

When force is applied to elastic material, it deforms. If the external force is shear force
then the defornlation is in the form of change in shape.
The angular distortion of the body under the action of shear force is called as 'Shear strain'.
Consider a rectangular element as shown in Fig. 8.5.4. It is fixed at the bottom face CD. Under the
action of shear force, face ABCD is distorted to the shape A' B' CD. The angular displacement' f' is the
shear strain.

Shear Strain, (φ)= AA1/AD= BB1/BC

10. Hooke's Law :

Hooke's Law states that within elastic limits, the stress is directly proportional to strain.
Stress α strain
Stress/ strain= constant
The ratio of stress to strain is constant and is called as 'Modulus of elasticity or Young's
modulus'. It is denoted by 'E'
E=σ/ε
Unit of Young's Modulus (E) is N/m2 or N/mm2
11. Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus:

Up to elastic limit shear stress is directly proportional to shear strain and the ratio of shear stress to shear
strain is constant. This ratio is called modulus of Rigidity and denoted by G.
Modulus of Rigidity , (G) = Shear Stress/ Shear Strain= σs/φ
Unit of Modulus of Rigidity (G) is N/m2 or N/mm2.

8.5.1 Stress Strain Diagram


In a design of machine component, the material strength is an important parameter.
The material strength is determined from standard tensile test. The behavior of the
material under load can be studied by tensile test.
In a tensile test a standard test specimen [Fig. 8.5.5] is mounted in the tensile testing
machine.
The tensile force on test specimen is gradually increased and corresponding deformation is
measured.
The test results are plotted as a stress-strain diagram [Fig. 8.5.6]
The important points on the stress strain diagram of ductile material (e.g. mild steel) are
described as follows:

1. Elastic limit (E)


If the material (test specimen) is stressed upto point, E, it will regain its original size and
shape when load is removed.
Thus the material is in elastic range upto point E.
This point E is called the elastic limit.
The stress strain relationship is linear from point 0 to point E. i.e.OE is a straight line.
Hooks law holds good up to point E.
Stress α strain

Stress/ strain= constant


= Modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus
σ/ε = constant
2. Yield point (Y):
If the material (test specimen) is stressed beyond point E, the plastic deformation takes
place and the material starts yielding.
The test specimen will not regain its original size and shape even after the removal of load.
At point Y, there is appreciable increase in strain without increase in stress.
Point Y is known as yield point and the stress corresponding to yield point
'Y' is called as Yield strength 'σy'
3. Ultimate strength (U):
Beyond point Y, the plastic deformation of material increase. The stress increased with strain
till point U.
At point 'U' the stress is at its maximum value and is called as Ultimate strength 'au'.
4. Breaking strength (B)

In ductile materials, the cross sectional area of the specimen decrease rapidly beyond point U.
This leads to the formation of neck and subsequent fracture at the neck.
The stress corresponding to point 'B' is called Breaking strength or fracture strength.
The stress strain diagram for brittle material does not have yield point. The fracture occurs
suddenly with very little plastic deformation and without formation of neck.

8.6 MODES OF FAILURE


The mechanical component is considered, to be failed when:
i. It is unable to perform its function satisfactorily or
ii. It has failed physically (i.e. broken or fractured).
The mechanical component fails when:
1. The load acting on the component is more than its load carrying capacity or
2. The stress induced in the component is more than the material strength.
The different possible modes of failure of mechanical component are as follows
1. Tensile failure
2 Compressive or crushing failure
3. Shear failure
4. Buckling failure
5. Fatigue failure
1. Tensile Failure (Fig. 8.6.1)

When the tensile stress induced in the component is more than the material strength
(i.e. yield strength for ductile material and ultimate strength for brittle material),
component fails. Such failure is known as Tensile failure.
2. Compressive or Crushing Failure (Fig.8.6.2)
When the compressive stress induced in the component is more than the material strength (i.e. yield
strength for ductile material and ultimate strength for brittle material), a component fails. Such
failure is known as compressive failure.

3. Shear Failure (Fig.8.8.3)


When the shear stress induced in the component ( for example rivet) is more than the shear strength of
the material, the component fails and such failure is known as shear failure.

4. Buckling Failure (Fig.8.6.4)


When a sufficiently long component of small cross-sectional area is subjected to axial compressive
force, it collapses suddenly. Such failure is known as buckling failure.
5. Fatigue Failure (Fig.8.6.5)
The failure of component under fatigue or cyclic load is known as fatigue failure.

8.7 FACTOR OF SAFETY:


In the design of mechanical components, always there are certain areas of uncertainties like:
magnitude of forces, nature of forces, material strength, etc. in order to ensure the safety against
such uncertainties, the term factor of safety is used.
Factor of safety is defined as the ratio of maximum stress to the working stress,
Factor of Safety = Maximum Stress/ Working or allowable Stress

In case of ductile materials, e.g. mild steel, the failure is due to yielding. Therefore the factor of safety
for ductile materials is based on yield strength.
Factor of Safety = Yield Stress/ Working or allowable Stress
In case of brittle material e.g. cast iron, factor of safety is based upon ultimate stress.
Factor of Safety= Ultimate stress/ Working or allowable stress
8.7.1 Selection of Factor of Safety:

The selection of factor of safety rests with design engineer, who has to make the decision by balancing
the cost and safety. When the higher factor of safety is selected, the
possibility of failure is reduced but cost is increased due to large dimensions of component. The
selection of factor of safety is based on the following factors:
1. The reliability of the properties of the material and change of these properties during
service.
2. The reliability of test results and accuracy of application of these results to actual
machine parts.
3. The reliability of applied load.
4. The certainty as to exact mode of failure.
5. The extent of simplifying assumptions.
6. The extent of localized stresses.
7. The extent of initial stresses set up during manufacture. 8.
8. The extent of loss of life if failure occurs; and.
9. The extent of loss of property if failure occurs.

8.8 WORKING STRESS OR ALLOWABLE STRESS :


When designing machine parts, it is desirable to keep the stress lower than the maximum or ultimate
stress at which failure of the material takes place. This stress is known as working stress or design stress.
It is also known as safe or allowable stress.
It is the ratio of the material strength (ultimate strength or yield strength) to the factor of
safety.
Working or allowable strength = Material strength/ Factor of Safety
8.9 MATERIAL PROPERTIES AND SELECTION:
8.9.1 Selection of Materials for Engineering Purposes:
Selection of a proper material for machine component is a major step in the process of
machine design. The best material is one which will serve the desired objectives at
minimum cost. It is not always easy to select such a material and the process may involve the trial and
error method.
Following factors should be considered while selecting the material:
(1)Availability of materials:
The material should be easily available in the market in large quantities to meet the requirements.
(2) Cost of Materials:
For every application, there is a limiting cost beyond which one can not go. When this limit is crossed,
the designer has to consider other alternative material. In cost analysis, the cost of material and cost of
processing the material should be considered.
(3) Mechanical Properties:
Depending upon the functional requirement and service conditions, the desired properties should
be studied and the suitable material should be selected. The different properties are discussed in
section 8.9.2
(4) Manufacturing considerations:
The selected material should be suitable for the required manufacturing process. While selecting
material, manufacturing cost should also be considered.

8.9.2 Properties of Materials:


The important properties, which determine the utility of material, are physical, chemical
and mechanical properties. The various physical and chemical properties of the material are:
luster, colour, density, melting point, electric conductivity, thermal conductivity, coefficient of
thermal expansion, etc. The mechanical properties of materials describe the behavior of material
under application. Some of the mechanical properties of engineering materials are
discussed below.
(1) Strength: Strength is defined as the ability of the material, to resist the externally applied
force (stress) without failure. The measure of strength is ultimate stress.
e.g. The materials having equal strength in both tension and compression are steels, copper,
aluminum etc.
(2) Stiffness: Stiffness is defined as the ability of a material to resist deformation caused due
to stress. The measure of stiffness is modulus of elasticity.
(3) Elasticity: Elasticity is defined as the property of a material to regain its original shape
after deformation when the external forces are removed.
It may be observed that rubber is less elastic than steel.
(4) Plasticity: Plasticity is defined as the property of the material which under permanent
loading do not regain its original shape after deformation.
E.g. Forging, stamping images on coins and in ornamental works.
(5) Ductility: Ductility is defined as the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into
wire when tensile force is applied. Ductile materials are both strong and plastic. Ductility
is measured in tens of percentage elongation and percentage reduction in area.
e.g. mild steel, aluminum, copper, nickel, zinc, tin and lead are ductile materials which are
used in engineering practice.
(6) Brittleness: It is the property of a material which is exactly opposite to that of Ductility.
It is the property of breaking of a material with little permanent distortion. e.g. Cast iron is
a brittle material which when subjected to tensile loads, breaks without giving any sensible
elongation.
(7) Malleability: It is a property which permits materials to be rolled or hammered into thin
sheets. A malleable material should be plastic but not necessarily strong. e.g. Some of the
malleable materials commonly used in engineering are lead, soft steel, wrought iron,
copper and aluminum.
(8) Toughness: Toughness is defined as the property of the material to resist fracture due to
high shocks or impact loads (hammer blows). This property reduces when a materials is
heated. It is measured by the amount of energy that a unit volume of the material has
absorbed after being stressed upto the point of fracture
(9) Resilience: Resilience is defined as the ability of the material to absorb shock (energy)
within elastic limit. This property is desirable in parts which absorbs shocks such as
springs, base of machines etc. It is measured by the amount of energy absorbed per unit
volume within elastic limit.
(10) Creep: When a part is subjected to a constant stress for a long period of time at high
temperature, it will undergo slow and permanent deformation called creep. While
designing internal combustion engines, boilers, turbines etc. this property is taken into
account.
(11) Hardness: It is a very important property of the metals and has a wide variety of meaning.
Hardness generally implies resistance to penetration, scratching or abrasion. It also means the
ability of a metal to cut another metal.
Mechanical properties are of foremost importance in selecting materials for structural machine
components.

8.10 AESTHETIC CONSIDERATION IN DESIGN:


Aesthetic deals with the appearance of the product. Appearance is the first communication of ~he
product with the user or customer.
Each component has to perform a particular function to satisfy the customer. Necessity attracts the
people to come in contact with the product. If there are number of products having same cost, durability,
efficiency then the customer is naturally attracted towards the most appealing product. The external
appearance is an important feature, which gives grace and luster to the product and dominates the
market. This is true for consumer durables like automobiles, household appliances and even audio-video
equipment.
Although an aesthetic consideration is not important from the functional view point, it happens to be an
important factor. Following are some prime considerations from aesthetic view point.
1. Pleasant appearance: The overall appearance of the product must be pleasant and acceptable for
the customers
2. Uniformity: Physical dimensions should maintain some uniformity or continuity for
their heights, widths, diameters etc. For example, a line shaft may demand various different diameter
dimensions over its overall length depending upon the different input and output power. However, a
uniform diameter shall be preferred aesthetically
3. Regularity: Regular shapes are always appealing to the eyes: therefore irregular projections,
cavities, changes at shapes and dimensions are to be avoided.
4. Symmetry: Products and their assemblies should be symmetrical at their feature along their axes.
Any feature required to be provided like some projection, slots, extensions may be required without any
symmetry from calculation point of view, then they can be provided in symmetrical fashion as far as
possible. For example, the requirement of the inlets for provision of manual lubrication may be oddly
spaced at some machine. It should be rectified keeping symmetry in the mind.
5. Provision of standard shapes: The designed shapes should be selected from standard varieties like
square, hexagon, circle, rectangle etc. Shapes like triangles, pentagons, quarter circles are not preferred.
Shapes of irregular polygon and uneven part of a circle are to be avoided.
6. Surface treatment: External surfaces are required to be designed for a requisite surface finish. A
surface is to be treated for painting, oxidizing, metal plating, lamination covering etc. depending upon
requirements. The surface treatments should be provided from the rust prevention point of view also.
7. Color: The selection of proper colour is very important consideration in product aesthetics. The
different color indicates different meanings as shown in Table 8.10.1

Table 8.10.1
Color Meaning
Danger-Hazard-
Red
Hot.
Yellow Caution
Green Safety
Orange Possible-danger
Blue Caution-Cold
Gray Dull

There is specific relationship functional requirement and appearance of the product. In many cases,
functional requirements results in shapes which are aesthetically pleasing. The job of industrial engineer
is to create new forms and shapes which are aesthetically pleasing and thus the industrial engineer
therefore compared with fashion engineer.
Following examples will make aesthetic design considerations more clear. The appearance of cars and
computers (desk tops) are improved in the course of time along with the functional requirements. (Fig.
8.10.1) and (Fig. 8.10.2).

.
."
.
8.11 ERGONOMIC CONSIDERATION IN DESIGN:

In the machine design, the machine is considered as an entity. In reality, the manmachine-working
environment forms the system and this needs to be considered as a single unit.

By referring this data, the parts are designed in such a way that the user does not get any
kind of strain in his body while operating the machine.
Ergonomics, involves balancing the physiological, physiological and environmental
factors ofthe work place, so as to achieve efficient production and distribution of work.
Purpose:
Purpose of ergonomics is to design equipments and working environments which fit into
capacities, needs and comfort of the user.
Applications:
Ergonomics will ensure that the employees work in an ergonomically sound environment
so as to achieve:
a) Minimum work fatigue, stress and injury.
b) Improved efficiency, by making the best use of our employees capacity.
Following example will be helpful to understand ergonomic design considerations easily.
While designing the furniture (chair and computer table) for the computer operator who works for12-15
hours on computer, the data mentioned in table (Fig.8.11.3) is referred fordeciding the dimensions of the
chair and table, which will be very comfortable for the operator for continuous working hours.

Female Male

5% 50% 95% 5% 50% 95%

A 690 743 795 739 795 850

B 181 226 266 188 235 274

C 406 439 479 447 482 520

D 438 478 525 458 499 544

E 540 585 637 569 616 665

F 352 388 428 395 434 476

G 474 513 558 515 559 605

All measurements in mm. (A) Eye height sitting (B) Elbow rest FIG height (C) Forearm-hand length (D)
Buttock-pop teal length (E)Buttock-knee length (F) Popiteal height - no shoes (G) Knee height sitting -
no shoes. To adjust for shoe height, add 25 mm for men or 45 mm for women.

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