CHEMISTRY SAT first chapter

- A mole is 6.02 x 1023 molecules

- 1 mole of atomic mass unit is 1 gram (1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 atom)
- Entropy (S): is a measure of the randomness of a system.
- The higher the entropy and the lower the energy, more stable.
- Enthalpy change ( H) is the difference in potential energy between the bonds in
the reactants and the bonds in the products (reactants- products). The addition of a
catalyst doesn’t change delta H.
- Exothermic  negative, produces heat
- Endothermic  positive, absorbs heat
- HEAT OF FORMATION: products- reactants
- Gibbs free energy: G= H–T S
- If the Gibbs free energy is positive (non-spontaneous), if it negative (spontaneous).
Entropy increases when dissolving stuff

CHEMISTRY SAT second chapter

- Electrons do not circle the nucleus; they exist in orbitals.
- Collection of orbitals with similar sizes constitutes an energy shell.
- Electrons farther from the nucleus have more energy than those closer.
- The smallest energy shell (1st)
- Shape also changes within orbitals
- Orbitals that have the same shape in a given energy shell comprise a subshell
- “S” subshell  spherical orbital
- “P” subshell  3 dumbbell-shaped orbitals
- “D” subshell  5 random orbitals
 - “F” subshell  7 random orbitals
- These all contain a maximum of two electrons

QUANTUM NUMBERS:
- They give an idea where the electron is located
- Principal quantum (n)  how far electron is for nucleus, n=1 is first energy shell
- Azimuthal quantum (l)  s-subshell (0) , p-subshell (1), d-subshell (2), f-subshell (3)
- Magnetic quantum (m)  s-subshell (0) , p-subshell (-1,0,1), d-subshell (-2,-1,0,1,2),
f-subshell (-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3)
- One will spin clockwise, and the other counterclockwise (+1/2, -1/2)
- S-subshells  2 potential sets
- P subshells  6 potential sets
- D subshells  10 potential sets
- F subshells  14 potential sets

Ground state: the configuration of the electrons in an atom under standard conditions
Excited states: algun electron jumps to another energy level, electrons are not stable, they will
eventually fall back into their ground state. When they do, they will emit a wavelength
corresponding the distance they fell between energy levels.

To remove an electron from

the first energy level would
require a lot more energy than
in the third one.

Heisenberg Principle and De Broglie’s Hypothesis

Orbital  describes the likelihood that an electron will be found somewhere.
HEISENBERG PRINCIPLE: it is impossible to know both the position and momentum of an
electron at the same time, electrons behave similar to wave radiation

AUFBAU PRINCIPLE: states that a subshell is completely filled before electrons are placed
in the next higher subshell. Some exceptions like chromium and copper

Radioactivity and Half-lives

- Some atoms will decay spontaneously
- As they decay, they emit high-energy radioactive particles.
- Radioactive nucleus wants to lose energy and become more stable
- It becomes either an isotope or another element
- A GEIGER COUNTER is used to detect and measure radioactive particles
- Rate of radioactive decay = Half life

ALPHA DECAY: POSITIVELY CHARGED

- Alpha particle is made up of 2 protons and neutrons. (helium nucleus)
- Its atomic # is reduced by 2 and its mass number by 4

BETA DECAY: NEGATIVELY CHARGED

- Reduces its neturon: proton ratio
- Takes neutron and converts it to a proton
- Atomic # decreases by 1, mass number remains
- Positron emission
- e10

GAMMA DECAY: NO CHARGE

- high energy particles with y00
- Radiation, becomes more stable

ALL METALS: - Ductile, malleable

TRANSITION METALS: - harder to melt, less reactive, d and f areas

NON-METALS: - dull, brittle, melt easily

METALLOIDS: -possess both characteristics, can gain/lose electrons in bond, ex: silicon

Metallic character: measure of how easily an atom gives up electrons to

form positive ion

Lattice energy: measure of the energy required to completely separate a mole of a solid
ionic compound into its separate ions. If this is higher, ionic bond too.

COULOMB’S LAW: how much energy is present in an

ionic compound

Bond energies
- Used to estimate the ∆H for a reaction

Molecular shapes
There are two types of electron pair sites: those that contain pairs in a bond and lone pairs
 TETRAHEDRAL SHAPE:
- PO4, CCl4
- 109 degrees

TRIGONAL PYRAMIDAL:
- NH3
- Lone pair
- 107 degrees

BENT:
- H2O, SO2
- Two lone pairs
- 105 degrees
 TRIGONAL
PLANAR:
- 2D
- BCl3, BF3

Becoming polar: in order for a molecule to be polar, polar bonds must line up
so that the most electronegative atom is at one end of the molecule. Whenever
polar bonds are arranged symmetrically, the polarity cancels out
Gases:
- 1Atm = 760 mmhg = 760 torr
- Ideal gas behaviour: gases under lower pressures and high temperatures conform more closely
to this behaviour. Molecules in ideal gas behaviour don’t attract or repel each other and occupy
0 volume
- pV = nRT (volume in litres, ideal gas constant is 8.31, temperature in Kelvin)
- MM = dRT/P (molar mass, density, pressure in atm)

Partial pressures: the pressure of any one gas within the container.
Moles of gas A ∂ pressure of gas A
=
Total moles∈ container Total pressure∈container
1 mole of gas at STP occupies 22.4 L

Temperature: average kinetic energy in a substance

MAXWELL-BOLZMANN

- Average velocity is the peak of the

curve
- Area under the curve: total number of
gas molecules
- The curves decrease in height as
temperature increase, the velocities at
which the gas molecules can be found
cover a larger range and flatten the
distribution
- Heavy atoms have lower velocities
- EFFUSION is dependent on the av.
Velocity of the gas particles, the faster they move, the more often they will hit the sides of the
balloon and the more chances to escape.

Intermolecular forces:
1) Hydrogen bonding  NOF and H, strongest
2) Permanent dipole  two polar molecules, no hydrogen bonding
3) London dispersion  every type of covalent compound, at any given moment, the
electron density is greater in one part of the molecule

Network solids: covalently bonded substances that don’t consist of individual molecules,
they consist of atoms joined to form molecules that attract each other through IMF (ex:
diamond, quartz)

Properties of crystalline solids:

- Ionic  high melting point  hard, brittle  electrostatic  molten/dissolved it
conducts electricity
- Covalent network  shared electrons  very high melting point  hard
- molecular  low MP  soft
- metallic  variable MP  malleable
Allotropes: multiple states of the same element bonded in different ways, carbon forms many
allotropes like graphite, diamond
Hydrate: or hydrated salt is an ionic substance in which water molecules bond to the ions in a
fixed ratio, the percent composition of water in the hydrate is the water of hydration

Amount of heat that it takes a substance to move from solid to liquid phase is the heat of
fusion, liquid to gaseous is heat of vaporization

When liquids below their BP are evaporating they exert vapor pressure:
- more volatility, more VP
- More temperature, more VP
- More IMR, less VP
- More weight, less VP
- ATM= VP + partial pressure
- When something melts there is an increase in entropy, if the substance is at a
temperature above MP, the phase change is spontaneous
Solutions
Molality (m) = number of moles in the solute / number of kilograms in the
solvent

Limit of solubility = saturated solution

Determinants of solubility:
- Higher temperature, more soluble
- Ionic compounds generally dissolve in water
- Polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents (NaCl and HCl), and nonpolar
solutes dissolve in nonpolar solvents.
- Gases are more soluble at LOWER temperatures and at HIGHER
pressures

Dissociation and electrolytes:

- One mole of NaCl dissociates in 1 mole of Na+ ions and 1 mole of Cl- ions
- After dissociation, the presence of ions allows electricity to be
conducted (electrolytes)

Boiling point elevation and freezing point depression:

- When a solute is dissolved, the solvent boiling point increases, freezing
point is lowered and its vapor pressure is lowered
- ∆T = kmi
- ∆T is change in boiling point or freezing point
- i is the # of moles of dissolved particles per kilogram (molality)
 - k is a constant, different in different solvents
- Boiling point elevation and freezing point depression are directly
proportional to the # of particles dissolved in a solution, but
independent on the type of particle (sucrose and KCl equally affect MP
and FP at the same molality)

Precipitation reactions:
- No dissolving involved, forms a precipitate
- In a double displacement reaction, usually a precipitate is created

Solubility rules:
1. Most silver, lead, and mercury salts are insoluble except for their
nitrates and perchlorates (ClO⁻ ₄)
2. Most hydroxides are insoluble except for those of alkali metals and
barium
3. All nitrates and perchlorates are soluble
4. All alkali metals and ammonium (NH4+) compounds are soluble

Kinetics and Equilibrium

Equilibrium/dynamic equilibrium: the point in a chemical reaction at which the
concentration of reactants and products are constant (not equal)

- In order for bond breaking and bond making to occur, atoms/ions must
collide with sufficient energy and in the proper orientation
- Activated complex/transition state are the states which reactants must
be before being products

Factors affecting rate of reaction:

- Concentration of reactants
- Surface area of reactants
- Temperature
- Bond strength of reactants
- Catalysts: increase rate by enabling the reaction to proceed differently,
reduces the Ea, not consumed in reaction nor change equilibrium
Activation energy: minimum energy supplied for the activated complex to be
formed. Less Ea, means that collisions need less energy

EQUILIBRIUM:
 - Solvents (usually H2O) are not included in the eq. expression.
- Keq > 1, FORWARD REACTION FAVORED (product conc. is greater)

Le Châtelier’s principle:
Effects of concentration on equilibrium
Increasing concentration of reactants will shift equilibrium to the right (to
products)

Effects of heat on equilibrium

When the reaction is exothermic: raising temp. shifts equilibrium to the left
When the reaction is endothermic: raising temp. shifts equilibrium to the right
THIS IS THE ONLY TYPE OF STRESS THAT CHANGES Keq

Effects of pressure on equilibrium

Increasing pressure shifts equilibrium to the side with fewer moles
Decreasing pressure shifts equilibrium to the side with more moles

Catalysts don’t change equilibrium

Equilibrium in precipitation reactions:

PbCl2 ⇌ Pb2+ + 2Cl- Ksys = [Pb2+] [Cl-]2
- Solids are not included in the expression
- Equilibrium between an ionic solid and its dissolved ions, we call the
eq. its SOLUBILITY PORDUCT CONSTANT (Ksp)
- These are small because the forward reaction is insignificant. The
smaller it is, the more insoluble

ACIDS AND BASES

- Acids increase conc. of H+ ions and baes increase conc. of OH- ions
Autoionization of H2O (spontaneous dissociation of water)
H2O ⇌ H+ + OH- Kw = [H+] [OH-]
For pure water at 25 degrees, both [H+] and [OH-] are 10-7, so the Kw= 10-14

pH = -log [H+]

Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases

- Acids are proton (H+) donors and bases are proton receivers
- Amphoteric molecules/ions can either donate or receive protons. Ex:
HCO3-, H2O
- Strong acids dissociate completely (1 direction arrow in reaction)

Lewis Acids and Bases

- Lewis acids are electron pair acceptors

Strong acids: for 1.0 M, its pH is equal to 0

- HCl
- HBr (hydrobromic)
- HI (hydroiodic)
- HNO3 (nitric)
- H2SO4 (sulfuric)
- HClO4 (perchloric)

Strong bases: for 1.0 M, its pH is equal to 14

- Group 1 hydroxides
- Sr(OH)2
- Ba(OH)2
An indicator is a conjugate acid-base pair with different spectral
absorbencies
Weak acids: partial or reversible dissociation
Conjugate acid/base pairs: two identical molecules except one has an
additional H+ (the acid). Their pKa values multiply to 10-14

Buffers: used to minimize changes in pH, they are made of a conjugate pair
of a weak acid and weak base. The pH of the buffer is close to the acid’s pK a

Titration: used to determine concentration, strength of substance or pK.

We use a buret to add acids to bazes or vice-versa.
Molarity(subject) x Volume (subject) = Molarity(titrant) x Volume (titrant)

REDOX: electrons flow from anode to cathode, electrolysis

doesn’t generate electricity
Reduction:
- Gain of electrons
- Gain of hydrogen
- Loss of oxygen
Ag + e-  Ag (s)
+

Oxidation:
- Loss of electrons
- Loss of hydrogen
- Gain of oxygen
Cu (s)  Cu2+ + 2e-

Common redox reactions:

1) Rusting. Ex: iron and oxygen

2) Dissolving. Ex: when metals dissolve in acids, they undergo oxidation,

the H+ ions are good oxidizing agents. Oxygen gas is better at oxidizing.
Pb (s) + 2H+  H2 (g) + Pb2+
Dissolved in water: 2H2O + 2Na (s)  2Na+ + H2 (g) + 2OH-

3) Nitric acid dissolution. NO3- is the oxidizing agent. Nitrogen dioxide gas is
produced, it is a brownish-yellow toxic gas
Organic chemistry
- Organic compounds are much more soluble in nonpolar solvents than in
polar solvents. Carbon compounds are generally non polar
- Poor conductors of electricity, don’t dissociate
- If two molecules have the same constituent elements but different
arrangement, they are isomers (different chemical properties too)

Alkanes:
- Hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds
- Saturated
- CnH2n+2

Alkenes:
- Hydrocarbons that contain one double bond
- Unsaturated
- CnH2n

Alkynes:
- Hydrocarbons that contain one triple bond
- Unsaturated
- CnH2n-2
Hydrocarbon ring:
- Aromatic hydrocarbon
- Benzene (C6H6)

REACTIONS:
Addition: carbon-carbon double bond is converted to a single/triple to double
Substitution: one atom or group is substituted by another atom or group

Polymerization: two monomers form a larger third compound

Combustion: adding O2 and a spark, produce carbon dioxide and water

Esterification: carboxylic acid + alcohol produces an ester and water

Lipids:
- Fats and oils
- Not water soluble, hydrophobic

Carbohydrates:
- Polymers made out of sugar monomers
- 1:2:1 ratio of CHO

Nucleic acids:
- CHO, nitrogen and phosphorus
- DNA and RNA

Proteins:
- Amino acid monomers
- -NH2 group (amino monomer) and a Carboxyl group (-COOH)
- Chains are polypeptides, enzymes are proteins

Environmental chemistry
Earth’s atmosphere:
- 78% nitrogen, 20% oxygen, less than 1% argon
- Ozone (O3) is the result of the collision of O (produced from
photodissociation) and O2
Acid rain:
- SO2 reacts with oxygen and forms SO3, which reacts with water to form
sulphuric acid
- Nitrogen oxides form nitric acid

Lab chemistry:
When multiplying and dividing, the result should have the same number of SF
as the number with the lowest # of SF. Also works with adding/subtracting in
decimal places.
FLAME TESTS:
RED Lithium
ORANGE Calcium
YELLOW Sodium
GREEN Barium
VIOLET Potassium

COLORED SOLUTIONS:
Copper Blue
Nickel Green
Cobalt Pink
Iron Yellow
Chromate (CrO4-) Yellow
Dichromate (Cr2O72-) Orange
Permanganate (MnO4-) Purple

Gas evolution: when wanting to measure gas volume we use a MANOMETER;

the reaction takes place in an ERLENMEYER FLASK (used for heating liquids)
FLORENCE FLASK (boiling liquids)