Evolution Review Sheet

Evolution- A process of change through time.

Organic Evolution- Refers specifically to the mechanisms thought to govern

the changes in living species over time (Ex: A variation within a species)

Supporting Evidence for evolution

Evolution is based on theories- scientist have gathered evidence to support
the theories.

Evidence comes from different sources such as:

a) Fossils & the study of the geologic record.
b) Comparative studies in the fields of cytology.
c) Comparative studies in the fields of biochemistry.
d) Comparative studies in the fields of embryology.

A. Fossils/ Geologic record – Earth est. to be 4.5-5.0 billion years old

(radioactive dating[half-life])
 Fossils- Trace or remains of organisms that lived in the past.
Most commonly discovered in sedimentary rock (sandstone/
limestone)
 In undisturbed layers of sedimentary rock (strata), the lowest
layers are the oldest, middle, top layer is youngest.
 Fossils in the upper strata resemble those in the lower strata
even thought they are of different species- this shows a genetic
link b/t modern life forms & ancient life forms.
 There are genetic links among diverse modern life forms due to
common links to ancestral species. (All vertebrate, from fish to
mammals, share a common ancestor)
  Common Ancestry- Two divergent life forms can trace their
inheritance to a single preexisting life form.

B. Comparative Cytology
 Comparing cell structure between species
 Despite similarity, certain differences among cells of different
species are known to exist.
 Organisms with very similar cell structure (closely related) vs.
those w/ different cell structures

C. Comparative Biochemistry
 Comparing DNA/ genetic makeup (structure of enzymes,
proteins etc…)
 Related organisms, having inherited their characteristics from
common ancestors, may be expected to share many genes &
their corresponding enzymes in common.
 The more closely related 2 organisms are, the more similar the
biochemical makeup is.
 Even organisms that are not the same structurally may produce
many of the same enzymes and therefore may be closely
related.
D. Comparative Anatomy
 Study of structural similarities & differences among living things.
 Similarities gives evidence of evolutionary relationships
between different species
 Comparison of detailed structure of parts of different organisms
(usually shows similarity) [Ex: arm of a woman, wing of a bird,
flipper of a whale]

Homologous structures- Similar structure, Different function.

Analogous Structures- Similar function, Different structure.

Vestigial Structures- Remnants of structures that was functional in an
ancestral form. (Over 100 in humans- tailbone, appendix, wisdom teeth,
muscles in ear & nose)

Formation of fossils
1. Preservation of Whole Organisms- Organism can be trapped in
amber, ice or tar and preserved
2. Preservation of Hard Parts- Such as shells & bones- Soft parts can
decay, other parts can remain.
3. Petrifaction- Materials of a dead organism can be washed away &
replaced by minerals from water. Stone structure of the organism- A
petrified replica
4. Sedimentation- Fossils found in sedimentary rock- formed at bottom
of water, sediments cover, harden and form layers of sedimentary
rock- forms imprint, mold or cast.

Historical Development- Theories of Evolution

I. Lamarck- Proposed that changes came about by the needs of

the organism or the organism striving for improvement.

Main Idea:
A) Use & Disuse- New organs appear in a species as a result of a
need for them and increase in size or effectiveness through
repeated use. Those not used very often would decrease in
size or strength
B) Transmission or Acquired Characteristics- A trait
acquired during the lifetime of an individual can be
transmitted to its offspring
 C)Evolution- Evolution of a new species is the result of the
accumulation of acquired characteristics transmitted
through many generations.
II. Weisman- He said that acquired characteristics cannot be
inherited. He experimented and proved this by cutting the tails off
mice in many generations, the offspring showed no change in
length.
III. Darwin- “Natural Selection”- Organisms with favorable variations
will be better able to survive than organism with unfavorable
variations. Nature selects the survivors. The result of natural
selection would be evolution.

Main Idea of Darwin’s theories:

A) Overproduction: Species produce far more offspring than are
needed to maintain the population- only a small fraction of the
offspring live.
B) Competition: Offspring must compete for living space & food &
for opportunities to reproduce etc…
C) Variation: The characteristics of individuals in any species are
not exactly alike. Some maybe stronger, faster etc… These are
variation. Within each generation, some individuals are better
fitted to survive than others because of variations in
characteristics.
D) Survival of the fittest: Those individuals better fitted to survive
are more likely to live long and produce “Only the strong will
survive”
E) Transmission of Favorable Variations: The offspring of the
fittest individuals will inherit the favorable variations that
enabled their parents to survive & reproduce- The offspring will
inherit the good stuff.
F) Evolution of Species: The accumulation of favorable variations
(adaptations) in this way will gradually lead to the appearance
of new species better adapted to their environment.
 IV. DeVries- Darwin never could explain how variations arose-
DeVries discovered mutations and proposed that mutations wer
the source of new traits that permitted evolution to occur.

Adaptation- Any kind of inherited trait that improves an organism’s

chances of survival and reproduction in a given environment
 Favorable adaptations gradually accumulate and
unfavorable ones disappear.
 Eventually you get so many changed that a whole new
species can appear (speciation)

Mutations- Any change in the genetic of hereditary material of a cell-

In order for a mutation to be passed on, it must occur in a sex cell.

****************************BACK TO DARWIN****************************

Darwin traveled to South America (Cape Horn, Tierra del Fuego and
the Galapagos Islands.)Then to New Zealand, Australia, Africa (Cape of
Good Hope), back to South America then to Europe.

Descent with Modification- The descendants of the earliest

organisms spread into various habitats over millions of years. In
these habitats, they accumulated different modifications, or
adaptation, to diverde way of life. (Ex: The white fur of the snowshoe
hare camouflages the animal in its environment.)

Natural Selection- The process by which individuals with inherited

characteristics well-suited to the environment leave more offspring on
average than do other individuals.

 Stabilizing Selection- Extremes are eliminated and the average

is favored. (Reduces the variation for the phenotypic character)
Ex: Human birth weights.
  Directional Selection- Associated with gradually changing
conditions, where the adaptive phenotype is shifted in one
direction and one aspect of a trait becomes emphasized.
 Disruptive or Diversifying Selection- Associated with a
fluctuating environment favors two extremes of a trait at the
expense of intermediate forms. Gives rise to balanced
polymorphism

Population- A group of individuals of the same species living in the

same area at the same time.

Variation- Refers to differences among members of the same

species.

Artificial Selection- The selective breeding of domesticated plants

and animals to produce offspring with genetic traits that human value.

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Microevolution- A change in a population’s gene pool

Gene pool- Consists of all the alleles in all the individuals that make up a
population.

Microevolution- Evolution on the small scale—a generation-to-generation

changes in the frequencies of alleles within a population.

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium- Populations that do not undergo change to

their gene pools are not presently evolving.

Genetic Drift- A change in the gene pool of a population due to chance.

The Bottleneck Effect- Disasters(earthquakes, floods, droughts, and fires

may drastically reduce the size of a population which reduces the size of its
gene pool. In chance, certain alleles may be represented more frequently
than others among the survivors. Some alleles may be eliminated all
together.
The Founder Effect- The genetic drift in a new colony- the change relates
to the genetic makeup of the founders of the colony. Contribute to the
changes in gene pools.

Gene Flow- The exchange of genes with another population. Occurs when
fertile individuals or their gametes migrate between populations. Tends to
reduce genetic differences between populations.

Mutation- A change in an organism’s DNA, if this mutation is carried by a

gamete, the mutation enters the population’s gene pool. Natural selection
and/or can influence whether the frequency of a new mutation increases in
a population. Mutation plays a role in evolution as the original source of
genetic variation that is the raw material for natural selection.

*Genetic drift, gene flow, and mutation can cause micro evolution, or
changes in allele frequencies but they do not necessarily lead to adaption.*

Fitness- The contribution that an individual makes to the gene pool of the
next generation compared to the contribution of other individuals. Survival
to reproductive maturity, of course, is necessary for reproductive success,
but even the fastest, strongest animal has a fitness of zero if it is sterile.
Production of healthy, fertile offspring is all that counts in natural selection

Microevolution- Encompasses more dramatic biological changes,

many of which are evident in the fossil record. These changes include the
origin of different species, the extinction of species, and the evolution of
major new features of living things, such as wings or flowers.

Speciation- The origin of new species. It’s the main focus of the study of
macroevolution, for with speciation comes biological diversity.

Reproductive Isolation- Some kind of reproductive barrier keeps the two

species from interbreeding.

Barriers that contribute to reproductive isolation:

Timing- Two similar species may have different breeding seasons.
Behavior- Two similar species may have different mating behaviors.

Habitat- Some species remain reproductively isolated because they are

adapted to different habitats in the same general location.

Geographic Isolation- Separation of populations as a result of geographic

change or dispersal to geographically isolated places

Adaptive Radiation- Evolution from a common ancestor that results in

diverse species adapted to different environment.

Punctuated Equilibrium- The model suggests that species often diverge in

spurts of relatively rapid change.