X-ray

This article is about the nature, production and uses of the guishing between X-rays and gamma rays. One com-
radiation. For the method of imaging, see Radiography. mon practice is to distinguish between the two types
For imaging in a medical context, see Radiology. For of radiation based on their source: X-rays are emit-
other meanings, see X-ray (disambiguation). ted by electrons, while gamma rays are emitted by the
Not to be confused with X-wave or X-band. atomic nucleus.[6][7][8][9] This definition has several prob-
X-radiation (composed of X-rays) is a form lems; other processes also can generate these high en-
ergy photons, or sometimes the method of generation is
Wavelength 1 µm 100 nm 10 nm 1 nm 100 pm 10 pm 1 pm 100 fm not known. One common alternative is to distinguish
visible light soft X−rays gamma rays X- and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength (or
ultraviolet light hard X−rays

Photon energy 1 eV 10 eV 100 eV 1 keV 10 keV 100 keV 1 MeV 10 MeV

equivalently, frequency or photon energy), with radiation
shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 10−11
X-ray crystallography Mammography Medical CT Airport security m (0.1 Å), defined as gamma radiation.[10] This crite-
rion assigns a photon to an unambiguous category, but
is only possible if wavelength is known. (Some mea-
surement techniques do not distinguish between detected
wavelengths.) However, these two definitions often coin-
cide since the electromagnetic radiation emitted by X-ray
tubes generally has a longer wavelength and lower photon
X-rays are part of the electromagnetic spectrum, with wave- energy than the radiation emitted by radioactive nuclei.[6]
lengths shorter than visible light. Different applications use dif-
Occasionally, one term or the other is used in specific
ferent parts of the X-ray spectrum.
contexts due to historical precedent, based on measure-
ment (detection) technique, or based on their intended
of electromagnetic radiation. Most X-rays have a use rather than their wavelength or source. Thus, gamma-
wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10 nanometers, corre- rays generated for medical and industrial uses, for exam-
sponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 ple radiotherapy, in the ranges of 6–20 MeV, can in this
exahertz (3×1016 Hz to 3×1019 Hz) and energies in the context also be referred to as X-rays.
range 100 eV to 100 keV. X-ray wavelengths are shorter
than those of UV rays and typically longer than those
of gamma rays. In many languages, X-radiation is re-
ferred to with terms meaning Röntgen radiation, after 1 Properties
Wilhelm Röntgen,[1] who is usually credited as its dis-
coverer, and who had named it X-radiation to signify an
unknown type of radiation.[2] Spelling of X-ray(s) in the
English language includes the variants x-ray(s), xray(s)
and X ray(s).[3]
X-rays with photon energies above 5–10 keV (below
0.2–0.1 nm wavelength) are called hard X-rays, while
those with lower energy are called soft X-rays.[4] Due to
their penetrating ability, hard X-rays are widely used to
image the inside of objects, e.g., in medical radiogra-
phy and airport security. As a result, the term X-ray is
metonymically used to refer to a radiographic image pro-
duced using this method, in addition to the method it-
self. Since the wavelengths of hard X-rays are similar
to the size of atoms they are also useful for determining
crystal structures by X-ray crystallography. By contrast,
soft X-rays are easily absorbed in air and the attenuation
length of 600 eV (~2 nm) X-rays in water is less than 1
Ionizing radiation hazard symbol
micrometer.[5]
There is no universal consensus for a definition distin- X-ray photons carry enough energy to ionize atoms and

1
2 2 INTERACTION WITH MATTER

disrupt molecular bonds. This makes it a type of ionizing
radiation, and therefore harmful to living tissue. A very
high radiation dose over a short amount of time causes
radiation sickness, while lower doses can give an in-
creased risk of radiation-induced cancer. In medical
imaging this increased cancer risk is generally greatly out-
weighed by the benefits of the examination. The ionizing
capability of X-rays can be utilized in cancer treatment to
kill malignant cells using radiation therapy. It is also used
for material characterization using X-ray spectroscopy.
X−ray penetration in water
1 dm
1 cm
Attenuation length
tering. The strength of these interactions depend on the
energy of the X-rays and the elemental composition of the
material, but not much on chemical properties since the
X-ray photon energy is much higher than chemical bind-
ing energies. Photoabsorption or photoelectric absorp-
tion is the dominant interaction mechanism in the soft
X-ray regime and for the lower hard X-ray energies. At
higher energies, Compton scattering dominates.
2.1 Photoelectric absorption
The probability of a photoelectric absorption per unit
mass is approximately proportional to Z 3 /E 3 , where Z is

the atomic number and E is the energy of the incident

photon.[11] This rule is not valid close to inner shell elec-
1 mm
tron binding energies where there are abrupt changes in
interaction probability, so called absorption edges. How-
100 µm
ever, the general trend of high absorption coefficients and
10 µm thus short penetration depths for low photon energies and
high atomic numbers is very strong. For soft tissue pho-
1 µm toabsorption dominates up to about 26 keV photon en-
ergy where Compton scattering takes over. For higher
100 nm atomic number substances this limit is higher. The high
100 eV 1 keV 10 keV 100 keV
amount of calcium (Z=20) in bones together with their
Photon energy
high density is what makes them show up so clearly on
medical radiographs.
Attenuation length of X-rays in water showing the oxy-
gen absorption edge at 540 eV, the energy−3 dependence ofA photoabsorbed photon transfers all its energy to the
photoabsorption, as well as a leveling off at higher photon en-
electron with which it interacts, thus ionizing the atom
ergies due to Compton scattering. The attenuation length is about
to which the electron was bound and producing a pho-
four orders of magnitude longer for hard X-rays (right half)
toelectron that is likely to ionize more atoms in its path.
compared to soft X-rays (left half).
An outer electron will fill the vacant electron position and
the produce either a characteristic photon or an Auger
Hard X-rays can traverse relatively thick objects with-
electron. These effects can be used for elemental detec-
out being much absorbed or scattered. For this reason,
tion through X-ray spectroscopy or Auger electron spec-
X-rays are widely used to image the inside of visually
troscopy.
opaque objects. The most often seen applications are in
medical radiography and airport security scanners, but
similar techniques are also important in industry (e.g. 2.2 Compton scattering
industrial radiography and industrial CT scanning) and
research (e.g. small animal CT). The penetration depth Compton scattering is the predominant interaction be-
varies with several orders of magnitude over the X-ray tween X-rays and soft tissue in medical imaging.[12]
spectrum. This allows the photon energy to be adjusted Compton scattering is an inelastic scattering of the X-ray
for the application so as to give sufficient transmission photon by an outer shell electron. Part of the energy of the
through the object and at the same time good contrast in photon is transferred to the scattering electron, thereby
the image. ionizing the atom and increasing the wavelength of the
X-rays have much shorter wavelength than visible light, X-ray. The scattered photon can go in any direction, but
which makes it possible to probe structures much smaller a direction similar to the original direction is a bit more
than what can be seen using a normal microscope. This likely, especially for high-energy X-rays. The probability
can be used in X-ray microscopy to acquire high resolu- for different scattering angles are described by the Klein–
tion images, but also in X-ray crystallography to deter- Nishina formula. The transferred energy can be directly
mine the positions of atoms in crystals. obtained from the scattering angle from the conservation
of energy and momentum.

2 Interaction with matter 2.3 Rayleigh scattering

X-rays interact with matter in three main ways, through Rayleigh scattering is the dominant elastic scattering
photoabsorption, Compton scattering, and Rayleigh scat- mechanism in the X-ray regime.[13] The inelastic forward
3.2 Production by fast positive ions 3

scattering is what gives rise to the refractive index, which called characteristic lines. Usually these are transi-
for X-rays is only slightly below 1.[14] tions from upper shells into K shell (called K lines),
into L shell (called L lines) and so on.

3 Production
2. Bremsstrahlung: This is radiation given off by the
Whenever charged particles (electrons or ions) of suffi- electrons as they are scattered by the strong electric
cient energy hit a material, x-rays are produced. field near the high-Z (proton number) nuclei. These
X-rays have a continuous spectrum. The intensity
of the X-rays increases linearly with decreasing fre-
3.1 Production by electrons quency, from zero at the energy of the incident elec-
trons, the voltage on the X-ray tube.

So the resulting output of a tube consists of a continu-

ous bremsstrahlung spectrum falling off to zero at the
tube voltage, plus several spikes at the characteristic lines.
The voltages used in diagnostic X-ray tubes range from
roughly 20 to 150 kV and thus the highest energies of the
X-ray photons range from roughly 20 to 150 keV.[18]
Both of these X-ray production processes are inefficient,
with a production efficiency of only about one percent,
and hence, to produce a usable flux of X-rays, most of
the electric power consumed by the tube is released as
waste heat. The X-ray tube must be designed to dissipate
Spectrum of the X-rays emitted by an X-ray tube with a rhodium this excess heat.
target, operated at 60 kV. The smooth, continuous curve is due
to bremsstrahlung, and the spikes are characteristic K lines for Short nanosecond bursts of X-rays peaking at 15-keV
rhodium atoms. in energy may be reliably produced by peeling pressure-
sensitive adhesive tape from its backing in a moderate
X-rays can be generated by an X-ray tube, a vacuum vacuum. This is likely to be the result of recombination
tube that uses a high voltage to accelerate the electrons of electrical charges produced by triboelectric charging.
released by a hot cathode to a high velocity. The high The intensity of X-ray triboluminescence is sufficient for
velocity electrons collide with a metal target, the anode, it to be used as a source for X-ray imaging.[19] Using
creating the X-rays.[17] In medical X-ray tubes the tar- sources considerably more advanced than sticky tape, at
get is usually tungsten or a more crack-resistant alloy least one startup firm is exploiting tribocharging in the
of rhenium (5%) and tungsten (95%), but sometimes development of highly portable, ultra-miniaturized X-ray
molybdenum for more specialized applications, such as devices.[20]
when softer X-rays are needed as in mammography. In
crystallography, a copper target is most common, with A specialized source of X-rays which is becoming widely
cobalt often being used when fluorescence from iron con- used in research is synchrotron radiation, which is gener-
tent in the sample might otherwise present a problem. ated by particle accelerators. Its unique features are X-
ray outputs many orders of magnitude greater than those
The maximum energy of the produced X-ray photon is of X-ray tubes, wide X-ray spectra, excellent collimation,
limited by the energy of the incident electron, which is and linear polarization.[21]
equal to the voltage on the tube times the electron charge,
so an 80 kV tube cannot create X-rays with an energy
greater than 80 keV. When the electrons hit the target,
X-rays are created by two different atomic processes:
3.2 Production by fast positive ions
1. Characteristic X-ray emission: If the electron has
enough energy it can knock an orbital electron out X-rays can also be produced by fast protons or other posi-
of the inner electron shell of a metal atom, and as tive ions. The Proton-induced X-ray emission or Particle-
a result electrons from higher energy levels then fill induced X-ray emission is widely used as an analytical
up the vacancy and X-ray photons are emitted. This procedure. For high energies, the production cross sec-
process produces an emission spectrum of X-rays at tion is proportional to Z1 2 Z2 −4 , where Z1 refers to the
a few discrete frequencies, sometimes referred to as atomic number of the ion, Z2 to that of the target atom.[22]
the spectral lines. The spectral lines generated de- An overview of these cross sections is given in the same
pend on the target (anode) element used and thus are reference.
4 5 MEDICAL USES

4 Detectors
Main article: X-ray detector

X-ray detectors vary in shape and function depending on

their purpose. Imaging detectors such as those used for
radiography were originally based on photographic plates
and later photographic film but are now mostly replaced
by various digital detector types such as image plates or
flat panel detectors. For radiation protection direct expo-
sure hazard is often evaluated using ionization chambers,
while dosimeters are used to measure the radiation dose
a person has been exposed to. X-ray spectra can be mea-
sured either by energy dispersive or wavelength dispersive
spectrometers.

5 Medical uses
Main article: Medical imaging
Since Röntgen’s discovery that X-rays can identify bone

An arm radiograph, demonstrating broken ulna and radius with

implanted internal fixation.

then illuminating it with a short X-ray pulse. Bones

contain much calcium, which due to its relatively high
atomic number absorbs x-rays efficiently. This reduces
the amount of X-rays reaching the detector in the shadow
of the bones, making them clearly visible on the radio-
graph. The lungs and trapped gas also show up clearly
because of lower absorption compared to tissue, while
differences between tissue types are harder to see.
Radiographs are useful in the detection of pathology of
the skeletal system as well as for detecting some dis-
ease processes in soft tissue. Some notable examples
are the very common chest X-ray, which can be used to
A chest radiograph of a female, demonstrating a hiatus hernia identify lung diseases such as pneumonia, lung cancer or
pulmonary edema, and the abdominal x-ray, which can
structures, X-rays have been used for medical imaging. detect bowel (or intestinal) obstruction, free air (from vis-
The first medical use was less than a month after his paper ceral perforations) and free fluid (in ascites). X-rays may
on the subject.[23] Up until 2010, 5 billion medical imag- also be used to detect pathology such as gallstones (which
ing studies have been conducted worldwide.[24] Radiation are rarely radiopaque) or kidney stones which are often
exposure from medical imaging in 2006 made up about (but not always) visible. Traditional plain X-rays are less
50% of total ionizing radiation exposure in the United useful in the imaging of soft tissues such as the brain or
States.[25] muscle.
Dental radiography is commonly used in the diagnoses of
common oral problems, such as cavities.
5.1 Radiographs
In medical diagnostic applications, the low energy (soft)
Main article: Radiography X-rays are unwanted, since they are totally absorbed by
A radiograph is an X-ray image obtained by placing the body, increasing the radiation dose without contribut-
a part of the patient in front of an X-ray detector and ing to the image. Hence, a thin metal sheet, often of
5.3 Fluoroscopy
aluminium, called an X-ray filter, is usually placed over
the window of the X-ray tube, absorbing the low energy
part in the spectrum. This is called hardening the beam
since it shifts the center of the spectrum towards higher
energy (or harder) x-rays.
To generate an image of the cardiovascular system, in-
cluding the arteries and veins (angiography) an initial im-
age is taken of the anatomical region of interest. A second
image is then taken of the same region after an iodinated
contrast agent has been injected into the blood vessels
within this area. These two images are then digitally sub-
tracted, leaving an image of only the iodinated contrast
outlining the blood vessels. The radiologist or surgeon
then compares the image obtained to normal anatomical
images to determine if there is any damage or blockage
of the vessel.
5.2 Computed tomography
Head CT scan (transverse plane) slice -– a modern application
of medical radiography
Computed tomography (CT scanning) is a medical imag-
ing modality where tomographic images or slices of spe-
cific areas of the body are obtained from a large se-
ries of two-dimensional X-ray images taken in different
directions.[26] These cross-sectional images can be com-
bined into a three-dimensional image of the inside of the
body and used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in
various medical disciplines.
5
5.3 Fluoroscopy
Fluoroscopy is an imaging technique commonly used by
physicians or radiation therapists to obtain real-time mov-
ing images of the internal structures of a patient through
the use of a fluoroscope. In its simplest form, a fluoro-
scope consists of an X-ray source and fluorescent screen
between which a patient is placed. However, modern flu-
oroscopes couple the screen to an X-ray image intensi-
fier and CCD video camera allowing the images to be
recorded and played on a monitor. This method may use
a contrast material. Examples include cardiac catheter-
ization (to examine for coronary artery blockages) and
barium swallow (to examine for esophageal disorders).
5.4 Radiotherapy
The use of X-rays as a treatment is known as radiation
therapy and is largely used for the management (includ-
ing palliation) of cancer; it requires higher radiation doses
than those received for imaging alone. X-rays beams are
used for treating skin cancers using lower energy x-ray
beams while higher energy beams are used for treating
cancers within the body such as brain, lung, prostate and
breast.[27][28]
6 Adverse effects
Abdominal radiograph of a pregnant woman, a procedure that
should be performed only after proper assessment of benefit ver-
sus risk
Diagnostic X-rays (primarily from CT scans due to the
large dose used) increase the risk of developmental prob-
lems and cancer in those exposed.[29][30][31] X rays are
6 7 OTHER USES

classified as a carcinogen by both the World Health Or- however, medical procedures in the United States were
ganization’s International Agency for Research on Can- contributing much more ionizing radiation than was the
cer and the U.S. government.[24][32] It is estimated that case in the early 1980s. In 2006, medical exposure con-
0.4% of current cancers in the United States are due to stituted nearly half of the total radiation exposure of the
computed tomography (CT scans) performed in the past U.S. population from all sources. The increase is trace-
and that this may increase to as high as 1.5-2% with 2007 able to the growth in the use of medical imaging proce-
rates of CT usage.[33] dures, in particular computed tomography (CT), and to
[25][46]
Experimental and epidemiological data currently do not the growth in the use of nuclear medicine.
support the proposition that there is a threshold dose Dosage due to dental X-rays varies significantly depend-
of radiation below which there is no increased risk of ing on the procedure and the technology (film or digital).
cancer.[34] However, this is under increasing doubt.[35] It Depending on the procedure and the technology, a single
is estimated that the additional radiation will increase a dental X-ray of a human results in an exposure of 0.5 to 4
person’s cumulative risk of getting cancer by age 75 by mrem. A full mouth series may therefore result in an ex-
0.6–1.8%.[36] The amount of absorbed radiation depends posure of up to 6 (digital) to 18 (film) mrem, for a yearly
upon the type of X-ray test and the body part involved.[37] average of up to 40 mrem.[47][48][49][50][51][52][53]
CT and fluoroscopy entail higher doses of radiation than
do plain X-rays.
To place the increased risk in perspective, a plain chest 7 Other uses
X-ray will expose a person to the same amount from
background radiation that we are exposed to (depending Other notable uses of X-rays include
upon location) every day over 10 days, while exposure
from a dental X-ray is approximately equivalent to 1 day
of environmental background radiation.[38] Each such X-
ray would add less than 1 per 1,000,000 to the lifetime
cancer risk. An abdominal or chest CT would be the
equivalent to 2–3 years of background radiation to the
whole body, or 4–5 years to the abdomen or chest, in-
creasing the lifetime cancer risk between 1 per 1,000 to
1 per 10,000.[38] This is compared to the roughly 40%
chance of a US citizen developing cancer during their
lifetime.[39] For instance, the effective dose to the torso
from a CT scan of the chest is about 5 mSv, and the
absorbed dose is about 14 mGy.[40] A head CT scan
(1.5mSv, 64mGy)[41] that is performed once with and
once without contrast agent, would be equivalent to 40
years of background radiation to the head. Accurate es-
timation of effective doses due to CT is difficult with the
estimation uncertainty range of about ±19% to ±32% for
adult head scans depending upon the method used.[42]
The risk of radiation is greater to unborn babies, so in Each dot, called a reflection, in this diffraction pattern forms
pregnant patients, the benefits of the investigation (X-ray) from the constructive interference of scattered X-rays passing
should be balanced with the potential hazards to the un- through a crystal. The data can be used to determine the crys-
born fetus.[43][44] In the US, there are an estimated 62 mil- talline structure.
lion CT scans performed annually, including more than 4
million on children.[37] Avoiding unnecessary X-rays (es- • X-ray crystallography in which the pattern produced
pecially CT scans) will reduce radiation dose and any as- by the diffraction of X-rays through the closely
sociated cancer risk.[45] spaced lattice of atoms in a crystal is recorded and
Medical X-rays are a significant source of man-made ra- then analysed to reveal the nature of that lattice.
diation exposure. In 1987, they accounted for 58% of A related technique, fiber diffraction, was used by
exposure from man-made sources in the United States. Rosalind Franklin to discover the double helical
Since man-made sources accounted for only 18% of structure of DNA.[54]
the total radiation exposure, most of which came from • X-ray astronomy, which is an observational branch
natural sources (82%), medical X-rays only accounted of astronomy, which deals with the study of X-ray
for 10% of total American radiation exposure; medical emission from celestial objects.
procedures as a whole (including nuclear medicine) ac-
counted for 14% of total radiation exposure. By 2006, • X-ray microscopic analysis, which uses
electromagnetic radiation in the soft X-ray
 7

band to produce images of very small objects. • Roentgen stereophotogrammetry is used to track
movement of bones based on the implantation of
• X-ray fluorescence, a technique in which X-rays are markers
generated within a specimen and detected. The out-
going energy of the X-ray can be used to identify the • X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy is a chemical
composition of the sample. analysis technique relying on the photoelectric ef-
• Industrial radiography uses X-rays for inspection of fect, usually employed in surface science.
industrial parts, particularly welds.
• Industrial CT (computed tomography) is a pro- 8 History
cess which uses X-ray equipment to produce three-
dimensional representations of components both
externally and internally. This is accomplished 8.1 Discovery
through computer processing of projection images
of the scanned object in many directions.
• Paintings are often X-rayed to reveal the
underdrawing and pentimenti or alterations in
the course of painting, or by later restorers. Many
pigments such as lead white show well in X-ray
photographs.
• X-ray spectromicroscopy has been used to analyse
the reactions of pigments in paintings. For example,
in analysing colour degradation in the paintings of
van Gogh[55]
• Airport security luggage scanners use X-rays for in-
specting the interior of luggage for security threats
before loading on aircraft.
• Border control truck scanners use X-rays for in-
specting the interior of trucks.

Wilhelm Röntgen

German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen is usually credited

as the discoverer of X-rays in 1895, because he was the
first to systematically study them, though he is not the
first to have observed their effects. He is also the one
who gave them the name “X-rays” (signifying an un-
X-ray fine art photography of needlefish by Peter Dazeley
known quantity[57] ) though many others referred to these
as “Röntgen rays” (and the associated X-ray radiograms
• X-ray art and fine art photography, artistic use of as, “Röntgenograms”) for several decades after their dis-
X-rays, for example the works by Stane Jagodič covery and even to this day in some languages, including
Röntgen’s native German.
• X-ray hair removal, a method popular in the 1920s
but now banned by the FDA.[56] X-rays were found emanating from Crookes tubes, ex-
perimental discharge tubes invented around 1875, by
• Shoe-fitting fluoroscopes were popularized in the scientists investigating the cathode rays, that is ener-
1920s, banned in the US in the 1960s, banned in getic electron beams, that were first created in the tubes.
the UK in the 1970s, and even later in continental Crookes tubes created free electrons by ionization of the
Europe. residual air in the tube by a high DC voltage of any-
8 8 HISTORY

his first X-ray photograph, Pulyui published high-quality

X-ray images in journals in Paris and London.[62] Al-
though Pulyui had studied with Röntgen at the University
of Strasbourg in the years 1873–75, his biographer Gaida
(1997) asserts that his subsequent research was conducted
independently.[62]

Taking an X-ray image with early Crookes tube apparatus, late

1800s. The Crookes tube is visible in center. The standing man
is viewing his hand with a fluoroscope screen. No precautions
against radiation exposure are taken; its hazards were not known
at the time.

X-rays were generated and detected by Fernando San-

ford (1854–1948), the foundation Professor of Physics at
Hand mit Ringen (Hand with Rings): print of Wilhelm Röntgen's Stanford University, in 1891. From 1886 to 1888 he had
first “medical” X-ray, of his wife’s hand, taken on 22 December studied in the Hermann Helmholtz laboratory in Berlin,
1895 and presented to Ludwig Zehnder of the Physik Institut, where he became familiar with the cathode rays generated
University of Freiburg, on 1 January 1896[58][59] in vacuum tubes when a voltage was applied across sep-
arate electrodes, as previously studied by Heinrich Hertz
and Philipp Lenard. His letter of January 6, 1893 (de-
where between a few kilovolts and 100 kV. This volt- scribing his discovery as “electric photography”) to The
age accelerated the electrons coming from the cathode Physical Review was duly published and an article enti-
to a high enough velocity that they created X-rays when tled Without Lens or Light, Photographs Taken With Plate
they struck the anode or the glass wall of the tube. Many and Object in Darkness appeared in the San Francisco Ex-
of the early Crookes tubes undoubtedly radiated X-rays, aminer.[63]
because early researchers noticed effects that were at-
tributable to them, as detailed below. Wilhelm Röntgen Starting in 1888, Philipp Lenard, a student of Heinrich
was the first to systematically study them, in 1895.[60] Hertz, conducted experiments to see whether cathode
rays could pass out of the Crookes tube into the air. He
built a Crookes tube (later called a “Lenard tube”) with a
8.2 Early research “window” in the end made of thin aluminum, facing the
cathode so the cathode rays would strike it. He found
Both William Crookes (in the 1880s) [61]
and German that something came through, that would expose photo-
physicist Johann Hittorf, a co-inventor and early re- graphic plates and cause fluorescence. He measured the
searcher of the Crookes tube, found that photographic penetrating power of these rays through various mate-
plates placed near the tube became unaccountably fogged rials. It has been suggested that at[64] least some of these
or flawed by shadows. Neither found the cause nor inves- “Lenard rays” were actually X-rays.
tigated this effect. Hermann von Helmholtz formulated mathematical equa-
In 1877 Ukrainian-born Ivan Pulyui, a lecturer in exper- tions for X-rays. He postulated a dispersion theory be-
imental physics at the University of Vienna, constructed fore Röntgen made his discovery and announcement. It
various designs of vacuum discharge tube to investigate was formed on the basis of the electromagnetic theory of
their properties.[62] He continued his investigations when light.[65] However, he did not work with actual X-rays.
appointed professor at the Prague Polytechnic and in In 1894 Nikola Tesla noticed damaged film in his lab that
1886 he found that sealed photographic plates became seemed to be associated with Crookes tube experiments
dark when exposed to the emanations from the tubes. and began investigating this radiant energy of “invisible”
Early in 1896, just a few weeks after Röntgen published kinds.[66][67] After Röntgen identified the x-ray Tesla be-
8.4 Advances in radiology
gan making X-ray images of his own using high voltages 8.4
and tubes of his own design,[68] as well as Crookes tubes.
8.3 Wilhelm Röntgen
1896 plaque published in “Nouvelle Iconographie de la
Salpetrière”, a medical journal. In the left a hand deformity,
in the right same hand seen using radiography. The authors des-
ignated the technique as Röntgen photography.
On November 8, 1895, German physics professor
Wilhelm Röntgen stumbled on X-rays while experiment-
ing with Lenard and Crookes tubes and began studying
them. He wrote an initial report "On a new kind of ray: A
preliminary communication" and on December 28, 1895
submitted it to the Würzburg's Physical-Medical Society
journal.[69] This was the first paper written on X-rays.
Röntgen referred to the radiation as “X”, to indicate that
it was an unknown type of radiation. The name stuck, al-
though (over Röntgen’s great objections) many of his col-
leagues suggested calling them Röntgen rays. They are
still referred to as such in many languages, including Ger-
man, Danish, Polish, Swedish, Finnish, Estonian, Rus-
sian, Japanese, Dutch, and Norwegian. Röntgen received
the first Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery.[70]
There are conflicting accounts of his discovery because
Röntgen had his lab notes burned after his death, but this
is a likely reconstruction by his biographers:[71][72] Rönt-
gen was investigating cathode rays using a fluorescent
screen painted with barium platinocyanide and a Crookes
tube which he had wrapped in black cardboard so the
visible light from the tube would not interfere. He no-
ticed a faint green glow from the screen, about 1 meter
away. Röntgen realized some invisible rays coming from
the tube were passing through the cardboard to make the
screen glow. He found they could also pass through books
and papers on his desk. Röntgen threw himself into inves-
tigating these unknown rays systematically. Two months
after his initial discovery, he published his paper.
Röntgen discovered its medical use when he made a pic-
ture of his wife’s hand on a photographic plate formed due
to X-rays. The photograph of his wife’s hand was the first
photograph of a human body part using X-rays. When
she saw the picture, she said “I have seen my death.”[73]
9
Advances in radiology
Uh Ua
Wout
A
C
Win
A simplified diagram of a water cooled X-ray tube
In 1895, Thomas Edison investigated materials’ ability to
fluoresce when exposed to X-rays, and found that calcium
tungstate was the most effective substance. Around
March 1896, the fluoroscope he developed became the
standard for medical X-ray examinations. Nevertheless,
Edison dropped X-ray research around 1903, even before
the death of Clarence Madison Dally, one of his glass-
blowers. Dally had a habit of testing X-ray tubes on his
hands, and acquired a cancer in them so tenacious that
both arms were amputated in a futile attempt to save his
life.
In 1901, U.S. President William McKinley was shot twice
in an assassination attempt. While one bullet only grazed
his sternum, another had lodged somewhere deep inside
his abdomen and could not be found. “A worried McKin-
ley aide sent word to inventor Thomas Edison to rush an
X-ray machine to Buffalo to find the stray bullet. It ar-
rived but wasn't used.” While the shooting itself had not
been lethal, "gangrene had developed along the path of
the bullet, and McKinley died of septic shock due to bac-
terial infection” six days later.[74]
The first use of X-rays under clinical conditions was
by John Hall-Edwards in Birmingham, England on 11
January 1896, when he radiographed a needle stuck
in the hand of an associate.[75] On 14 February 1896
Hall-Edwards was also the first to use X-rays in a sur-
gical operation.[76] In early 1896, several weeks after
Röntgen’s discovery, Ivan Romanovich Tarkhanov irra-
diated frogs and insects with X-rays, concluding that
the rays “not only photograph, but also affect the living
function”.[77]
The first medical X-ray made in the United States was
obtained using a discharge tube of Pulyui’s design. In
January 1896, on reading of Röntgen’s discovery, Frank
Austin of Dartmouth College tested all of the discharge
tubes in the physics laboratory and found that only the
Pulyui tube produced X-rays. This was a result of Pu-
lyui’s inclusion of an oblique “target” of mica, used for
holding samples of fluorescent material, within the tube.
On 3 February 1896 Gilman Frost, professor of medicine
at the college, and his brother Edwin Frost, professor of
10 8 HISTORY

physics, exposed the wrist of Eddie McCarthy, whom flow in such a tube if they are fully evacuated. However,
Gilman had treated some weeks earlier for a fracture, to as time passed the X-rays caused the glass to absorb the
the X-rays and collected the resulting image of the bro- gas, causing the tube to generate “harder” X-rays until
ken bone on gelatin photographic plates obtained from it soon stopped operating. Larger and more frequently
Howard Langill, a local photographer also interested in used tubes were provided with devices for restoring the
Röntgen’s work.[23] air, known as “softeners”. These often took the form of a
small side tube which contained a small piece of mica: a
mineral that traps relatively large quantities of air within
8.5 Dangers its structure. A small electrical heater heated the mica
and this caused it to release a small amount of air, thus
With the widespread experimentation with x‑rays after restoring the tube’s efficiency. However, the mica had a
their discovery in 1895 by scientists, physicians, and in- limited life, and the restoration process was consequently
ventors came many stories of burns, hair loss and worse difficult to control.
in technical journals of the time. In February 1896 Pro-
In 1904, John Ambrose Fleming invented the thermionic
fessor John Daniel and Dr. William Lofland Dudley of
diode, the first kind of a vacuum tube. This used a
Vanderbilt University reported hair loss after Dr. Dud-
hot cathode that caused an electric current to flow in a
ley was X-rayed. In August 1896 Dr. H/D. Hawks,
vacuum. This idea was quickly applied to X-ray tubes,
a graduate of Columbia College, suffered severe hand
and hence heated-cathode X-ray tubes, called “Coolidge
and chest burns in an x-ray demonstration. It was re-
tubes”, completely replaced the troublesome cold cathode
ported in Electrical Review and led to many other re-
tubes by about 1920.
ports of problems associated with x-rays being sent in to
the publication.[78] Many experimenters including Elihu In about 1906, the physicist Charles Barkla discovered
Thomson at Edison’s lab, William J. Morton, and Nikola that X-rays could be scattered by gases, and that each el-
Tesla also reported burns. Elihu Thomson deliberately ement had a characteristic X-ray. He won the 1917 Nobel
exposed a finger to an x-ray tube over a period of time Prize in Physics for this discovery.
and suffered pain, swelling, and blistering.[79] Other ef- In 1912, Max von Laue, Paul Knipping, and Walter
fects were sometime blamed for the damage including ul- Friedrich first observed the diffraction of X-rays by crys-
traviolet rays and (according to Tesla) ozone.[80] Many tals. This discovery, along with the early work of Paul Pe-
physicians claimed there were no effects from x-ray ex- ter Ewald, William Henry Bragg, and William Lawrence
posure at all.[79] Bragg, gave birth to the field of X-ray crystallography.
The Coolidge X-ray tube was invented during the follow-
8.6 20th century and beyond ing year by William D. Coolidge. It made possible the
continuous emissions of X-rays. X-ray tubes similar to
this are still in use in 2012.

A male technician taking an X-ray of a female patient in 1940.

This image was used to argue that radiation exposure during the
X-ray procedure would be negligible.

The many applications of X-rays immediately generated

enormous interest. Workshops began making specialized
versions of Crookes tubes for generating X-rays and these
first generation cold cathode or Crookes X-ray tubes were
used until about 1920.
Chandra’s image of the galaxy cluster Abell 2125 reveals a com-
Crookes tubes were unreliable. They had to contain a plex of several massive multimillion-degree-Celsius gas clouds in
small quantity of gas (invariably air) as a current will not the process of merging.
 11

The use of X-rays for medical purposes (which developed

into the field of radiation therapy) was pioneered by Ma-
jor John Hall-Edwards in Birmingham, England. Then in
1908, he had to have his left arm amputated because of
the spread of X-ray dermatitis on his arm.[81]
The X-ray microscope was developed during the 1950s.
The Chandra X-ray Observatory, launched on July 23,
1999, has been allowing the exploration of the very vio-
lent processes in the universe which produce X-rays. Un-
like visible light, which gives a relatively stable view of
the universe, the X-ray universe is unstable. It features
stars being torn apart by black holes, galactic collisions,
and novae or neutron stars that build up layers of plasma
that then explode into space. Phase-contrast x-ray image of spider
An X-ray laser device was proposed as part of the
Reagan Administration's Strategic Defense Initiative in sity variations.[82][83] These include propagation-based
the 1980s, but the only test of the device (a sort of laser phase contrast,[84] talbot interferometry,[83] refraction-
“blaster”, or death ray, powered by a thermonuclear ex- enhanced imaging,[85] and x-ray interferometry.[86] These
plosion) gave inconclusive results. For technical and po- methods provide higher contrast compared to normal
litical reasons, the overall project (including the X-ray absorption-contrast x-ray imaging, making it possible
laser) was de-funded (though was later revived by the sec- to see smaller details. A disadvantage is that these
ond Bush Administration as National Missile Defense us- methods require more sophisticated equipment, such as
ing different technologies). synchrotron or microfocus x-ray sources, x-ray optics and
high resolution x-ray detectors.

Golden Doodle dog hip xray posterior view
Phase-contrast X-ray imaging refers to a variety of tech-
niques that use phase information of a coherent x-
ray beam to image soft tissues. It has become an
important method for visualizing cellular and histo-
logical structures in a wide range of biological and
medical studies. There are several technologies be-
ing used for x-ray phase-contrast imaging, all uti-
lizing different principles to convert phase variations
in the x-rays emerging from an object into inten- Though X-rays are otherwise invisible it is possible to
9 Visibility
While generally considered invisible to the human eye,
in special circumstances X-rays can be visible. Brandes,
in an experiment a short time after Röntgen’s landmark
1895 paper, reported after dark adaptation and placing
his eye close to an X-ray tube, seeing a faint “blue-gray”
glow which seemed to originate within the eye itself.[87]
Upon hearing this, Röntgen reviewed his record books
and found he too had seen the effect. When placing an
X-ray tube on the opposite side of a wooden door Rönt-
gen had noted the same blue glow, seeming to emanate
from the eye itself, but thought his observations to be
spurious because he only saw the effect when he used
one type of tube. Later he realized that the tube which
had created the effect was the only one powerful enough
to make the glow plainly visible and the experiment was
thereafter readily repeatable. The knowledge that X-rays
are actually faintly visible to the dark-adapted naked eye
has largely been forgotten today; this is probably due to
the desire not to repeat what would now be seen as a reck-
lessly dangerous and potentially harmful experiment with
ionizing radiation. It is not known what exact mechanism
in the eye produces the visibility: it could be due to con-
ventional detection (excitation of rhodopsin molecules in
the retina), direct excitation of retinal nerve cells, or sec-
ondary detection via, for instance, X-ray induction of
phosphorescence in the eyeball with conventional retinal
detection of the secondarily produced visible light.
12
see the ionization of the air molecules if the intensity of
the X-ray beam is high enough. The beamline from the
wiggler at the ID11 at ESRF is one example of such high
intensity.[88]
10 Units of measure and exposure
The measure of X-rays ionizing ability is called the expo-
sure:
• The coulomb per kilogram (C/kg) is the SI unit of
ionizing radiation exposure, and it is the amount of
radiation required to create one coulomb of charge
of each polarity in one kilogram of matter.
• The roentgen (R) is an obsolete traditional unit of
exposure, which represented the amount of radiation
required to create one electrostatic unit of charge of
each polarity in one cubic centimeter of dry air. 1
roentgen = 2.58×10−4 C/kg.
However, the effect of ionizing radiation on matter (espe-
cially living tissue) is more closely related to the amount
of energy deposited into them rather than the charge gen-
erated. This measure of energy absorbed is called the
absorbed dose:
• The gray (Gy), which has units of (joules/kilogram),
is the SI unit of absorbed dose, and it is the amount
of radiation required to deposit one joule of energy
in one kilogram of any kind of matter.
• The rad is the (obsolete) corresponding traditional
unit, equal to 10 millijoules of energy deposited per
kilogram. 100 rad = 1 gray.
The equivalent dose is the measure of the biological effect
of radiation on human tissue. For X-rays it is equal to the
absorbed dose.
• The Roentgen equivalent man (rem) is the tradi-
tional unit of equivalent dose. For X-rays it is equal
to the rad, or, in other words, 10 millijoules of en-
ergy deposited per kilogram. 100 rem = 1 Sv.
• The sievert (Sv) is the SI unit of equivalent dose, and
also of effective dose. For X-rays the “equivalent
dose” is numerically equal to a Gray (Gy). 1 Sv = 1
Gy. For the “effective dose” of X-rays, it is usually
not equal to the Gray (Gy).
11 See also
• Abnormal reflection
• Backscatter X-ray
12 REFERENCES
• Detective quantum efficiency
• High energy X-rays
• N ray
• Neutron radiation
• NuSTAR
• Radiographer
• Resonant inelastic X-ray scattering (RIXS)
• Small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS)
• X-ray absorption spectroscopy
• X-ray marker
• X-ray nanoprobe
• X-ray reflectivity
• X-ray vision
• X-ray welding
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14 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

14.1 Text
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quin, Jeronimo, Alex.tan, Rmhermen, 0, William Avery, SimonP, DrBob, Heron, Rlee0001, Jaknouse, Hephaestos, Edward, JohnOwens,
Tim Starling, Wwwwolf, Ixfd64, Chinju, Tango, Skysmith, Tsr~enwiki, Alfio, Egil, Looxix~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier, Ronz, Jimf-
bleak, Aarchiba, Александър, Julesd, Tristanb, Cherkash, Focus mankind~enwiki, Smack, Pizza Puzzle, Emperorbma, Vanished user
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Norris, Bahamut Star, Glass Sword, Kyle1278, ChenzwBot, Pince Nez, 5 albert square, Tyw7, 01Chris02, Tide rolls, Coolth, Teles, Gail,
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Kingpin13, Flewis, Materialscientist, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Citation bot, Kellogg257~enwiki, THEQUEST410, Marshallsumter,
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BOT, Tobby72, Pepper, Sky Attacker, Qfissler, HJ Mitchell, Doremo, Greggydude, D o z y, Wireless Keyboard, HamburgerRadio, Ci-
14.2 Images 17

tation bot 1, Rapidcreek, Garrythefish, Bobmack89x, Pinethicket, Bulatyk, HRoestBot, Arctic Night, LinDrug, Clamalosal, Tom.Reding,
Skyerise, A8UDI, Jusses2, Jschnur, I own in the bed, Σ, Rohitphy, Frostyboy27, Blabbyblabby, The monkey likes pie, Matthewpppp,
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Lotje, Javierito92, Dinamik-bot, Vrenator, TBloemink, Reaper Eternal, Diannaa, 564dude, Brian the Editor, Reach Out to the Truth,
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Suh004757, Philipp Wetzlar, Ejquant, DrSHaber, Qrsdogg, Bobjonhson1234567890, Wikipelli, K6ka, Solomonfromfinland, Kathreen8,
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Gremlinsa, Mikelk3, Tolly4bolly, Lokpest, IGeMiNix, Walterdevries, Tomásdearg92, Status, 3lb33, DASHBotAV, Whoop whoop pull
up, Mjbmrbot, Socialservice, Moonkeymasta, Rememberway, ClueBot NG, Jeppy2, Horoporo, Thekingkiller, Ulflund, Crtcollector, Reg
porter, Delusion23, Twillisjr, Braincricket, Natewad, Widr, PatHadley, Crazymonkey1123, Lincoln Josh, Majesty of the Commons, Diyar
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Astrix007, Robinfhill, Abitslow, Delfin0819, Akidjoh, Monkbot, Sbsp24, Zhermes, Erikdira1, Rileyfromtg, Lewislumsden, TheFailCaker,
Shayleewinters, Bob3865, Bob123543, Ralphoid, Knottywildeagle, MitMot, Thewikieditor995, KasparBot, John Peterpeterjohn123 and
Anonymous: 1298

14.2 Images
• File:Abell_2125.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Abell_2125.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: https://flic.kr/p/5tVRgb (see also http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2004/a2125/) Original artist: NASA/CXC/UMass/Q.D.Wang et
al.
• File:Attenuation.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Attenuation.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Ulflund
• File:BabyXray.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/BabyXray.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
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• File:Brain_CT_scan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/04/Brain_CT_scan.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contrib-
utors:
Own work
Original artist:
Afiller (talk) (Uploads)
• File:Broken_left_forearm_(Radius_Ulna).pdf Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Broken_left_forearm_
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• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
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• File:Crookes_tube_xray_experiment.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Crookes_tube_xray_
experiment.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Downloaded 2007-12-23 from <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text'
href='http://books.google.com/books?id=whc4AAAAMAAJ,<span>,&,</span>,pg=PT5'>William J. Morton and Edwin W. Hammer
(1896) The X-ray, or Photography of the Invisible and its value in Surgery, American Technical Book Co., New York, fig. 54</a> on
Google Books Original artist: William J. Morton
• File:First_medical_X-ray_by_Wilhelm_Röntgen_of_his_wife_Anna_Bertha_Ludwig’{}s_hand_-_18951222.gif Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/First_medical_X-ray_by_Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen_of_his_wife_Anna_
Bertha_Ludwig%27s_hand_-_18951222.gif License: Public domain Contributors: [1] (National Aeronautics and Space Administration).
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sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Golden_Doodle_dog_hip_xray_posterior_view.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Golden_
Doodle_dog_hip_xray_posterior_view.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gvolk
• File:Historical_X-ray_nci-vol-1893-300.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Historical_X-ray_
nci-vol-1893-300.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: National Cancer Institute, AV Number: AV-4000-3979 Original artist:
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• File:Phase-contrast_x-ray_image_of_spider.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Phase-contrast_
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• File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
• File:Radioactive.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Radioactive.svg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: Created by Cary Bass using Adobe Illustrator on January 19, 2006. Original artist: Cary Bass
• File:Radiografía_pulmones_Francisca_Lorca.cropped.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/
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• Radiografía_pulmones_Francisca_Lorca.jpg Original artist: Diego Grez
18 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Stylised_Lithium_Atom.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Stylised_Lithium_Atom.svg License:

CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: based off of Image:Stylised Lithium Atom.png by Halfdan. Original artist: SVG by Indolences. Recoloring
and ironing out some glitches done by Rainer Klute.
• File:TubeSpectrum.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/TubeSpectrum.jpg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Kafuffle using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Original up-
loader was LinguisticDemographer at en.wikipedia
• File:WaterCooledXrayTube.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/WaterCooledXrayTube.svg License:
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• Roentgen-Roehre.svg Original artist: Roentgen-Roehre.svg: Hmilch
• File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public
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• File:WilhelmRöntgen.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/WilhelmR%C3%B6ntgen.JPG License:
Public domain Contributors: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1901/rontgen-bio.html Original artist: Nobel foundation
• File:X-RayOfNeedlefish-1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/X-RayOfNeedlefish-1.jpg License: CC
BY 3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Dazeley at en.wikipedia
• File:X-ray_1896_nouvelle_iconographie_de_salpetriere.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/X-ray_
1896_nouvelle_iconographie_de_salpetriere.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: “Nouvelle iconographie de la Salpétrière” (Tome
9; plaque XXI) See here Original artist: Albert Londe(1858-1917)
• File:X-ray_applications.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/X-ray_applications.svg License: CC BY-
SA 3.0 Contributors:
• The crystallography image is from File:Lysozym diffraction.png by user:Del45. Original artist: Ulflund
• File:X-ray_diffraction_pattern_3clpro.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/X-ray_diffraction_
pattern_3clpro.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jeff Dahl

14.3 Content license

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