c






 

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function by measuring the ionization that radiation produces within the gas.
There are several types of detectors that operate on this general principle, but they differ greatly
in the details of construction and in the manner in which the radiation-produced ionization
is gauged. As might be expected, each type has one or more applications for which it is best
suited. One important factor determining the applicability of gas-filled detectors is the nature and state of the gas
itself. For example, because the molecules of any gas are relatively widely separated, they are more likely to be
ionized by the strongly ionizing charged particles, such as alpha and beta radiation, than by gamma or photon
radiation. Partially for this reason, a gas-filled detector is usually used to monitor
alpha and beta radiation, although with appropriate design a gas-filled detector can also be used to measure photon
(gamma or x-ray) radiation.
 

  

A related approach is to measure the flow of the charges that ionizing radiation produces in
a gas-filled detector. The ions produced by the radiation are charged particles. The negative particle
is either a free electron or an oxygen or nitrogen molecule that has absorbed a free electron. The positive particle is a
molecule of gas that has lost an electron.The gas-filled detector has both a positive and a negative electrode
the potential difference between them is maintained by a battery. The positive and negative ions produced in the gas
by the radiation move in opposite directions, positive ions toward the negative cathode and the negative ions toward
the anode. This movement of ions (charges) is an electric current, which can be detected by a sensitive meter. The
current between the electrodes is a measure of the amount of incoming radiation. The 
   , about
which more is said later in this chapter, is a practical instrument that functions in this way.

˜



 



The dose calibrator is most frequently used in the nuclear medicine department as a table-top
ionization chamber to confirm that the correct amount of activity has been dispensed before a dose of
radiopharmaceutical is administered . The dose calibrator consists of an ionization chamber surrounding an open
well. The walls of the well are permeable to photons. The current produced in the circuitry is proportional to the
number of primary ionizations in the chamber. The amount of current is registered as radioactivity in megabecquerel
or millicurie. The dose calibrator can only report the activity, not the type of radiation or radiopharmaceutical.
The accuracy of the reading is affected by such factors as the type of dose container, its proper placement in the
dose calibrator, and the calibration and regular recalibration of the instrument itself. Because of the importance of
administering the correct amount of activity to patients, there are strictly enforced rules for the use and calibration
of the dose calibrator.

 
When the ionization chamber isused as a survey meter, the current reading is
usually interpreted as the average intensity o fradiation in roentgens (R) per hour.
a survey meter might register a 30 mR/hr exposure rate at 1 m from a person who was treated
with 370 MBq (10 mCi) of 131I. The roentgen is defined in terms of ionization produced in air
and it is no coincidence that the ionization chamber can be used for the measurement of radiation
intensity in roentgens.



A small ionization chamber is the heart of the classic 


 . For this application, a
small, straight filament, insulated from the walls of the chamber, is mounted within
the ionization chamber . To prepare the chamber for use, a positive charge is placed on the filament by a charger that
briefly connects the positive terminal of a battery to the filament. When charged, the positive filament is repelled
by the positively charged frame. When radiation penetrates the walls of the chamber, the gas is ionized
and the ions are attracted to the frame and fiber or walls of the chamber, which partially neutralizes
their charge. The filament is less strongly repelled by the frame and begins to move toward
a neutral position. The position of the filament can be viewed through a lens against a scale on
the end of the chamber calibrated in roentgens or rads per hour. Properly insulated from the case
of the chamber, the positive charge can remain on the filament for hours. Pocket dosimeters of this type are relatively
inexpensive and can be used to measure exposures to photons in the range of zero to several
hundred milliroentgen. A separate charging device is required.


  




 


can be thought of as functionally equivalent to a gas detector but with all the advantages
of a solid material. Like their gaseous counterparts, the electrons of the molecules of these solids can be ³dislodged´
by ionizing radiation. Instead of positively charged gas molecules, positive ³holes´ are created within
the crystalline structure. In a manner similar to their gaseous counterparts, for which
the ion pairs of electron and positively charged gas molecules migrate within the gas chamber, the electrons and the
positive ³holes´ migrate within the semiconductor. These charged entities are attracted to an anode and cathode
attached to opposite sides of the detector NONSCINTILLATION DETECTORS 51
Semiconductor materials are less conductive than the metals for carrying electric current (such as
copper), hence the name  conductor. The primary advantage of using solid materials
instead of gas for detectors is their much higher density. The higher the density of a material themore likely the
interaction of the incoming radiation with atoms of the material. In addition, the electrons in the semiconductor are
less tightly bound to their atoms than the electrons in the atoms of gas molecules. It takes only 2 eV to 3 eV to
³release´ an electron in a semiconductor material compared to approximately 35 eV to release an electron in air. This
means that for any incoming radiation there is a much greater yield of charges (positive holes and negative electrons)
in the semiconductors than in air (or other gases) of a similar volume. As a consequence, a relatively smaller volume
of solid material is needed, which allows the production of much smaller detectors. Afew of the many semiconductor
compounds that are available for use include cadmium telluride (CdTe), cadmium zinc telluride (CdZnTe), and zinc
telluride (ZnTe). Because of the high cost of manufacturing semiconductor materials, they are currently only used for
smaller detector units (such as intraoperative probes). Once some of the manufacturing difficulties are resolved, it is
expected that they will be available for use in imaging devices.


 



 



Some commonly used scintillation detectors are
described below. All contain a sodium iodide
crystal coupled to a single photomultiplier tube.
The output of the photomultiplier tube is then
routed through the preamplifier, amplifier, and
pulse-height analyzer, as described above.
  
The
   is a crystal scintillation
detector for measuring the radioactivity
on a stand by an adjustable arm that
permits placement of the detector against the
patient¶s neck. A cylindrical or slightly conical
extension of the shielding around the crystal limits
the field of view to the region of the thyroid
gland. For measuring 123I or 99m Tc uptake in
the gland, the sodium iodide scintillation crystal
need be only one-half centimeter thick. Thicker
crystals, up to 2-cm thick, are more efficient for
higher energy radionuclides, such as 131I.

 
The 
 is a shielded crystal
with a hole, the ³well´ drilled in the center
to hold a specimen in a test tube or vial. In
this arrangement, the specimen is surrounded
by the crystal so that only a small fraction of
the radiation escapes through the opening of
the well. The size and thickness of the crystal
are selected for efficient capture of photons. For
radionuclides with low energy emissions, typical
crystals are cylinders of 2 cm to 3 cm in diameter.
Two or three times larger crystals are more
efficient for higher energies such as those of 131I
or 59Fe.



   !


Scintillation detectors are available for dosimeters
and handheld survey meters for the purpose
of monitoring or searching for a source.
Others are placed more permanently for area monitoring. In one commercial design, detectors
are arranged in a door-like frame through which
personnel must pass before leaving a restricted
area of the laboratory. The device is often
equipped with an audible alarm to signal when
the radiation is above an acceptable level.