1.1.

6 Einstein Coefficients - 1
- A different derivation of Planck’s formula by considering a two-level system interacting with
radiation: The model of a simple laser
induced absorption spontaneous emission induced emission
Nn‘ Nn‘ Nn‘

Nn Nn Nn

Nn number density of the ground state Ev upper edge of the valence band
Nn‘ number density of the excited state Ec lower edge of the conduction band
coefficients
Einstein

An‘n rate constant of spontaneous emission Eg band gap

Bnn‘ rate constant of induced absorption kB Boltzmann constant
Bn‘n rate constant of induced emission un spectral energy density

- In stationary equilibrium the following applies: absorption rate = emission rate

rate equation

- In thermal equilibrium, the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution

(see chapter 2) applies to the occupied states:
 1.1.6 Einstein Coefficients - 2
- Solving the equation according to the spectral energy density results in:

- For the radiation density increases infinitely, therefore the following applies:

à à

- Use the long wavelength limit to determine the ratio :

B Rayleigh-Jeans law

à spontaneous emission
induced emission

• Only one Einstein coefficient must be known

• The ratio depends strongly on n3/c3 = 1/l3
• Hight frequency à spontaneous emission
• Low frequency à induced emission
 1.2.1 Photoelectric Effect
UV light

Experiment of Lenard (1902):

- Light-induced electron emission is measured via measuring the
photocurrent Iph as a function of voltage U between anode & cathode

Observation:
- The kinetic energy of the light-induced electrons is dependent on the
frequency n of the incident light, but independent on its intensity
- The number of electrons is proportional to the incident light intensity
- No measurable delay between incident light and electron emission
from Demtröder, Experimentalphysik 3

Einstein’s explanation by the light-quantum model (1905)*:

- Every absorbed photon releases its energy completely to an electron
Wa: work of emission,
with (typically one chooses fVak = 0)

- The maximal kinetic energy starts at the measured DC voltage U0 at which the photocurrent starts:

* Einstein received in 1921 the Noble price in physics for the theory of the photoelectric effect
 1.2.2 Compton Effect - 1
detector

Bragg
crystal

transmitted
beam
X-ray source

intensity
from Demtröder, Experimentalphysik 3

Main observations of Compton (1922)*:

• If you irradiate any material with X-rays (l0), you find in the
scattered radiation the expected wavelength l0 + parts with
higher wavelengths ls > l0
• The wavelength distribution of ls strongly depends on the
scatter angle j
• The maximum wavelength for ls is reached by backscattering
(j = 180°)

* Compton received in 1927 the Noble price in physics for this discovery
 1.2.2 Compton Effect - 2
Explanation by the photon model:
- Direct elastic collision between a photon of energy + momentum
and a weakly bound electron of the scattered material
- If the binding energy EB of the electron is small against the photon energy ,
the electron can be considered free

Derivation of Compton’s scattering formula:

(Adaption: the electron is at rest before the collision)
- Energy + momentum conservation
- Relativistic law of the conservation of energy with b = v/c:

with

m / m0 : mass / rest mass of electron

n0 / ns : initial / final frequency of photon
v : final velocity of electron
c : speed of light from Demtröder, Experimentalphysik 3
 1.2.2 Compton Effect - 3
…continue
- Conservation of momentum

with

Reduced Planck’s constant

from Demtröder, Experimentalphysik 3

à Compton’s scattering formula (see exercise sheet 2):

Compton’s scattering formula

with

Compton-wavelength of the electron

gives the wavelength change Dl = ls - l0 k0 / ks : initial / final wave number of photon

at a scattering angle of j = 90° l0 / ls : initial / final wavelength of photon
m0 : rest mass of electron
v : final velocity of electron
à In accordance with experimental results c : speed of light
 1.2.3 Summary: Photon
- Light has wave as well as particle character
- Experiments highlighting the particle aspect: Compton effect, photoelectric effect, black-body
radiation,…
- Experiments highlighting the wave aspect: Young’s interference experiment at the double-slit,
diffraction experiments from Huygens,…

Characteristic features of the photon:

energy momentum mass equivalent

Note: Only particles with m0 = 0

can move at the speed of light

The particle characteristics such as energy, momentum and mass are defined by the
wave property frequency n (wavelength l)
 1.3 Wave Character of Particles
- De Broglie (1924)* applied the dual description (wave & particle model) on particles such
as electrons, neutrons or atoms (even if the wave character was never observed until then)

- De Broglie wavelength ldB for particles with mass m, velocity v:

with de Broglie wavelength

- For particles in thermal equilibrium at temperature T (here w/o proof; for more detail see
equipartition theorem):

- Particles accelerated by a voltage U on the speed

with
- For relativistic particles :

(use )

* De Broglie received in 1929 the Noble price in physics

1.3.1 Experiments Showing the Wave Character
– Early 20th century: experimental findings that justified the dual description of particles
• Diffraction experiments of electrons by Davisson & Germer (1926)

Comparison: Diffraction
experiments on thin foils by
a.) X-rays
b.) electrons
à similar diffraction structures
à electrons show wave properties
from Demtröder, Experimentalphysik 3

• Diffraction of a collimated helium atom beam that hits a double-slit

à Analogous intensity distribution as in Young’s double-slit experiment of light
• Bragg-reflection of neutrons à used as spectrometer/ interferometer
• De Broglie wavelength ldB in 10-10 m for electrons, neutrons & He-atoms for different
energies Ekin
Ekin/eV electrons neutrons He-atoms
0.03 70.9 1.65 0.83
1 12.3 0.28 0.143
104 0.123 0.003 0.001
 1.3.2 Matter Waves & Wavefunctions
First, we choose a plane wave for the description of the matter wave (particle of mass m,
velocity v in x-direction):
w : frequency of the matter wave

with
and
- Consider phase velocity vPh:

• For el.-mag. waves (k = w / c): vPh = c à dvPh / dw = 0 à no dispersion in vacuum

• For matter waves (use relativistic law of the conservation of energy):

with

à vph depends on k à dispersion

also vph is lager than the speed of light

Why is this not a contradiction to the special relativity theory?

 1.3.3 Wave Packets - 1
By constructing wave packets, the matter wave can be “localized” in a defined way:

- Superposition of monochromatic plane waves show maximum amplitude at certain locations

xm, which move with the group velocity in x-direction

wj : nearby frequencies
Cj : amplitudes
kj : parallel wave vectors, in x-direction

Superposition of two monochromatic

waves (w1, w2, C1 = C2)
à Maximum moves with the group
velocity vg in x-direction

from Demtröder, Experimentalphysik 3

 1.3.3 Wave Packets - 2
- Superposition of infinite many waves: sum à integral

• For one can develop w(k) as a Taylor series: w : frequency

C : amplitude
k : wave vector

• Substitute C(k) through the constant C(k0)

• Use the abbreviations and

à
 1.3.3 Wave Packets - 3
• Perform the integration…

wave packet
C(k) = C(k0)
with

y(x,t) is called a wave packet

y(x,t) describes a plane wave whose

amplitude A has a maximum at u = 0

from Demtröder, Experimentalphysik 3

• Through back substitution (use )

• The maximum moves with the group velocity vg in x-direction

with the relation

à particle velocity
 1.3.4 Summary: Matter Waves
• Wave packets are more suitable to describe moving particles (electrons, neutrons,…)
than plane waves

• The group velocity vg is identical to the particle velocity v

• The wave vector k0 of the group center determines the momentum of the particle

• Compared to plane waves, wave packets are localized, its amplitude has maximum
values only in a limited area

But…
• The wavefunction y(x,t) can be complex & can have negative values, which can not be
directly linked to real measurand

• The width of a wave packet becomes lager over time due to dispersion of the matter wave
• We imagine a single electron indivisible. But a wave can be divided in two components
(e. g. through a beam splitter) & move afterwards in different directions

Solution: Statistical interpretation of the matter wave by Born

 1.3.5 Statistical Interpretation
The probability P(x,t)dx that there is a particle at time t in the spatial
interval x and x+dx, is proportional to the absolute square of of the
matter wave y(x,t) describing the particle:
probability density
P
With the normalization condition

The probability is non-zero in a finite volume,

i. e. the particle can not be located at one
point in space (in 3D: {x,y,z})
à position uncertainty

from Demtröder, Experimentalphysik 3