EEDP - A Course

Introduction to Fluid
Dynamics
A Course 2015

Compiled by:
Triloka Tankala, Srinivas PN

1
 Course Overview EEDP - A Course

 Fundamental Concepts
 Concept of a fluid
 Properties of a fluid
 Types of Fluids
 Compressibility
 Fluid Mechanics Overview
 Fluid Mechanics Principles
 Bernoulli equation
 Pitot-Probe
 Internal and external flows
 Laminar and Turbulent flows
 Drag and Lift

 Computational Fluid Dynamics

 Experimental Fluid Dynamics
 Fluid flow governing equations (Navier-Stokes equations)
 Numerical Methods
 CFD Process
 CFD Applications

 Homework Problem

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 EEDP - A Course
Concept of a Fluid
 Fluids are either liquids (closely spaced
molecules) or gases (widely spaced molecules)

• Matter is made up of atoms that are widely

spaced in the gas phase. Yet it is very convenient
to disregard the atomic nature of a substance and
view it as a continuous, homogeneous matter
with no holes, that is, a continuum.
• The continuum idealization allows us to treat
properties as point functions and to assume the
properties vary continually in space with no
jump discontinuities.
• This idealization is valid as long as the size of Despite the relatively large gaps
the system we deal with is large relative to the between molecules, a substance
space between the molecules. can be treated as a continuum
• This is the case in practically all problems. In because of the very large number
this course, we will limit our consideration to of molecules even in an extremely
substances that can modeled as continuum small volume.

3
Properties of a Fluid EEDP - A Course

Pressure
 Pressure is the (compression) force exerted by a fluid per unit
area.

 Stress vs. pressure?

• In fluids, we speak of pressure; in solids this is normal
stress. For a fluid at rest, the pressure at a given point is the same in
all directions.

 Differences or gradients in pressure drive a fluid flow, especially

in ducts and pipes.

4
Density and specific weight EEDP - A Course

m
Density (mass per unit volume): 
V
[m] kg
Units of density: [ ]   3 (in SI units)
[V ] m

Density is highly variable in gases nearly proportional to the pressure.

Specific weight (weight per unit volume):   g

Units of specific weight:
kg m N
[ ]  [ ][ g]  3 2  3 (in SI units)
m s m
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 EEDP - A Course
Specific gravity

 Specific gravity is the ratio of a fluid density to a

standard reference fluid, typically water at 4°C (for
liquids) and air (for gases):

 For example, the specific gravity of

mercury is
SGHg = 13,580/1000 = 13.6.

6
Ideal Gas Law EEDP - A Course

Equation of state: Any equation that relates the pressure,

temperature, and density of a substance.
Ideal-gas equation of state: The simplest and best-known
equation of state for substances in the gas phase.

Ru: The universal gas constant

The thermodynamic temperature scale in the

SI is the Kelvin scale.
In the English system, it is the Rankine scale.

7
Ideal Gas Hypothesis EEDP - A Course

• An ideal gas is a hypothetical substance that obeys the relation Pv = RT.

• The ideal-gas relation closely approximates the P-v-T behavior of real gases at
low densities.
• At low pressures and high temperatures, the density of a gas decreases and the
gas behaves like an ideal gas.
• In the range of practical interest, many familiar gases such as air,
nitrogen,oxygen, hydrogen, helium, argon, neon and krypton and even heavier
gases such as carbon dioxide can be treated as ideal gases with negligible error.
• Dense gases such as water vapor in steam power plants and refrigerant vapor in
refrigerators, however, should not be treated as ideal gases since they usually exist
at a state near saturation.

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 EEDP - A Course
Specific heat
Specific heat at constant volume, cv: The energy required to raise
the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as
the volume is maintained constant.
Specific heat at constant pressure, cp: The energy required to
raise the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree
as the pressure is maintained constant.

Constant volume
and
Constant pressure
specific
heats cv and cp
Specific heat is the energy (values are for
required to raise the helium gas).
temperature of a unit mass
of a substance by one
degree in a specified way.

9
Viscosity (  ) EEDP - A Course

Viscosity: A property that represents the internal resistance of a

fluid to motion or the “fluidity”.
Drag force: The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow
direction. The magnitude of this force depends, in part, on
viscosity

A fluid moving relative to

a body exerts a drag
force on the body, partly
because of friction
caused by viscosity.
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Newton’s law of viscosity (Shear stress) EEDP - A Course

Newtonian fluids: Fluids for

which the rate of deformation is
Moving plate proportional to the shear
stress.

Stationary plate

No-slip Shear
condition
stress
The behavior of a fluid in laminar flow Shear force
between two parallel plates when the
upper plate moves with a constant velocity.

A fluid in direct contact with a solid “sticks” to the

surface due to viscous effects, and there is no slip 11
 EEDP - A Course

• Units of stress (shear stress and pressure)

[F] N
 2  Pa ( Pascal ) in SI units
[ A] m

[ F ] lb
 2  psi ( pounds per square inch) in English units
[ A] in

[ F ] lb
 2  pounds per square foot ( English units)
[ A] ft
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Viscosity variation with temperature
The viscosity of liquids decreases
and the viscosity of gases
increases with temperature.
EEDP - A Course
• The viscosity of a fluid is directly related to
the pumping power needed to transport a fluid in
a pipe or to move a body through a fluid.
• Viscosity is caused by the cohesive forces
between the molecules in liquids and by the
molecular collisions in gases, and it varies
greatly with temperature.
• In a liquid, the molecules possess more
energy at higher temperatures, and they can
oppose the large cohesive intermolecular
forces more strongly. As a result, the energized
liquid molecules can move more freely.
• In a gas, the intermolecular forces are
negligible, and the gas molecules at high
temperatures move randomly at higher
velocities. This results in more molecular
collisions per unit volume per unit time and
therefore in greater resistance to flow.
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 EEDP - A Course
Non-Newtonian and Newtonian fluids

Non-Newtonian fluid
Newtonian fluid (linear
 (duetovis cosity) relationship)

Non-Newtonian fluid
(non-linear relationship)
du / dy

• In this course we will only deal with Newtonian fluids

• Non-Newtonian fluids: blood, paints, toothpaste

14
Flow Patterns: Streamlines, Pathlines, EEDP - A Course
Streaklines
A streamline is a line that
is everywhere tangent to
the velocity vector at a
given instant.

A pathline is the actual path

traveled by a given fluid
particle over time

A streakline is the locus of

particles which have earlier
passed through a particular
point. (Focus on a fixed
location)
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Compressibility of a Fluid EEDP - A Course

 Compressibility is a measure of how much the pressure

volume of a fluid element changes per unit change in
external pressure
 Liquid volumes hardly change (incompressible) Fluid
 Gas volume may change significantly (compressible) Element

1 dv v is the specific volume

 
v dp { p is the pressure

 Since density is related to specific volume by

1

v
we can conclude that compressible flows are variable
density flows.

 Fluid motion is driven by (pressure) forces acting on the fluid elements. High
speed flows generally have higher forces => they act more compressible

Rough rule of thumb: M < 0.3 incompressible

M > 0.3 compressible ( where M is the Mach
Number of the fluid )
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Classification of Flow Regimes EEDP - A Course

Mach
Subsonic Supersonic Hypersonic Number
0.0 0.8 1.0 1.2 ~5.0 25
Transonic

Mach Number = free stream velocity / speed of sound 17

Fluid Mechanics Processes Overview EEDP - A Course

Airplanes
Space Shuttle/
Space Exploration Automobile

Fluid Mechanics
Study of fluids either in
motion (fluid dynamics)
or at rest (fluid statics)

Wind Turbines

Breathing/
Blood Flow

Gas
Turbine
Swimming
18
Ships
Overview of Fluid Mechanics EEDP - A Course

Continuum Fluid Mechanics

Inviscid Viscous
(=0)

Laminar Turbulent

Compressible M > 0.3 Incompressible M < 0.3 Internal External

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Bernoulli’s Principle EEDP - A Course

A1 A1
A2

v2
v1 v1
Low speed high speed Low speed
Low KE high KE Low KE
High pressure low pressure High pressure
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Bernoulli’s Principle EEDP - A Course

p large p large

p small

v small v large v small

21
Bernoulli’s Equation EEDP - A Course

for any point along a flow tube or streamline

p + ½  v2 +  g y = constant
Dimensions
p [Pa] = [N.m-2] = [N.m.m-3] = [J.m-3]

½  v2 [kg.m-3.m2.s-2] = [kg.m-1.s-2] = [N.m.m-3] = [J.m-3]

gh [kg.m-3 m.s-2. m] = [kg.m.s-2.m.m-3] = [N.m.m-3] = [J.m-3]

Each term has the dimensions of energy / volume or energy density.

p Pressure energy density arising from internal forces within

moving fluid (similar to energy stored in a spring)

½v2 KE of bulk motion of fluid

gh GPE for location of fluid

22
Bernoulli’s Equation: Application EEDP - A Course

Y x2 p2

m A2
v2
X

time 2

p1 x1
y2
A1 m
v1

y1 time 1

p1 + ½  v12 +  g y1 = p2 + ½  v22 +  g y2
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Bernoulli’s Equation: Pipes in series EEDP - A Course

Difference in Head

Difference in Head = sum of all the frictional heads

(Pipes in series)

24
Application: Pitot-Probe EEDP - A Course

Bernoulli’s equation is the basis for a device used to measure air velocity:
the Pitot-Probe Henri Pitot (1695 – 1771)
1 1 • French hydraulic engineer and inventor

p1  u12  p2  u22 •
•
Began his career as a mathematician and astronomer
Won election to the Academy of Sciences in 1724.
2 2 • Became interested in the problem of flow of water in rivers
and canals and discovered that much contemporary theory
was erroneous
At point 1: u1 = 0 (stagnation point) and p1 • Invented Pitot-probe during water flow measurements on
the river Seine in Paris
At point 2: u2 and p2

p1  p2
u2  2


Simply measure p1 and p2, and

we know u2

This device is used today in

commercial airliners

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Example : Pitot-Probe EEDP - A Course

An airplane is flying at standard sea level. The measurement obtained from a Pitot
tube mounted on the wing tip reads 2190 lb/ft2. What is the velocity of the airplane?
The standard sea level pressure is 2116 lb/ft2 and the density is 0.002377 lb sec2/ft4

Thus the airplane velocity is

p1  p2
u2  2


ft
V ?
sec

26
Internal versus External Flow EEDP - A Course

External flow: The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a

plate, a wire, or a pipe.
Internal flow: The flow in a pipe or duct if the fluid is completely
bounded by solid surfaces.

• Water flow in a pipe is

internal flow, and airflow
over a ball is external
flow .
• The flow of liquids in a
duct is called open-
channel flow if the duct
is only partially filled
with the liquid and there
is a free surface.
External flow over a tennis ball, and the
turbulent wake region behind.
27
External flows EEDP - A Course

Fluid Boundary layer:

Helps in determining Drag on bodies, etc Free stream U
y
Boundary
 layer edge
x
Boundary layer equations:

L
u v
 0
x y Boundary conditions: Flow over a flat plate

u u u   2u At y =0, u=0, v=0 (No slip bc)

u v  ( 2 )
t x y  y At y =, u = U (Far field bc)

 y 
 1,  1
u    vD
Velocity u/U is a cubic of y/   Reynolds Number, Re 

3
U
(Approximate Integral Solution)   3 y 1  y  y
    1
 2  2     

 5 
Boundary layer thickness,   5
x Re U x
x
A fluid in direct contact with a solid “sticks” to the
surface due to viscous effects, and there is no slip 28
Internal flows EEDP - A Course

Reynolds Number, Re 
vD
Viscous flow in Ducts 
0 < Re < 1 : highly viscous laminar creeping motion
1 < Re < 100 : laminar, strong Re dependence
100 < Re < 10
3 : laminar, boundary layer theory useful
3
10 < Re < 10
4 : transition to turbulence
4
10 < Re < 10
6 : turbulent, moderate Re dependence
6
10 < Re < infinity : turbulent, slight Re dependence

For Circular Pipe flows: Laminar Re < 2100, Turbulent > 4000

Entry Length
Viscous boundary layers grow downstream
At a finite distance from entrance (Le), the boundary layers
merge and the inviscid core disappears
No change in axial velocity after x = Le

Le/D = 0.06 ReD - Laminar

Le/D = 4.4 ReD1/6 - Turbulent

29
Laminar vs. Turbulent Flow EEDP - A Course

• Turbulent flow characterized by

mixing action throughout the
flow field caused by eddies u
laminar

• Laminar flow is devoid of

intense mixing and eddies
u
• Reynolds number is a u turbulent
dimensionless number
characterizing the flow
•Re < 2300 Laminar  uD
(for pipe flow) Re 
•Re > 2300 Turbulent 

The critical Reynolds Number strongly

depends on the type of flow

30
Application: Turbulent Pipe Flows EEDP - A Course

In turbulent flow, there is no universal

relationship between the stress field and the
mean velocity field

Must rely on experimental data

Generally, in regions very close to walls,

viscous shear is dominant => viscous sublayer

Outside the viscous sublayer, the viscous shear

stress is negligible compared to the resistance
resulting from turbulence. laminar

The turbulent stress goes to zero at the wall

because of the no-slip condition

turbulent
31
Application: Pipe Flows EEDP - A Course

Turbulent Flow:

We cannot evaluate pressure drop analytically...must depend on experimental

data Lu
2

hf  f
avg
(f = friction factor)
D 2g

The friction factor, f, is determined experimentally and plotted in Moody

Charts.

Must calculate the Reynolds Number, Re, and the relative roughness, e/D, of
the surface

Charts of the relative roughness for pipes of common engineering materials are
available

32
Application: Pipe Flows EEDP - A Course

Moody-Chart shows that the effect of surface roughness is negligible for

laminar pipe flows

Turbulent pipe flow is strongly affected by surface roughness

It turns out that a turbulent velocity profile is very flat in the center and
drops off sharply to zero at the wall

laminar

turbulent

33
Laminar Vs. Turbulent flow EEDP - A Course

34
Airfoils: Drag and Lift EEDP - A Course

 The sum of the forces that act

normal to the free stream
direction is the lift

 Lift is useful because it bears

the weight of the body lift

 The sum of the forces that act

parallel to the free-stream
direction is the drag drag

 Drag represents a flow loss a = angle of attack

which must be overcome by
the body in order to move
against the stream
L = airfoil lift
D = airfoil drag
R = resultant aerodynamic force
N = airfoil normal force
R = airfoil axial force
35
Truck Spoiler example EEDP - A Course

• Note ‘messy’ or
turbulent flow pattern
Spoiler • High drag
• Lower fuel efficiency

• Spoiler angle
increased by + 5°
• Flow behavior more
closely resembles a
laminar flow
• Tremendous Fuel
savings

36
Airfoil shape EEDP - A Course

Airplane in level steady flight:

drag = thrust
lift = weight.
37
 EEDP - A Course
AIRFOIL THICKNESS

38
 EEDP - A Course

Break

39
 EEDP - A Course

AFD EFD CFD

U  0
DU 1
 p   2 U    ui u j
Dt Re

40
 EEDP - A Course
Analytical Fluid Dynamics (AFD)

• The theory of mathematical physics problem

formulation
• Control volume & differential analysis
• Exact solutions only exist for simple geometry and
conditions
• Approximate solutions for practical applications
– Linear
– Empirical relations using EFD data

41
 EEDP - A Course
Analytical Fluid Dynamics

• Example: laminar pipe flow Re  UD  2000


Assumptions: Fully developed, Low Re
Approach: Simplify momentum equation, Schematic
integrate, apply boundary conditions to
determine integration constants and use
energy equation to calculate head loss
0
Du 0 p   u  2u 
2 0
    2  2   gx
Dt x  x y 
Exact solution :
u(r)  1 ( p)(R2  r 2)
4 x
8 du
 8 w  dy w  64
Friction factor: f
V 2 V 2 Re
p1 p2 L V 2 32 LV
Head loss:  z1   z2  h f hf  f 
  D 2g  D2
42
Experimental Fluid Dynamics (EFD) EEDP - A Course

Definition:
Use of experimental methodology and procedures for solving fluids engineering
systems, including full and model scales, large and table top facilities,
measurement systems (instrumentation, data acquisition and data reduction),
uncertainty analysis, and dimensional analysis and similarity.

EFD philosophy:
• Decisions on conducting experiments are governed by the ability of the
expected test outcome, to achieve the test objectives within allowable
uncertainties.
• Integration of UA into all test phases should be a key part of entire
experimental program
– test design
– determination of error sources
– estimation of uncertainty
– documentation of the results

43
Applications of EFD EEDP - A Course

Example of industrial application

NASA's cryogenic wind tunnel simulates flight

conditions for scale models--a critical tool in
designing airplanes.

Full and Model scale

44
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) EEDP - A Course

• CFD is use of computational methods for solving

fluid engineering systems, including modeling
(mathematical & Physics) and numerical methods
(solvers, finite differences, and grid generations,
etc.).
• Rapid growth in CFD technology since advent of
computer

ENIAC 1, 1946 IBM WorkStation

45
Purpose EEDP - A Course

• The objective of CFD is to model the continuous fluids with

integral form of Partial Differential Equations (PDEs) and
discretize PDEs into an algebra problem, solve it, validate it
and achieve simulation based design instead of “build &
test”

• Simulation of physical fluid phenomena that are difficult to

be measured by experiments: scale simulations (full-scale
ships, airplanes), hazards (explosions,radiations,pollution),
physics (weather prediction, planetary boundary layer,
stellar evolution).

46
 EEDP - A Course
CFD Modeling

• Mathematical physics problem formulation of fluid engineering

system
• Governing equations: Navier-Stokes equations (momentum),
continuity equation, pressure Poisson equation, energy equation,
ideal gas law, combustions (chemical reaction equation), multi-
phase flows(e.g. Rayleigh equation), and turbulent models (RANS,
LES, DES).
• Coordinates: Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical coordinates result
in different form of governing equations
• Initial conditions(initial guess of the solution) and Boundary
Conditions (no-slip wall, free-surface, zero-gradient, symmetry,
velocity/pressure inlet/outlet)
• Flow conditions: Geometry approximation, domain, Reynolds
Number, and Mach Number, etc.
• Material Properties

47
Does CFD Simulate the Flow Reality…..EEDP - A Course

 Governing Equations May Have Approximations

 Boundary Conditions May Have Approximations
 Approximations are Made in Discretization
 Approximation in Iteratively Solving Discretized Equation

A CFD Solution is Always an Approximation striving towards Reality

48
Domain Discretization EEDP - A Course

• In Numerical Fluid flow analysis, a continuous domain is replaced by a

discrete domain using a grid.

• In a continuous domain, a result (e.g., velocity) can be found at any

point in the domain.
Continuous Domain Discrete Domain

• In a discrete domain, results are calculated only at the grid points

(nodes) or at the centers of control volumes (CVs) defined by those
grid points.
– Values for other positions are interpolated from grid point results.

Breaking Continuous Domain into Discrete Parts Involves Approximations

49
Discretization Approximation.. EEDP - A Course

Sub Modeling the flow domain into smaller regions

 Discretization Converts Finite Volume of Space & Time to Discrete Locations

 Continuous Variable Transformed into Discrete Variables
 Interpolations Used to Approximate Distribution of Variables

 Discretization Errors Can Be Reduced By

 Increasing Order of Interpolation (2nd Order -vs- 1st Order)
 Increasing Number of Discrete Locations in Space & Time (Fine Mesh)
 Applying Discretization to Smaller Regions
 All This Leads to Increase in Computing Time and Memory

50
 EEDP - A Course

Actual Solution
CFD Solution
Discretization Locations

Physical Phenomena Coarse Discretization Fine Discretization

 Increasing Number of Discrete Locations Reduces Error

 Increases Computer Time and Memory
 Increase Number of Discrete Locations in Critical Locations
 Optimum between Computer Time and Accuracy
 Need Pre-Judgement of Location Where Better Resolution Required
 Example - Near Wall Region Where Gradients are High Require Fine Mesh

Values at these interpolation points are stored

51
Approximation in Iterative Solution.. EEDP - A Course

 Iterative Solvers Are Commonly Used

 Stopping Iterations Prematurely Leads to Error
 Requires Less Memory
 Commonly Used
 Direct Solvers More Accurate
 Requires Large Memory
 Not Commonly Used

Most Commercial CFD Code Employ Iterative Solvers

52
Approximations in Boundary Conditions..
EEDP - A Course

 Boundary Conditions May be Approximate

 Inlet Boundary Condition is Often Assumed as Uniform
 In Reality Flow is Not Uniform
 Adiabatic Walls
 There is Always Heat Loss - However Small it May Be
 k and e Boundary Conditions
 Very Difficult to Know What They are in Reality

53
An Example of Boundary Conditions EEDP - A Course
Approximation

Inconsistency
 Uniform Inlet Profile Demands Finite Velocity at Wall
 Presence of Wall Demands Zero Velocity Due to No-Slip

54
Discretization of Equations- Techniques EEDP - A Course

• Numerical discretization techniques used in commercially popular

applications are:
– Finite Element Method (FEM) – popular in structural mechanics
– Finite Volume Method (FVM) – popular in CFD
– Finite Difference Method (FDM) – popular in optimization and flow studies
requiring less accuracy
– The differences lie in how the equations are discretized, or converted into
discrete form over a number of points.

FEM is mainly popular for structural analysis (left)

but can also be applied for CFD analysis (right)
55
FDM vs “FEM” and “FVM” EEDP - A Course

• FDM is an easy to implement, easy to understand and easy

to program scheme.

• FDM does not show good results for unstructured meshes.

• Compared to FEM and FVM, FDM is very a crude

scheme.

• In-house CFD codes based on FDM do exist, but most

commercial software for CFD are based on either FEM or
FVM.

56
Domain Discretization - Example EEDP - A Course

 When solving fluid flow in a CFD software application, the flow

domain must be discretized into a number of nodes.
 These elements can be quadrilateral or triangular.

Quadrilateral Mesh Cell Triangular Mesh

Nodes
57
Discretization of Equations: EEDP - A Course
Taylor Series
• Once the domain is discretized, the equation also
needs to be discretized, or converted into discrete
form over a number of points.
• The Taylor Series is given below:
df d 2 f (x) d n f (x) n
f ( x  x)  f ( x)  (x)  2  ......... n
dx dx 2 dx n!

from this series:

f(x) = sin 2x
df { f ( x  x)  f ( x)}
at x = 0.2 , f(x) = 0.9511

If we want to evaluate the value at f(0.22)
Two terms
dx x f(x+x) = f(x) + df/dx (x)
f(0.22) = f(0.2) + 2  cos[2(0.2)](0.02)
f(0.22) = 0.9899
Three terms
f(x+x) = f(x) + df/dx (x) + d2f/dx2 (x)/2
f(0.22) = f(0.2) + 2  cos[2(0.2)](0.02) - 22Sin
[2(0.2)](0.02)2
f(0.22) = 0.9824

58
Discretization of Equations: EEDP - A Course
Taylor Series

• Replace the continuum with discrete points:

x  ...., xi 1 , xi , xi 1 ,....
u  ...., ui 1 , ui , ui 1 ,....

• Approximate derivatives:
 u  u u
   i 1 i 1
– Central  x i 2  x
 u  ui  ui 1
  
– Backward  x i x
 u  ui 1  ui
  
– Forward  x i x

59
Fluid element and properties EEDP - A Course

Fluid element for

• The behavior of the fluid is described in
terms of macroscopic properties: conservation laws
– Velocity u.
– Pressure p.
– Density . z
(x,y,z)
– Temperature T.
– Energy E.
y
• Typically ignore (x,y,z,t) in the notation. x

• Properties are averages of a sufficiently y

z

large number of molecules. x

• A fluid element can be thought of as the

Faces are labeled North,
smallest volume for which the continuum East, West, South, Top and
assumption is valid. Bottom

Properties at faces are expressed as first

two terms of a Taylor series expansion,
p 1 p 1
e.g. for p : pW  p   x and pE  p  x
x 2 x 2 60
Mass Conservation EEDP - A Course

 Also Referred as Continuity Equation

Mass Outflow
 For Two Dimensional Flow


t


x j
 
u j  0
Mass Inflow Mass Outflow

Rate of Change in Mass

Mass Inflow
Mass Inflow - Mass Outflow

 For Constant Density or Steady State


x j
 
u j  0

Mass Inflow = Mass Outflow

Rate of Change in Mass = Mass Inflow - Mass Outflow

61
 EEDP - A Course
Momentum Conservation

 Postulated by Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion

 Rate of Increase in Fluid Momentum Equals Sum of Forces on Fluid

( ui )
t


x j

u j ui 


x j
ij  
p
x j
 gi

Rate of Change in Momentum

Viscous Pressure Gravity Force
Force Force (Body Force)
Momentum In - Momentum Out

Surface Forces

Change in Fluid Momentum Sum of Forces (Surface Force + Body Force)

Change in Fluid Momentum = Sum of Forces on Fluid

62
 EEDP - A Course
Momentum Conservation contd..

 Typical Assumptions
ui
 Newtonian Fluid:ij  
x j
 Non-Buoyant Flow : gi  0

 Incompressible Flow :  Constant


 Steady State :  0
t

Complexity of Conservation Equations Depend on Assumptions Used

63
Energy Conservation EEDP - A Course

 Postulated by 1st Law of Thermodynamics

 Rate of Energy Increase = Rate of Heat Added + Rate of Work Done

  T 
( h )
t


x j

u j h  k
x j  x j 
   S

Energy Source
Rate of Change in Energy
Energy Work Done
Added (Viscous Dissipation)
Energy In - Energy Out

Change in Fluid Energy Energy Added + Work Done + Energy Source

 
 Enthalpy h Defined as : h  m CpT  H where H is the Heat of Formation
m is Mass Fraction
1 T
Cp   CpT
(T  Tref ) Tref
 For Non-Reacting Flows, H = 0. Thus, h  m Cp T

64
Components in CFD EEDP - A Course

 Mathematical Model
 Discretization Method
 Coordinate System
 Numerical Grid
 Numerical scheme
 Solution Method
 Convergence Criteria

65
Boundary Conditions Overview EEDP - A Course

• Boundary conditions are a required

component of the mathematical model.
• Boundaries direct motion of flow.
• Specify fluxes into the computational
domain, e.g. mass, momentum, and energy.
• Fluid and solid regions are represented by
cell zones.
• Material and source terms are assigned to
cell zones.
• Boundaries and internal surfaces are Example: face and cell
represented by face zones.
zones associated with pipe
• Boundary data are assigned to face zones. flow through orifice plate

66
Flow Inlets and Outlets EEDP - A Course

A wide range of boundary conditions types permit the flow to

enter and exit the solution domain:
– General: pressure inlet, pressure outlet.
– Incompressible flow: velocity inlet, outflow.
– Compressible flows: mass flow inlet, pressure far-field.
– Special: inlet vent, outlet vent, intake fan, exhaust fan.

• Boundary data required depends on physical models selected.

• General guidelines:
– Select boundary location and shape such that flow either goes in or
out. Not mandatory, but will typically result in better convergence.
– Should not observe large gradients in direction normal to boundary
near inlets and outlets. This indicates an incorrect problem
specification.
– Minimize grid skewness near boundary.
67
Other inlet and outlet boundary EEDP - A Course
conditions
• Mass flow inlet.
– Used in compressible flows to prescribe mass flow rate at inlet.
– Not required for incompressible flows.
• Pressure far field.
– Available when density is calculated from the ideal gas law.
– Used to model free-stream compressible flow at infinity, with free
stream
Mach number and static conditions specified.
• Exhaust fan/outlet vent.
– Model external exhaust fan/outlet vent with specified pressure
jump/loss coefficient and ambient (discharge) pressure and
temperature.
• Inlet vent/intake fan.
– Model inlet vent/external intake fan with specified loss coefficient/
pressure jump, flow direction, and ambient (inlet) pressure and
temperature.

68
Symmetry boundaries EEDP - A Course

• Used to reduce computational effort in problem.

• Flow field and geometry must be symmetric:
– Zero normal velocity at symmetry plane.
– Zero normal gradients of all variables at symmetry
plane.
• No inputs required.
– Must take care to correctly define symmetry
boundary locations.

69
Pressure boundary conditions EEDP - A Course

Pressure boundary conditions

require static gauge pressure
inputs:
• The operating pressure input is
set separately.
• Useful when:
– Neither the flow rate nor the
velocity are known (e.g.
buoyancy-driven flows).
– A “free” boundary in an external
or unconfined flow needs to be
defined.

70
Material Properties EEDP - A Course

What are the various Fluid Properties needed for CFD

analysis?

Temperature dependent?
Pressure dependent?
What physics? Density variation?
71
Mathematical Model EEDP - A Course

 Starting Point for CFD

 Navier-Stokes Equation
 Boussinesq Approximation for Natural Convection (Density Variation)
 Compressible or Incompressible Flow
 Equation of State (Ideal Gas Assumption)
 Property Variation Model (Viscosity, Thermal Conductivity, etc…....)
 Turbulence Model (k- e Model, 2-Layer Model, etc…..)
 Difficult to Have One Turbulence Model for All Applications
 Example : 2-Layer Model Best for Impingement Heat Transfer
k-e Model Adequate for Mixing Applications

72
Discretization Method EEDP - A Course

 After Mathematical Model is Selected, Discretization is Chosen

 Types of Discretization Methods
 Finite Volume (Used in Commercial Codes, like STAR-CD, CFX, FLUENT)
 Finite Element (FIDAP® is a Finite Element based CFD Code)
 Finite Difference
 Spectral Method (Used for High Accuracy Simulation of Simple Geometry)

Finite Volume Method Most Commonly Used in Commercial CFD Codes

73
Numerical Grid EEDP - A Course

 Discrete Locations where Variables are Calculated

 Divides the Domain of Interest into Finite Number of Subdomains (Cells or Elements)
 Types of Grid
 Structured Grid (Hexahedral Mesh)
 Unstructured Grid (Tetetrahedral Mesh)
 Unstructured Core Tetrahedral Mesh with Near-Wall Layered Hexahedral Mesh

Hexahedral Cell Tetrahedral Cell

74
Numerical methods EEDP - A Course

• Finite difference methods: using y

numerical scheme to approximate the jmax x
exact derivatives in the PDEs
j+1
 P Pi 1  2 Pi  Pi 1
2
 j
x 2
x 2
y
j-1
 P Pj 1  2 Pj  Pj 1
2

y 2 y 2
• Finite volume methods o i-1 i i+1 imax x
• Grid generation: conformal mapping,
algebraic methods and differential
equation methods
• Grid types: structured, unstructured
• Solvers: direct methods (Cramer’s
rule, Gauss elimination, LU
decomposition) and iterative methods
(Jacobi, Gauss-Seidel, SOR)

Slice of 3D mesh of a fighter aircraft

75
Turbulence Models EEDP - A Course

Increase in level of
Complexity

• Relevant turbulence
model based on Physics
• No Universal turbulence
model
• Tradeoff: Computational
time Vs. Accuracy
enhancement

76
Convergence Monitors – Residuals EEDP - A Course

• Residual plots show when the residual values have reached the specified
tolerance.

All equations
converged.

10-3

10-6

1e-6 – For energy

77
Temperature rise analysis Roadmap EEDP - A Course

78
Modeling (examples) EEDP - A Course

Switchgear: Flow Path during

Internal Arc test

Inter compartmental air flow

pattern inside a switchgear

Circuit Breaker: Arc Visualization

during short circuit test

Air Circuit Breaker: Temperature

rise test simulation 79
CFD process EEDP - A Course

Geometry Physics Mesh Solve Reports Post-

Processing

Select Heat Transfer Unstructured Steady/ Forces Report Contours

Geometry ON/OFF (automatic/ Unsteady (lift/drag, shear
manual) stress, etc)

Compressible Structured Iterations/ XY Plot Vectors

Geometry ON/OFF (automatic/ Steps
Parameters manual)

Domain Shape Flow Convergent Verification Streamlines

and Size properties Limit

Viscous Model Precisions Validation

(single/
double)

Boundary Numerical
Conditions Scheme

Initial
Conditions

80
Commercial software EEDP - A Course

• CFD software
1. FLUENT: http://www.fluent.com
2. FLOWLAB: http://www.flowlab.fluent.com
3. CFDRC: http://www.cfdrc.com
4. STAR-CD: http://www.cd-adapco.com
5. CFX/AEA: http://www.software.aeat.com/cfx
• Grid Generation software
1. Gridgen: http://www.pointwise.com
2. GridPro: http://www.gridpro.com
• Visualization software
1. Tecplot: http://www.amtec.com
2. Fieldview: http://www.ilight.com

81
CFD Applications with various types EEDP - A Course

Multiphase Aerodynamics

Acoustics

Heat Transfer Species

Combustion
Transport 82
“Hands-on” experience using CFD (pipe template) EEDP - A Course

83
“Hands-on” experience using CFD (airfoil template) EEDP - A Course

84
 EEDP - A Course

THANK YOU

85
 EEDP - A Course

Appendix

86
Comparison between FEM and FVM EEDP - A Course
for CFD

FEM FVM
Solves both structural mechanics and Is used only for flow/thermal problems
flow/thermal problems
Equations are discretized over a number of Governing equations are solved over
points discrete control volumes (CV)
More stable compared to FVM Less stable, convergence can sometimes
require manipulation
Requires high amount of memory, limits Requires less memory, a mesh with up to 5
solution of large flow domains million CVs can be solved on a PC
Is capable of solving cases involving Schemes for FVM based FSI have been
Fluid–Solid Interaction (FSI) devised, but are difficult to implement
Solves non-Newtonian fluid flow (e.g., Can solve non-Newtonian fluids, but not as
plastic flow in molds) much better than effective as FEM
FVM
Discretizes conservative form of equations Recasts and discretizes integral form of
equations

87
Mass balance EEDP - A Course

• Rate of increase of mass in fluid element equals the net rate of flow of
mass into element.
 ( xyz)   xyz
• Rate of increase is: t t
• The inflows (positive) and outflows (negative) are shown here:

 (  w) 1 
  w  .  z   x y
  z 2 
  (  v) 1 
 v  .  y   x z
  y 2 

 ( u ) 1 
 ( u ) 1   u  .  x   y z
 u  . x  yz  x 2 
 x 2 

 ( v) 1 
 v  . y  xz
z   y 2 
y
 ( w) 1 
x
 w  . z  xy
 z 2 

88
Continuity equation EEDP - A Course

• Summing all terms in the previous slide and dividing by

the volume xyz results in:
  ( u)  ( v)  ( w)  0
t x y z
• In vector notation:
  div (  u)  0 Net flow of mass across boundaries

Change in density t Convective term

• For incompressible fluids  / t = 0, and the equation

becomes:
div u = 0. ui
u  v  w  0
• Alternative ways to write this: x y z and x  0
i

89
Rate of change for a fluid particle EEDP - A Course

• Terminology: fluid element is a volume stationary in

space, and a fluid particle is a volume of fluid moving with
the flow.
• A moving fluid particle experiences two rates of changes:
– Change due to changes in the fluid as a function of time.
– Change due to the fact that it moves to a different location in the
fluid with different conditions.
• The sum of these two rates of changes for a property per
unit mass  is called the total or substantive derivative D
/Dt: D   dx  dy  dz
   
Dt t x dt y dt z dt

• With dx/dt=u, dy/dt=v, dz/dt=w, this results in:

D 
  u.grad 
Dt t 90
Momentum equation in three dimensionsEEDP - A Course

• Newton’s second law: rate of change of momentum equals

sum of forces.
• Rate of increase of x-, y-, and z-momentum:
Du Dv Dw
  
Dt Dt Dt
• Forces on fluid particles are:
– Surface forces such as pressure and viscous forces.
– Body forces, which act on a volume, such as gravity, centrifugal,
Coriolis, and electromagnetic forces.

91
 EEDP - A Course
Viscous stresses

• Stresses are forces per area. Unit is

N/m2 or Pa.
• Viscous stresses denoted by .
• Suffix notation ij is used to indicate
direction.
• Nine stress components.
– xx, yy, zz are normal stresses. E.g.
zz is the stress in the z-direction on
a z-plane.
– Other stresses are shear stresses.
E.g. zy is the stress in the y-
direction on a z-plane.
• Forces aligned with the direction of
a coordinate axis are positive.
Opposite direction is negative.

92
Forces in the x-direction EEDP - A Course

 zx 1
( zx  . z )yz  yx 1
 yx 1 z 2  ( yx  . y )xz
( yx  . y )xz y 2
y 2

p 1 p 1
( p  . x)yz  ( p  . x)yz
x 2 x 2
 xx 1  xx 1
 ( xx  . x)yz ( xx  . x)yz
x 2 x 2

z
 zx 1
y
 ( zx  . z )xy
x z 2

Net force in the x-direction is the sum of all the force components in that direction.
93
Momentum equation EEDP - A Course

• Set the rate of change of x-momentum for a fluid particle

Du/Dt equal to:
– the sum of the forces due to surface stresses shown in the previous
slide, plus
– the body forces. These are usually lumped together into a source
term SM:
Du  ( p   xx )  yx  zx
     S Mx
Dt x y z
– p is a compressive stress and xx is a tensile stress.
• Similarly for y- and z-momentum:
Dv  xy  ( p   yy )  zy
     S My
Dt x y z
Dw  xz  yz  ( p   zz )
     S Mz
Dt x y z
94
Energy equation EEDP - A Course

• First law of thermodynamics: rate of change of energy of a

fluid particle is equal to the rate of heat addition plus the
rate of work done.
• Rate of increase of energy is DE/Dt.
• Energy E = i + ½ (u2+v2+w2).
• Here, i is the internal (thermal energy).
• ½ (u2+v2+w2) is the kinetic energy.
• Potential energy (gravitation) is usually treated separately
and included as a source term.
• We will derive the energy equation by setting the total
derivative equal to the change in energy as a result of work
done by viscous stresses and the net heat conduction.

95
Work done by surface stresses in x- EEDP - A Course
direction
 (u zx ) 1
(u zx  . z )yz
 (u yx ) 1 z 2  (u yx ) 1
(u yx  . y )xz  (u yx  . y )xz
y 2 y 2

 (up) 1
(up  . x)yz  (up) 1
x 2  (up  . x)yz
x 2
 (u xx ) 1
 (u xx  . x)yz  (u xx ) 1
x 2 (u xx  . x)yz
x 2

 (u zx ) 1
y
x  (u zx  . z )xy
z 2
Work done is force times velocity.
96
Work done by surface stresses EEDP - A Course

• The total rate of work done by surface stresses is

calculated as follows:
– For work done by x-components of stresses add all terms in the
previous slide.
– Do the same for the y- and z-components.
• Add all and divide by xyz to get the work done per unit
volume by the surface stresses:
 (u xx )  (u yx )  (u zx )  (v xy )
 div ( pu)    
x y z x
 (v yy )  (v zy )  ( w xz )  ( w yz )  (u zz )
    
y z x y z

97
Energy flux due to heat conduction EEDP - A Course

q z 1
q y 1 (q z  . z )xy
(q y  . y )xz z 2
y 2

q x 1 q x 1
(q x  . x)yz (q x  . x)yz
x 2 x 2

z
y
x

q z 1 q y 1
(q z  . z )xy (q y  . y )xz
z 2 y 2

The heat flux vector q has three components, qx, qy, and qz. 98
Energy flux due to heat conduction EEDP - A Course

• Summing all terms and dividing by xyz gives the net rate of heat
transfer to the fluid particle per unit volume:

q x q y q z
     div q
x y z

• Fourier’s law of heat conduction relates the heat flux to the local
temperature gradient:
T T T
qx   k qy   k qz   k
x y z

• In vector form: q   k grad T

• Thus, energy flux due to conduction:  div q  div(k grad T )
• This is the final form used in the energy equation.

99
Energy equation EEDP - A Course

• Setting the total derivative for the energy in a fluid particle

equal to the previously derived work and energy flux
terms, results in the following energy equation:

DE   (u xx )  (u yx )  (u zx )  (v xy )

   div( pu)     
Dt  x y z x
 (v yy )  (v zy )  ( w xz )  ( w yz )  (u zz ) 
    
y z x y z 
 div(k grad T )  S E
• Note that we also added a source term SE that includes
sources (potential energy, sources due to heat production
from chemical reactions, etc.).

100
References EEDP - A Course

1. Fox and McDonald, Introduction To Fluid Mechanics

(English), 5th Edition, Wiley India Pvt. Ltd
2. John D. Anderson, Jr., “Computational Fluid Dynamics:
The Basics with Applications 1st Edition”, Mc- Graw Hill
Inc

101