Harmonic 1 PDF

Chapter M
Harmonic management
Contents
1
The problem: why is it necessary to manage harmonics? M2
2 Definition and origin of harmonics

2.1 Definition
M3
M3
2.2 Origin of harmonics M5
3
Essential indicators of harmonic distortion
and measurement principles M7
3.1 Power factor M7
3.2 Crest factor M8
3.3 Harmonic spectrum M9
3.4 r.m.s. value M9
3.5 Usefulness of the various indicators M9
4 Harmonic measurement in electrical networks

4.1 Procedures for harmonic measurement
M10
M10
4.2 Harmonic measurement devices M11
4.3 Which harmonic orders must be monitored and mitigated? M12
5 Main effects of harmonics in electrical installations

5.1 Resonance
M13
M13
5.2 Increased losses M13
5.3 Overload of equipment M15
5.4 Disturbances affecting sensitive loads M19
5.5 Economic impact M19
6 Standards M20
M1
7
Solutions to mitigate harmonics M21
7.1 Basic solutions M21
7.2 Harmonic filtering M22
7.3 The method M24
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Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2015

M - Harmonic management
1 The problem: why is it necessary
to manage harmonics?
Harmonic disturbances
Harmonics flowing in distribution networks represent disturbances in the flow of
electricity. The quality of electrical power is deteriorated, and the efficiency of the
system is decreased.
Here are the main risks linked to harmonics:
b Overload of distribution networks due to the increase of r.m.s. currents,
b Overload of neutral conductors, which current can exceed the phase currents,
b Overload, vibration and premature ageing of generators, transformers and motors
as well as increased transformer hum,
b Overload and premature ageing of Power Factor Correction capacitors,
b Distortion of the supply voltage that can disturb sensitive loads,
b Disturbance in communication networks and telephone lines.
Economic impact of disturbances

All these disturbances have an economic impact:
b Premature ageing of equipment means it must be replaced sooner, unless
oversized right from the start,
b Overload on the distribution network means higher equipment rating, increased
subscribed power level for the industrial customer, and increased power losses,
b Unexpected current distortion can lead to nuisance tripping and production halt.
A necessary concern for the design and management

of electrical installations
Harmonics are the result of the always expanding number of power electronic
devices. They have become abundant today because of their capabilities for
precise process control and energy saving benefits. Typical examples are Variable
Speed Drives in the Industry, and Compact Fluorescent Lamps in commercial and
residential areas.
International standards have been published in order to help the designers of
equipment and installations. Harmonic emission limits have been set, so that no
unexpected and negative impact of harmonics should be encountered. In parallel to
a better understanding of effects, solutions have been developed by the Industry.
Harmonic consideration is now a full part of the design of electrical installations.
M2

2.1 Definition
The presence of harmonics in electrical systems means that current and voltage are
distorted and deviate from sinusoidal waveforms.
Harmonic currents are caused by non-linear loads connected to the distribution
system. A load is said to be non-linear when the current it draws does not have the
same waveform as the supply voltage. The flow of harmonic currents through system
impedances in turn creates voltage harmonics, which distort the supply voltage.
On Figure M1 are presented typical current waveforms for single-phase (top) and
three-phase non-linear loads (bottom).
Fig. M1: Examples of distorted current waveforms
The Fourier theorem states that all non-sinusoidal periodic functions can be
represented as the sum of terms (i.e. a series) made up of:
b A sinusoidal term at the fundamental frequency,
b Sinusoidal terms (harmonics) whose frequencies are whole multiples of the
fundamental frequency, M3
b A DC component, where applicable.
The harmonic of order h (commonly referred to as simply the hth harmonic) in a
signal is the sinusoidal component with a frequency that is h times the fundamental
frequency.
The equation for the harmonic expansion of a periodic function y (t) is presented
below:
h=∞
y (t ) = Y0 + ∑ Yh 2sin(hωt - ϕh )
h =1
where:
b Y0: value of the DC component, generally zero and considered as such hereinafter,
b Yh: r.m.s. value of the harmonic of order h,
b ω: angular frequency of the fundamental frequency,
b ϕh: displacement of the harmonic component at t = 0.

Figure M2 shows an example of a current wave affected by harmonic distortion on

a 50Hz electrical distribution system. The distorted signal is the sum of a number of
superimposed harmonics:
b The value of the fundamental frequency (or first order harmonic) is 50 Hz,
b The 3rd order harmonic has a frequency of 150 Hz,
b The 5th order harmonic has a frequency of 250 Hz,
b Etc…
I peak
(Ic)
Total I rms (IG)
Fundamental Ih1
50 Hz
Harmonic Ih3
3 (150 Hz)
Harmonic Ih5
5 (250 Hz)
Harmonic Ih7
7 (350 Hz)
Harmonic Ih8
9 (450 Hz)
Fig. M2: Example of a current containing harmonics and expansion of the overall current into its
harmonic orders 1 (fundamental), 3, 5, 7 and 9
Individual harmonic component (or harmonic component

of order h)
The individual harmonic component is defined as the percentage of harmonics
M4 for order h with respect to the fundamental. Particularly:
Uh
uh (% ) = 100 for harmonic voltages
U1

Ih
ih (% ) = 100 for harmonic currents
I1

Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
The Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is an indicator of the distortion of a signal.
It is widely used in Electrical Engineering and Harmonic management in particular.
For a signal y, the THD is defined as:
2
h=H  Y  Y22 + Y32 + ... + YH2
THD =  h
∑   =
Y
h=2  1  Y1
THD is the ratio of the r.m.s. value of all the harmonic components of the signal y,
to the fundamental Y1.
H is generally taken equal to 50, but can be limited in most cases to 25.
Note that THD can exceed 1 and is generally expressed as a percentage.

Current or voltage THD

For current harmonics, the equation is:
2
h=H  I 
THDi = h
∑  
h=2  I1 
h=H
By introducing the total r.m.s value of the current: Irms = ∑ Ih2 we obtain the
following relation: h=1

2
I 
THDi =  rms  −1
 equivalent to: Irms = I1 1+ THDi2
 I1 

Example: for THDi = 40%, we get:
Irms = I1 1 + (0.4 )2 = I1 1 + 0.16 ≈ I1 × 1.08
For voltage harmonics, the equation is:
2
h=H  U 
THDu =  h
∑  
U
h=2  1 
2.2 Origin of harmonics
Harmonic currents
Equipment comprising power electronics circuits are typical non-linear loads and
generate harmonic currents. Such loads are increasingly frequent in all industrial,
commercial and residential installations and their percentage in overall electrical
consumption is growing steadily.
Examples include:
b Industrial equipment (welding machines, arc and induction furnaces, battery
chargers), M5
b Variable Speed Drives for AC or DC motors, (1)
b Uninterruptible Power Supplies,
b Office equipment (PCs, printers, servers, etc.),
b Household appliances (TV sets, microwave ovens, fluorescent lighting, light
dimmers).
Harmonic voltages
In order to understand the origin of harmonic voltages, let's consider the simplified
diagram on Fig. M3.
Zh
A B Non-linear
load
Ih
Fig. M3: Single-line diagram showing the impedance of the supply circuit for a non-linear load
(1) to know more about harmonics mitigation related to

Variable Speed Drives, please refer to our Schneider Electric
White Paper "Choose the best harmonic mitigation solution for
your drive"

The reactance of a conductor increases as a function of the frequency of the current

flowing through the conductor. For each harmonic current (order h), there is therefore
an impedance Zh in the supply circuit.
The total system can be split into different circuits:
b One circuit representing the flow of current at the fundamental frequency,
b One circuit representing the flow of harmonic currents.
Zl
Non-linear
load
I 50 Hz
Zh Ih
Non-linear
load
Vh
Vh = Harmonic voltage
= Zh x Ih
Fig. M4: Split of circuit into fundamental and harmonic circuits
When the harmonic current of order h flows through impedance Zh, it creates a
harmonic voltage Uh, where Uh = Zh x Ih (by Ohm's law).
The voltage at point B is therefore distorted. All devices supplied via point B receive
a distorted voltage.
For a given harmonic current, the voltage distortion is proportional to the impedance
in the distribution network.
Flow of harmonic currents in distribution networks

The non-linear loads can be considered to inject the harmonic currents upstream
into the distribution network, towards the source. The harmonic currents generated
by the different loads sum up at the busbar level creating the harmonic distortion.
Because of the different technologies of loads, harmonic currents of the same order
are generally not in phase. This diversity effect results in a partial summation.
Backup power Iha Rectifier

supply Arc furnace
M6 Welding machine
G
Ihb Variable-speed drive

Power-factor
correction
Ihd Fluorescent or
discharge lamps
MV/LV
A
Ihe Devices drawing rectified
current (televisions,
computer hardware, etc.)
Harmonic
disturbances to
distribution network Linear loads
and other users (do not create
harmonics)
Fig. M5: Flow of harmonic currents in a distribution network

3 Essential indicators of harmonic
distortion and measurement
principles
A number of indicators are used to quantify and evaluate the harmonic distortion in
current and voltage waveforms, namely:
b Power factor
b Crest factor
b Harmonic spectrum
b R.m.s. value
These indicators are indispensable in determining any necessary corrective action.
3.1 Power factor

The power factor λ is the ratio of the active power P (kW) to the apparent power S
(kVA). See Chapter L.
λë= P(kW
kW )
S(kVA )
The Power Factor must not be mixed-up with the Displacement Power Factor (cosϕ),
relative to fundamental signals only.
As the apparent power is calculated from the r.m.s. values, the Power Factor
integrates voltage and current distortion.
When the voltage is sinusoidal or virtually sinusoidal (THDu ~ 0), it may be said that
the active power is only a function of the fundamental current. Then:
P ≈ P1 = U1I1cosϕ
λë P U1I1cosϕ
Consequently: = =
S U1I rms
I1 1 cosϕ
As: = (see 2.1), hence: λë ≈
Irms 1 + THDi2 1 + THDi2
Figure M6 shows a graph of λ/cosϕ as a function of THDi, for THDu ~ 0.
λ/cos ϕ
1.2
M7
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
THDi (%)
Fig. M6: Variation of λ/cosϕ as a function of THDi, for THDu ~ 0

3.2 Crest factor

The crest factor is the ratio between the value of the peak current or voltage
(IM or UM) and its r.m.s. value.
b For a sinusoidal signal, the crest factor is therefore equal to 2.
b For a non-sinusoidal signal, the crest factor can be either greater than or less than 2.
The crest factor for the current drawn by non-linear loads is commonly much higher
than√2. It is generally between 1.5 and 2 and can even reach 5 in critical cases.
A high crest factor signals high current peaks which, when detected by protection
devices, can cause nuisance tripping.
Examples:
Figure M7 represents the current absorbed by a compact fluorescent lamp.
Ir.m.s. : 0.16A
IM : 0.6A
THDi : 145%
Crest factor: 3.75
A
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
0
0 0.0s 0.01s 0.02s 0.03s
Fig. M7: Typical current waveform of a compact fluorescent lamp
Figure M8 represents the voltage supplying non-linear loads through a high

impedance line, with a typical "flat top" distorted waveform.
Vr.m.s. : 500V
M8 VM : 670V
THDu : 6.2%
Crest factor: 1.34
600
400
200
0
-200
-400
-600
0.0s 0.02s 0.04s

Fig. M8: Typical voltage waveform in case of high impedance line supplying non-linear loads

3 Essential indicators of harmonic
distortion and measurement
principles
U(t)
3.3 Harmonic spectrum
1 The harmonic spectrum is the representation of the amplitude of each harmonic
order with respect to its frequency.
Figure M9 shows an example of harmonic spectrum for a rectangular signal.
t Each type of device causing harmonics draws a particular form of current, with
a particular harmonic content. This characteristic can be displayed by using the
harmonic spectrum.
3.4 r.m.s. value

H%
The r.m.s. value of voltage and current can be calculated as a function of the r.m.s.
value of the various harmonic components:
100
H
Irms = ∑ Ih2 = I12 + I22 + ... + IH2
h =1
33
H
20
h Vrms = ∑ Vh2 = V12 + V22 + ... + VH2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 h=1
Fig. M9 : Harmonic spectrum for a rectangular signal U(t)

3.5 Usefulness of the various indicators
THDu is an indicator of the distortion of the voltage wave. Below are given indicative
values of THDu and the corresponding consequences in an installation:
b ≤ 5%: normal situation, no risk of malfunctions,
b 5 to 8%: significant harmonic distortion, some malfunctions are possible,
b ≥ 8%: major harmonic distortion, malfunctions are probable. In-depth analysis and
the installation of mitigation devices are required.
THDi is an indicator of the distortion of the current wave. The current distortion can
be different in the different parts of an installation. The origin of possible disturbances
can be detected by measuring the THDi of different circuits.
Below are given indicative values of THDi and the corresponding phenomena for a
whole installation:
b ≤ 10%: normal situation, no risk of malfunctions,
b 10 to 50%: significant harmonic distortion with a risk of temperature rise and the
resulting need to oversize cables and sources, M9
b ≥ 50%: major harmonic distortion, malfunctions are probable. In-depth analysis and
the installation of mitigation devices are required.
Power factor λ is used to determine the rating for the different devices of the
installation.
Crest factor is used to characterise the aptitude of a generator (or UPS) to supply
high instantaneous currents. For example, computer equipment draws highly
distorted current for which the crest factor can reach 3 to 5.
Harmonic spectrum provides a different representation of electrical signals and can
be used to evaluate their distortion.

4 Harmonic measurement in
electrical networks
4.1 Procedures for harmonic measurement

Harmonic measurements are carried out on industrial or commercial sites:
b Preventively, to obtain an overall idea on distribution-network status (network
mapping),
b In view of corrective action, to determine the origin of a disturbance and determine
the solutions required to eliminate it,
b To check the validity of a solution (followed by modifications in the distribution
network to check the reduction of harmonic disturbances)
The harmonic indicators can be measured:
b By an expert present on the site for a limited period of time (one day), giving
precise, but limited perception,
b By instrumentation devices installed and operating for a significant period of time
(at least one week) giving a reliable overview of the situation,
b Or by devices permanently installed in the distribution network, allowing a follow-up
of Power Quality.
One-shot or corrective actions

This kind of action is carried-out in case of observed disturbances, for which
harmonics are suspected. In order to determine the origin of the disturbances,
measurements of current and voltage are performed:
b At the supply source level,
b On the busbars of the main distribution switchboard (or on the MV busbars),
b On each outgoing circuit in the main distribution switchboard (or on the MV
busbars).
For accurate results, it is necessary to know the precise operating conditions of
the installation and particularly the status of the capacitor banks (operating or not,
number of connected steps).
The results of measurement will help the analysis in order to:
b Determine any necessary derating of equipment in the installation, or
b Quantify any necessary harmonic protection and filtering systems to be installed in
the distribution network, or
b Check the compliance of the electrical installation with the applicable standards or
Utility regulations (maximum permissible harmonic emission).
Long-term or preventive actions

For a number of reasons, the installation of permanent measurement devices in the
distribution network is very valuable.
b The presence of an expert on site is limited in time and it is not always possible
M10 to observe all the possible situations. Only a number of measurements at different
points in the installation and over a sufficiently long period (one week to a month)
provide an overall view of operation and take into account all the situations that can
occur following:
v Fluctuations in the supply source,
v Variations in the operation of the installation,
v The addition of new equipment in the installation.
b Measurement devices installed in the distribution network prepare and facilitate the
diagnosis of the experts, thus reducing the number and duration of their visits..
b Permanent measurement devices detect any new disturbances arising following
the installation of new equipment, the implementation of new operating modes or
fluctuations in the supply network.
b For an overall evaluation of network status (preventive analysis), this avoids:
v Renting of measurement equipment,
v Calling in experts,
v Having to connect and disconnect the measurement equipment. For the overall
evaluation of network status, the analysis on the main low-voltage distribution
switchboards (MLVS) can often be carried out by the incoming device and/or the
measurement devices equipping each outgoing circuit,

b For corrective actions, it is possible to:
v Determine the operating conditions at the time of the incident,
v Draw-up a map of the distribution network and evaluate the implemented solution.
The diagnosis may be improved by the use of additional dedicated equipment in
case of specific problem.

electrical networks
4.2 Harmonic measurement devices

Measurement devices provide instantaneous and average information concerning
harmonics. Instantaneous values are used for analysis of disturbances linked to
harmonics. Average values are used for Power Quality assessment.
The most recent measurement devices are designed referring to IEC standard
61000-4-7: "Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) – Part 4-7: Testing and
measurement techniques – General guide on harmonics and interharmonics
measurements and instrumentation, for power supply systems and equipment
connected thereto".
The supplied values include:
b The harmonic spectrum of currents and voltages (amplitudes and percentage of
the fundamental),
b The THD for current and voltage,
b For specific analysis: the phase angle between harmonic voltage and current of
the same order and the phase of the harmonics with respect to a common reference
(e.g. the fundamental voltage).
Average values are indicators of the long-term Power Quality. Typical and relevant
statistical data are for example measures averaged by periods of 10 minutes, during
observation periods of 1 week.
In order to meet the Power Quality objectives, 95% of the measured values should
be less than specified values.
Fig. M10 gives the maximum harmonic voltage in order to meet the requirements
of standard EN50160: "Voltage characteristics of electricity supplied by public
distribution networks", for Low and Medium Voltage.
Odd harmonics Odd harmonics Even harmonic

Not multiples of 3 Multiples of 3
Order h Relative amplitude Order h Relative amplitude Order h Relative amplitude
Uh : % Uh : % Uh : %
5 6 3 5 2 2
7 5 9 1.5 4 1
11 3 15 0.5 6...24 0
13 3 21 0.5
17 2
19 1.5
M11
23 1.5
25 1.5
Fig. M10: Values of individual harmonic voltages at the supply terminals for orders up to 25 given in percent of the fundamental voltage U1
Portable instruments
The traditional observation and measurement methods include:
b Oscilloscope
An initial indication on the distortion affecting a signal can be obtained by viewing the
current or the voltage on an oscilloscope.
The waveform, when it diverges from a sinusoidal, clearly indicates the presence of
harmonics. Current and voltage peaks can be observed.
Note, however, that this method does not offer precise quantification of the harmonic
components.
b Digital analyser
Only recent digital analysers can determine the values of all the mentioned indicators
with sufficient accuracy.
They are using digital technology, specifically a high performance algorithm called
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). Current or voltage signals are digitized and the
algorithm is applied on data relative to time windows of 10 (50Hz systems) or 12
periods (for 60Hz systems) of the power frequency.
The amplitude and phase of harmonics up to the 40th or 50th order are calculated,
depending on the class of measurement.

electrical networks
Processing of the successive values calculated using the FFT (smoothing,

classification, statistics) can be carried out by the measurement device or by external
software.
Functions of digital analysers
b Calculate the values of the harmonic indicators (power factor, crest factor,
individual harmonic amplitude, THD)
b In multi-channel analysers, supply virtually in real time the simultaneous spectral
decomposition of the currents and voltages
b Carry out various complementary functions (corrections, statistical detection,
measurement management, display, communication, etc.)
b Storage of data
Fixed instruments
Panel instrumentation provides continuous information to the Manager of the
electrical installation. Data can be accessible through dedicated power monitoring
Fig. M11: Implementation of a digital Power Quality recorder in devices or through the digital trip units of circuit breakers.
a cabinet
Fig. M12 : Example of Power and Energy meter
4.3 Which harmonic orders must be monitored and

mitigated?
The most significant harmonic orders in three-phase distribution networks are the
M12 odd orders (3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 ….)
Triplen harmonics (order multiple of 3) are present only in three-phase, four-wire
systems, when single phase loads are connected between phase and neutral.
Utilities are mainly focusing on low harmonic orders (5, 7, 11, and 13).
Generally speaking, harmonic conditioning of the lowest orders (up to 13) is sufficient.
More comprehensive conditioning takes into account harmonic orders up to 25.
Harmonic amplitudes normally decrease as the frequency increases. Sufficiently
accurate measurements are obtained by measuring harmonics up to order 30.
Fig. M13 : Example of electronic trip units of circuit-breakers

providing harmonic related information

5 Main effects of harmonics
in electrical installations
L - Detection and filtering of harmonics
4 Main effects of harmonics in
installations
5.1 Resonance
The simultaneous use of capacitive and inductive devices in distribution networks
may result in parallel or series resonance.
The origin of the resonance is the very high or very low impedance values at the
busbar level, at different frequencies. The variations in impedance modify the current
and voltage in the distribution network.
4.1 Resonance
Here, only parallel resonance phenomena, the most common, will be discussed.
The simultaneous
Consider use of
the following capacitive
simplified diagram (see Fig.devices
and inductive M14) representing
in distribution
annetworks
installation
results
made up in of:
parallel or series resonance manifested by very high or very low
impedance values respectively. The variations in impedance modify the current and
b A supply transformer,
voltage
b Linearinloads
the distribution network. Here, only parallel resonance phenomena, the
most common, will be discussed.
b Non-linear loads drawing harmonic currents
Consider the following
b Power factor simplified
correction diagram (see Fig. L6 ) representing an installation
capacitors
made up of:
For harmonic analysis, the equivalent diagram is shown on Figure M15 where:
c A supply transformer
c
LSLinear
= Supply
loadsinductance (upstream network + transformer + line)
c Non-linear loadsofdrawing
C = Capacitance the power factor correction
harmonic currents capacitors
R = Resistance of the linear loads
c Power factor correction capacitors
Ih = Harmonic current
For harmonic analysis, the equivalent diagram (see Fig. L7 ) is shown below.
By neglecting
Impedance R,calculated
Z is the impedance
by: Z is calculated by a simplified formula:
jLsω
Z =
1-LsCω 2
Ih
neglecting R and where:
with: ω = pulsation of harmonic currents
Ls = Supply inductance (upstream network + transformer + line)
Resonance
C = Capacitanceoccurs when
of the powerthe denominator
factor (1-L SCω²) tends toward zero. The
correction capacitors
corresponding frequency is called the resonance frequency of the circuit. At that
R = Resistance of the linear loads
frequency, impedance is at its maximum and high amounts of harmonic voltages
h = Harmonic
Iappear becausecurrent
of the circulation of harmonic currents. This results in major voltage
C distortion. The
Resonance voltage
occurs when distortion
the denominator 1-LsCω 2intends
is accompanied, the Ltoward
S+C circuit,
zero. by
Thethe flow of
corresponding frequency is called the resonance frequency of the circuit. Figure
harmonic currents greater than those drawn by the loads, as illustrated on At that M16.
frequency, impedance
The distribution network is and
at itsthe
maximum and high
power factor amounts
correction of harmonic
capacitors voltages to
are subjected
Non-linear Capacitor Linear appear with thecurrents
high harmonic resultingand
major
the distortion in the
resulting risk of voltage. The
overloads. Tovoltage distortion isanti-
avoid resonance,
load bank load accompanied,
harmonic reactorsin the Ls+C
can circuit, by
be installed inthe flowwith
series of harmonic currents greater than
the capacitors.
those drawn by the loads.
Fig. M14 : Diagram of an installation
The distribution network and the power factor correction capacitors are subjected to
high harmonic currents and the resulting risk of overloads. To avoid resonance, anti-
L6 harmonic coils can be installed in series with the capacitors.
Uh Supply network
Ls C R Ih M13
4.2 Increased losses
Ih
Ih Losses in conductors
Z The active power transmitted to a load is a function of the fundamental component I1
of the current.
Fig. M15 : Equivalent diagram of the installation shown in
Figure M14 When the current drawn by the load contains Vh harmonics, the
C rms value of the
current, Irms, is greater than the fundamental I1.
C The definition of THD being:

Linear Non-linear Capacitor
2
load loads bank
Uh Supply network  Irms 
THD =   −1 +
Non-linear Capacitor Linear
 I1  Detuned
load bank load reactor
Ih itFig.
mayM17
be: Reduced
deducedcirculation
that: Irms of harmonic THD2 with detuned reactors
= I1 1+ currents
Fig. L6 : Diagram of an installation
Figure L8 (next page) shows, as a function of the harmonic distortion:

5.2 Increased losses
c The increase in the rms current Irms for a load drawing a given fundamental
Vh C current
c The increase
Losses in Joule losses, not taking into account the skin effect
in conductors
Ls C R Ih (The reference point in the graph is 1 for Irms and Joules losses, the case when
Linear Non-linear Capacitor The active power transmitted to a load is a function of the fundamental component
there are no harmonics)
load loads bank I1 of the current.
The harmonic currents provoke an increase in the Joule losses in all conductors in
When the current drawn by the load contains harmonics, the r.m.s. value of the
Fig. M16 : Illustration of parallel resonance which they flow and additional temperature rise in transformers, devices, cables, etc.
current, Ir.m.s., is greater than the fundamental I1.
Z Losses in asynchronous machines
Fig. L7 : Equivalent diagram of the installation shown in The harmonic voltages (order h) supplied to asynchronous machines provoke in the
Figure L6 rotor the flow of currents with frequencies higher than 50 Hz that are the cause of
Schneideradditional losses.
Electric - Electrical installation guide 2015
The definition of THDi being:

2
I 
THDi =  r.m.s. − 1
 I1 
2
it may be deduced that: Ir.m.s. = I1. 1 + THDi
Figure M18 shows, as a function of the harmonic distortion:

b The increase in the r.m.s. current Ir.m.s. for a load drawing a given fundamental
current
b The increase in Joule losses, not taking into account the skin effect. (The reference
point in the graph is 1 for Ir.m.s. and Joules losses, the case when there are no
harmonics)
The harmonic currents cause an increase of the Joule losses in all conductors in
which they flow and additional temperature rise in transformers, switchgear, cables,
etc.
2.2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
0.8 THD
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 (%)
Joules losses
Irms
Fig. M18 : Increase in rms current and Joule losses as a function of the THD
M14
Losses in asynchronous machines
The harmonic voltages (order h) supplied to asynchronous machines cause the
flow of currents in the rotor with frequencies higher than 50 Hz that are the origin of
additional losses.
Orders of magnitude
b A virtually rectangular supply voltage causes a 20% increase in losses
b A supply voltage with harmonics u5 = 8% (of U1, the fundamental voltage),
u7 = 5%, u11 = 3%, u13 = 1%, i.e. total harmonic distortion THDu equal to 10%, results
in additional losses of 6%
Losses in transformers
Harmonic currents flowing in transformers cause an increase in the “copper” losses
due to the Joule effect and increased “iron” losses due to eddy currents. The
harmonic voltages are responsible for “iron” losses due to hysteresis.
It is generally considered that losses in windings increase as the square of the THDi
and that core losses increase linearly with the THDu.
In Utility distribution transformers, where distortion levels are limited, losses increase
between 10 and 15%.
Losses in capacitors
The harmonic voltages applied to capacitors cause the flow of currents proportional
to the frequency of the harmonics. These currents cause additional losses.

Example
A supply voltage has the following harmonics:
b Fundamental voltage U1,
b harmonic voltages u5 = 8% (of U1),
b u7 = 5%,
b u11 = 3%,
b u13 = 1%,
i.e. total harmonic distortion THDu equal to 10%. The amperage of the current is
multiplied by 1.19. Joule losses are multiplied by (1.19)², i.e. 1.4.
L - Detection and filtering of harmonics
5.3 Overload of equipment
Generators
Generators supplying non-linear loads must be derated due to the additional losses
caused by harmonic currents.
The level of derating is approximately 10% for a generator where the overall load
is made up of 30% of non-linear loads. It is therefore necessary to oversize the
Transformers
generator, in order to supply the same active power to loads.
c The curve presented

Uninterruptible powerbelow (see Fig.
systems L9 ) shows the typical derating required for a
(UPS)
transformer supplying electronic loads
The current drawn by computer systems has a very high crest factor. A UPS sized
taking into account exclusively the r.m.s. current may not be capable of supplying the
necessary peak current and may be overloaded.
Transformers
kVA
b The(%)
curve presented below (see Fig. M19) shows the typical derating required for
a transformer supplying electronic loads
100
90
kVA
(%)
80
70
100
60
90
50
80
40
70
30
60 M15
20
50
40
10 %
30 Electronic
0 load
20 0 20 40 60 80 100
10 %
Electronic
Fig.
0 L9 : Derating required for a transformer supplying electronic loads load
0 20 40 60 80 100
Fig. M19 : Derating required for a transformer supplying electronic loads

Example
If the transformer
Example: supplies
If the transformer an overall
supplies load load
an overall comprising 40%
comprising of of
40% electronic
electronicloads, it
must itbe
loads, derated
must by 40%.
be derated by 40%.
bcStandard
Standard UTE
UTE C15-112
C15-112 provides
provides a derating
a derating factor
factor for for transformers
transformers as aoffunction of
as a function
the harmonic currents.
the harmonic currents.
L8
1
k=
 40 
1+ 0.1  ∑ h1.6 Th2 
 h= 2 
Ih
Th =
I1
Typicalvalues:
Typical values:
c Current with
b Current with a rectangular
a rectangular waveform
waveform (1/h spectrum):
(1)
k = 0.86 ): k = 0.86
(1/h spectrum
bcFrequency-converter
Frequency-converter current
current (THD(THD ≈ 50%):
≈ 50%): k = 0.80
k = 0.80
Asynchronous machines
k=
 40 
1+ 0.1  ∑ h1.6 Th2 
M - Harmonic management  h= 2 
Ih
Th =
I1
Typical values:
c Current with a rectangular waveform (1/h spectrum (1)): k = 0.86
c Frequency-converter current (THD ≈ 50%): k = 0.80
Asynchronous machines
Asynchronous
Standard machines
IEC60034-1 ("Rotating electrical machines – Rating and performance")
defines a weighted harmonic factor (Harmonic voltage factor) for which the equation
Standard
and maximumIEC 60892
value definesbelow.
are provided a weighted harmonic factor (Harmonic voltage facto
for which the equation and maximum value are provided below.
13 Uh
HVF = ∑ 2
i 0.02
h= 2 h
Example
Example
AA supply
supplyvoltage
voltage
hashas a fundamental
a fundamental voltage voltage U1 andvoltages
U1 and harmonic harmonicu3 =voltages
2% of u3 = 2% o
UU1,
1, u5u5 = 3%,
= 3%, u7 =u7 =The
1%. 1%.THDThe
u isTHDu is 3.7%
3.7% and and
the HVF the HVF
is 0.018. The is
HVF0.018.
value The
is HVF value
very close to the maximum value above which the machine must be derated.
very close to the maximum value above which the machine must be derated.
Practically speaking, asynchronous machines must be supplied with a voltage having
aPractically speaking,
THDu not exceeding for supply to the machine, a THDu of 10% must not be
10%.
exceeded.
Capacitors
Capacitors
According to IEC 60831-1 standard ("Shunt power capacitors of the self-healing type
for a.c. systems having a rated voltage up to and including 1 000 V – Part 1: General
According to IEC 60831-1 standard, the rms current flowing in the capacitors mus
– Performance, testing and rating – Safety requirements – Guide for installation"), the
r.m.s.exceed
not 1.3 times
current flowing in thethe rated current.
capacitors must not exceed 1.3 times the rated current.
Using the example mentioned
Using the example mentioned above,above, the fundamental
the fundamental voltage U1, voltage
harmonicU1, harmonic
voltages
u5 = 8% (of U1), u7 = 5%, u11 = 3%, u13 = 1%, i.e. total harmonic distortion THDu
voltages u5 = 8% (of U1), u7 = 5%, u11 = 3%, u13 = 1%, i.e. total harmonic
equal to 10%, the result is
Irms
Idistortion THDu
r.m.s./I1 = 1.19, at theequal to 10%,For
rated voltage. the result equal
a voltage is = 1times
to 1.1 .19 , the
at the
ratedrated voltage. For
voltage,
the current limit I1
Irms
Ivoltage equal
r.m.s./I1 = 1.3 to 1.1 and
is reached times
it isthe rated voltage,
necessary thecapacitors.
to resize the current limit = 1.3 is reache
I1
(1) In fact, the current waveform is similar to a rectangular and it is necessary
Neutral conductorsto resize the capacitors.
waveform. This is the case for all current rectifiers (three-phase Consider a system made up of a balanced three-phase source and three identical
rectifiers, induction furnaces). single-phase loads connected between the phases and the neutral (see Fig. M20).
SchneiderFigure
ElectricM21 showsinstallation
- Electrical an example of the
guide 2005currents flowing in the three phases and the
resulting current in the neutral conductor.
In this example, the current in the neutral conductor has a rms value that is higher
than the rms value of the current in a phase by a factor equal to the square root of 3.
p65 8 19/12/05, 16:35
The neutral conductor must therefore be sized accordingly.
M16 Ir
Load
Is
Load
It
Load
In
Fig. M20 : Flow of currents in the various conductors connected to a three-phase source

(A)
Ir
Is
It
In
t (ms)
0 20 40
Fig. M21 : Example of the currents flowing in the various conductors connected to a three-phase
load (In = Ir + Is + It)
The current in the neutral may therefore exceed the current in each phase M17
in installation such as those with a large number of single-phase devices (IT
equipment, fluorescent lighting). This is the case in office buildings, computer
centers, Internet Data Centers, call centers, banks, shopping centers, retail lighting
zones, etc.
This is not a general situation, due to the fact that power is being supplied
simultaneously to linear and/or three-phase loads (heating, ventilation, incandescent
lighting, etc.), which do not generate third order harmonic currents. However,
particular care must be taken when dimensioning the cross-sectional areas of neutral
conductors when designing new installations or when modifying them in the event of
a change in the loads being supplied with power.
A simplified approach can be used to estimate the loading of the neutral conductor.
For balanced loads, the current in the neutral IN is very close to 3 times the 3rd
harmonic current of the phase current (I3), i.e.: IN ≈ 3.I3
This can be expressed as: IN ≈ 3. i3 . I1
For low distortion factor values, the r.m.s. value of the current is similar to the r.m.s.
value of the fundamental, therefore: IN ≈ 3 . i3 IL
And: IN /IL ≈ 3 . i3 (%)
This equation simply links the overloading of the neutral (IN /IL) to the third harmonic
current ratio.
In particular, it shows that when this ratio reaches 33%, the current in the neutral
conductor is equal to the current in the phases. Whatever the distortion value, it has
been possible to use simulations to obtain a more precise law, which is illustrated in
Figure M22 next page.
The third harmonic ratio has an impact on the current in the neutral and therefore on
the capacity of all components in an installation:
b Distribution panels
b Protection and distribution devices

IN / I L
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2 I3(%)
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
15 33
Fig. M22 : Loading of the neutral conductor based on the 3rd harmonic ratio
b Cables and trunking systems

According to the estimated third harmonic ratio, there are three possible scenarios:
ratio below 15%, between 15 and 33% or above 33%.
Third harmonic ratio below 15% (i3 ≤ 15%):

The neutral conductor is considered not to be carrying current. The cross-sectional
area of the phase conductors is determined solely by the current in the phases. The
cross-sectional area of the neutral conductor may be smaller than the cross-sectional
area of the phases if the cross sectional area is greater than 16 mm2 (copper) or
25 mm2 (aluminum).
Protection of the neutral is not obligatory, unless its cross-sectional area is smaller
than that of the phases.
Third harmonic ratio between 15 and 33% (15 < i3 ≤ 33%), or in the absence of
any information about harmonic ratios:
The neutral conductor is considered to be carrying current.
The operating current of the multi-pole trunking must be reduced by a factor
of 0.84 (or, conversely, select trunking with an operating current equal to the current
calculated, divided by 0.84).
The cross-sectional area of the neutral MUST be equal to the cross-sectional area of
M18 the phases.
Protection of the neutral is not necessary.
Third harmonic ratio greater than 33% (i3 > 33%)

This rare case represents a particularly high harmonic ratio, generating the
circulation of a current in the neutral, which is greater than the current in the phases.
Precautions therefore have to be taken when dimensioning the neutral conductor.
Generally, the operating current of the phase conductors must be reduced by a
factor of 0.84 (or, conversely, select trunking with an operating current equal to the
current calculated, divided by 0.84). In addition, the operating current of the neutral
conductor must be equal to 1.45 times the operating current of the phase conductors
(i.e. 1.45/0.84 times the phase current calculated, therefore approximately 1.73 times
the phase current calculated).
The recommended method is to use multi-pole trunking in which the cross-sectional
area of the neutral is equal to the cross-sectional area of the phases. The current in
the neutral conductor is therefore a key factor in determining the cross sectional area
of the conductors. Protection of the neutral is not necessary, although it should be
protected if there is any doubt in terms of the loading of the neutral conductor.
This approach is common in final distribution, where multi-pole cables have identical
cross sectional areas for the phases and for neutral.

With busbar trunking systems (busways), precise knowledge of the temperature rises
caused by harmonic currents enables a less conservative approach to be adopted.
The rating of a busbar trunking system can be selected directly as a function of the
neutral current calculated.
For more details, see chapter E paragraph 2.3 "Harmonic currents in the selection of
busbar trunking systems (busways)" and "Cahier Technique ECT212: The neutral: A
live and unique conductor"

5.4 Disturbances affecting sensitive loads

Effects of distortion in the supply voltage
Distortion of the supply voltage can disturb the operation of sensitive devices:
b Regulation devices (temperature)
b Computer hardware
b Control and monitoring devices (protection relays)
Distortion of telephone signals

Harmonics cause disturbances in control circuits (low current levels). The level of
distortion depends on the distance that the power and control cables run in parallel,
the distance between the cables and the frequency of the harmonics.
5.5 Economic impact
Energy losses
Harmonics cause additional losses (Joule effect) in conductors and equipment.
Higher subscription costs

The presence of harmonic currents can require a higher subscribed power level
and consequently higher costs. What is more, Utilities will be increasingly inclined to
charge customers for major sources of harmonics.
Oversizing of equipment
b Derating of power sources (generators, transformers and UPSs) means they must
be oversized
b Conductors must be sized taking into account the flow of harmonic currents. In
addition, due the skin effect, the resistance of these conductors increases with
frequency. To avoid excessive losses due to the Joule effect, it is necessary to
oversize conductors
b Flow of harmonics in the neutral conductor means that it must be oversized as well
Reduced service life of equipment

When the level of distortion THDu of the supply voltage reaches 10%, the duration of
service life of equipment is significantly reduced. The reduction has been estimated
at:
b 32.5% for single-phase machines
b 18% for three-phase machines M19
b 5% for transformers
To maintain the service lives corresponding to the rated load, equipment must be
oversized.
Nuisance tripping and installation shutdown

Circuit-breakers in the installation are subjected to current peaks caused by
harmonics. These current peaks may cause nuisance tripping of old technology
units, with the resulting production losses, as well as the costs corresponding to the
time required to start the installation up again.
Examples
Given the economic consequences for the installations mentioned below, it was
necessary to install harmonic filters.
Computer centre for an insurance company
In this centre, nuisance tripping of a circuit-breaker was calculated to have cost
100 k€ per hour of down time.
Pharmaceutical laboratory
Harmonics caused the failure of a generator set and the interruption of a long
duration test on a new medication. The consequences were a loss estimated
at 17 M€.
Metallurgy factory
A set of induction furnaces caused the overload and destruction of three
transformers ranging from 1500 to 2500 kVA over a single year. The cost of the
interruptions in production were estimated at 20 k€ per hour.
Factory producing garden furniture
The failure of variable-speed drives resulted in production shutdowns estimated
at 10 k€ per hour.
6 Standards
Harmonic emissions are subject to various standards and regulations:

b Compatibility standards for distribution networks
b Emissions standards applying to the equipment causing harmonics
b Recommendations issued by Utilities and applicable to installations
In view of rapidly attenuating the effects of harmonics, a triple system of standards
and regulations is currently in force based on the documents listed below.
Standards governing compatibility between distribution networks and
products
These standards determine the necessary compatibility between distribution
networks and products:
b The harmonics caused by a device must not disturb the distribution network
beyond certain limits
b Each device must be capable of operating normally in the presence of disturbances
up to specific levels
b Standard IEC 61000-2-2 is applicable for public low-voltage power supply systems
b Standard IEC 61000-2-4 is applicable for LV and MV industrial installations
Standards governing the quality of distribution networks
b Standard EN 50160 stipulates the characteristics of electricity supplied by public
distribution networks
b Standard IEEE 519 presents a joint approach between Utilities and customers
to limit the impact of non-linear loads. What is more, Utilities encourage preventive
action in view of reducing the deterioration of power quality, temperature rise and the
reduction of power factor. They will be increasingly inclined to charge customers for
major sources of harmonics
Standards governing equipment
b Standard IEC 61000-3-2 for low-voltage equipment with rated current under 16 A
b Standard IEC 61000-3-12 for low-voltage equipment with rated current higher than
16 A and lower than 75 A
Maximum permissible harmonic levels
International studies have collected data resulting in an estimation of typical
harmonic contents often encountered in electrical distribution networks. Figure M23
presents the levels that, in the opinion of many Utilities, should not be exceeded.
LV MV HV
Odd harmonics 5 6 5 2
non-multiples of 3 7 5 4 2
11 3.5 3 1.5
M20 13 3 2.5 1.5
17≤ h ≤ 49 17 _ 17 _ 17
2.27 0.27 1.9 0.2 1.2
h h h
Odd harmonics 3 5 4 2
multiples of 3 9 1.5 1.2 1
15 0.4 0.3 0.3
21 0.3 0.2 0.2
21< h ≤ 45 0.2 0.2 0.2
Even harmonics 2 2 1.8 1.4
4 1 1 0.8
6 0.5 0.5 0.4
8 0.5 0.5 0.4
10 ≤ h ≤ 50 10 10 10
0.25 + 0.25 0.25 + 0.22 0.19 + 0.16

h h h
THDu 8 6.5 3
Fig. M23 : Maximum admissible harmonic voltages and distortion (%)

7 Solutions to mitigate harmonics
There are three different types of solutions to attenuate harmonics:

b Modifications in the installation
b Special devices in the supply system
b Filtering
7.1 Basic solutions

To limit the propagation of harmonics in the distribution network, different solutions
are available and should be taken into account particularly when designing a new
installation.
Position the non-linear loads upstream in the system

Overall harmonic disturbances increase as the short-circuit power decreases.
All economic considerations aside, it is preferable to connect the non-linear loads as
far upstream as possible (see Fig. M24).
Z2
Sensitive
loads
Z1
Non-linear Where impedance

loads Z1 < Z2
Fig. M24: Non-linear loads positioned as far upstream as possible (recommended layout)
Group the non-linear loads

When preparing the single-line diagram, the non-linear devices should be separated
from the others (see Fig. M25). The two groups of devices should be supplied by
different sets of busbars.
Sensitive
loads
M21
Yes Line impedances No
Non-linear
load 1
Non-linear
load 2
Fig. M25: Grouping of non-linear loads and connection as far upstream as possible
(recommended layout)
Create separate sources

In attempting to limit harmonics, an additional improvement can be obtained by
creating a source via a separate transformer as indicated in the Figure M26.
The disadvantage is the increase in the cost of the installation.
Non-linear
loads
MV
network
Linear
loads
Fig. M26 : Supply of non-linear loads via a separate transformer

Transformers with special connections

Different transformer connections can eliminate certain harmonic orders, as
indicated in the examples below:
b A Dyd connection suppresses 5th and 7th harmonics (see Fig. M27)
b A Dy connection suppresses the 3rd harmonic
b A DZ 5 connection suppresses the 5th harmonic
h5, h7, h11, h13

h11, h13
h5, h7, h11, h13
Fig. M27: A Dyd transformer blocks propagation of the 5th and 7th harmonics to the upstream
network
Install reactors
When variable-speed drives are supplied, it is possible to smooth the current
by installing line reactors. By increasing the impedance of the supply circuit, the
harmonic current is limited.
Installation of harmonic suppression reactors on capacitor banks increases the
impedance of the reactor/capacitor combination for high-order harmonics.
This avoids resonance and protects the capacitors.
Select the suitable system earthing arrangement

TNC system
In the TNC system, a single conductor (PEN) provides protection in the event of an
earth fault and the flow of unbalance currents.
Under steady-state conditions, the harmonic currents flow in the PEN. Because of the PEN
impedance, this results in slight differences in potential (a few volts) between devices
that can cause electronic equipment to malfunction.
The TNC system must therefore be reserved for the supply of power circuits at the
head of the installation and must not be used to supply sensitive loads.
TNS system
This system is recommended if harmonics are present.
The neutral conductor and the protection conductor PE are completely separate and
the potential throughout the distribution network is therefore more uniform.
M22
7.2 Harmonic filtering

In cases where the preventive action presented above is insufficient, it is necessary
to equip the installation with filtering systems.
There are three types of filters:
b Passive
b Active
b Hybrid
Passive filters
Typical applications
b Industrial installations with a set of non-linear loads representing more than
500 kVA (variable-speed drives, UPSs, rectifiers, etc.)
b Installations requiring power-factor correction

b Installations where voltage distortion must be reduced to avoid disturbing sensitive
loads
b Installations where current distortion must be reduced to avoid overloads
Operating principle
An LC circuit, tuned to each harmonic order to be filtered, is installed in parallel with
the non-linear load (see Fig. M28). This bypass circuit absorbs the harmonics, thus
avoiding their flow in the distribution network.

Generally speaking, the passive filter is tuned to a harmonic order close to the order
to be eliminated. Several parallel-connected branches of filters can be used if a
significant reduction in the distortion of a number of harmonic orders is required.
Active filters (active harmonic conditioner)

b Commercial installations with a set of non-linear loads representing less than
500 kVA (variable-speed drives, UPSs, office equipment, etc.)
b Installations where current distortion must be reduced to avoid overloads.
Operating principle
These systems, comprising power electronics and installed in series or parallel
with the non-linear load, compensate the harmonic current or voltage drawn by the
load. Figure M29 shows a parallel-connected active harmonic conditioner (AHC)
compensating the harmonic current (Ihar = -Iact).
The AHC injects in opposite phase the harmonics drawn by the non-linear load, such
that the line current Is remains sinusoidal.
Hybrid filters
I har b Industrial installations with a set of non-linear loads representing more than
500 kVA (variable-speed drives, UPSs, rectifiers, etc.)
b Installations requiring power-factor correction
b Installations where voltage distortion must be reduced to avoid disturbing sensitive
loads
b Installations where current distortion must be reduced to avoid overloads
b Installations where strict limits on harmonic emissions must be met
Operating principle
Passive and active filters are combined in a single system to constitute a hybrid filter
Non-linear Filter (see Fig. M30). This new filtering solution offers the advantages of both types of
load
filters and covers a wide range of power and performance levels.
Fig. M28: Operating principle of a passive filter
Is Is
I har I har
M23
Iact Iact
AHC AHC
Non-linear Linear Non-linear Linear

load load load Hybride filter load
Fig. M29: Operating principle of an active filter Fig. M30: Operating principle of a hybrid filter

Selection criteria
Passive filter
It offers both power-factor correction and high current-filtering capacity. Passive
filters also reduce the harmonic voltages in installations where the supply voltage is
disturbed. If the level of reactive power supplied is high, it is advised to turn off the
passive filter at times when the percent load is low.
Preliminary studies for a filter must take into account the possible presence of a
power factor correction capacitor bank which may have to be eliminated.
Active harmonic conditioners
They filter harmonics over a wide range of frequencies and can adapt to any type of
load. On the other hand, power ratings are limited.
Hybrid filters
They combine the performance of both active and passive filters.
Fig. M31: Example of MV passive filter equipment
7.3 The method

The best solution, in both technical and financial terms, is based on the results of an
in-depth study.
Harmonic audit of MV and LV networks

By calling on an expert, you are guaranteed that the proposed solution will produce
effective results (e.g. a guaranteed maximum THDu).
A harmonic audit is carried out by an engineer specialised in the disturbances
affecting electrical distribution networks and equipped with powerful analysis and
simulation equipment and software.
The steps in an audit are the following:
b Measurement of disturbances affecting current and phase-to-phase and phase to
neutral voltages at the supply source, the disturbed outgoing circuits and the non-
linear loads
b Computer modelling of the phenomena to obtain a precise explanation of the
causes and determine the best solutions
b A complete audit report presenting:
v The current levels of disturbances
v The maximum permissible levels of disturbances (refer to IEC 61000, IEEE 519,
Fig. M32: Active Harmonic Conditionner (AccuSine range)
etc.)
b A proposal containing solutions with guaranteed levels of performance
b Finally, implementation of the selected solution, using the necessary means and
resources.
M24
The entire audit process should be certified ISO 9002.
Fig. M33: Example of hybrid filter equipment


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Chapter M

2 Definition and origin of harmonics

4 Harmonic measurement in electrical networks

5 Main effects of harmonics in electrical installations

Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2015

Economic impact of disturbances

A necessary concern for the design and management

Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2015

Fig. M1: Examples of distorted current waveforms

Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2015

Figure M2 shows an example of a current wave affected by harmonic distortion on

Individual harmonic component (or harmonic component

Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2015

Current or voltage THD

Example: for THDi = 40%, we get:

Irms = I1 1 + (0.4 )2 = I1 1 + 0.16 ≈ I1 × 1.08

For voltage harmonics, the equation is:

2.2 Origin of harmonics

(1) to know more about harmonics mitigation related to

Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2015

The reactance of a conductor increases as a function of the frequency of the current

Fig. M4: Split of circuit into fundamental and harmonic circuits

Flow of harmonic currents in distribution networks

Backup power Iha Rectifier

Ihb Variable-speed drive

Fig. M5: Flow of harmonic currents in a distribution network

Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2015

3.1 Power factor

Figure M6 shows a graph of λ/cosϕ as a function of THDi, for THDu ~ 0.

Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2015

3.2 Crest factor

Figure M8 represents the voltage supplying non-linear loads through a high

0.0s 0.02s 0.04s

Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2015

3.4 r.m.s. value

Fig. M9 : Harmonic spectrum for a rectangular signal U(t)

Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2015

4.1 Procedures for harmonic measurement

One-shot or corrective actions

Long-term or preventive actions

measurement devices equipping each outgoing circuit,

Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2015

4.2 Harmonic measurement devices

Odd harmonics Odd harmonics Even harmonic

Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2015

Processing of the successive values calculated using the FFT (smoothing,

Fig. M12 : Example of Power and Energy meter

4.3 Which harmonic orders must be monitored and

Fig. M13 : Example of electronic trip units of circuit-breakers

Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2015

C The definition of THD being:

Figure L8 (next page) shows, as a function of the harmonic distortion:

The definition of THDi being:

Figure M18 shows, as a function of the harmonic distortion:

Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2015

5.3 Overload of equipment

c The curve presented

Fig. M19 : Derating required for a transformer supplying electronic loads

Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2015

Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2015

b Cables and trunking systems

Third harmonic ratio below 15% (i3 ≤ 15%):

Third harmonic ratio greater than 33% (i3 > 33%)