Bookbct

Preface
i
Table of Contents
Preface i
1 D.C.Circuit Analysis 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Charge, Current, Voltage and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Kirchhoff’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Ideal and practical Voltage and Current sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.5 Resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.6 Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.6.1 Properties Of A Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.7 Inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.7.1 Properties of an inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.8 Nodal Voltage Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.9 Mesh Current Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.10 Voltage Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.11 Current Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.12 Duality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.12.1 Dot Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.13 Source Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.14 Superposition Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.15 Millman’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.16 Dual of Millman’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
i
1.17 Thevenin’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.18 Norton’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.19 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.20 Star to Delta Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.21 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.22 Objective Type Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.23 True Or False Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.24 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2 First and Second Order circuits 27

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2 Natural and Forced Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3 TimeConstant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.4 calculation of complete Response of an RL Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.5 calculation of complete solution of an RC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.6 Series RLC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.7 Complete Response Of a Series RLC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.8 parallel RLC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.9 Evaluation of initial conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3 A.C. Circuit Analysis 41

3.1 Chapter Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3 Fundamentals of alternating current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.4 Phasor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.4.1 Phasor equations of passive elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.5 Circuit analysis using phasors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
ii
3.6 Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.6.1 Millers’ theorem and it’s dual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.6.2 Tellegen’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.6.3 Superposition theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.6.4 Millman’s theorem and it’s dual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.6.5 Thevenin’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.6.6 Norton’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.6.7 Maximum power transfer theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.6.8 Substitution theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.6.9 Compensation theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.7 Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.7.1 Series resonant circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.7.2 Parallel Resonant circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.8 Quality factor, bandwidth and selectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.9 Compare series and parallel resonant circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.10 Instantaneous and Average Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.11 RMS Value, Form Factor and Crest Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.12 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.13 Exercise Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4 Circuit Analysis in s-domain 59

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.2 properties of Laplace transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.2.1 Additive Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.2.2 Multiplication Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.2.3 Linearity Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.2.4 Laplace Transform of a Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.2.5 time-scaling property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.2.6 Initial Value theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
iii
4.2.7 Final Value theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.2.8 Laplace transform of periodic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.2.9 behaviour of Passive elements in S-domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.3 inverse Laplace transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.4 analysis of electric circuit Using Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5 Two Port Networks 69

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.2 Two port network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.3 Two-port network Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.3.1 z-Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.3.2 Y -Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.3.3 Hybrid parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.3.4 g-parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.3.5 ABCD parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.3.6 abcd parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.4 Interconnections of two-port networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.4.1 Series Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.4.2 Parallel connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.4.3 Series-parallel Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.4.4 Parallel-Series Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.4.5 Cascade connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.5 Reciprocal and Symmetrical networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
iv
5.9 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6 Symmetrical And Asymmetrical Networks 83

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6.2 Symmetrical and asymmetrical networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6.3 Electrical properties of Symmetrical networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.3.1 symmetrical T network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.3.2 Symmetrical π Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.3.3 Symmetrical Lattice network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.3.4 Symmetrical Bridged T Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.4 Electrical properties of asymmetrical Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.4.1 Asymmetrical T network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.4.2 Asymmetrical π Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.5 Classification of Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.6 Constant k filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
6.6.1 Constant-k low pass filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
6.6.2 Constant k high pass filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
6.6.3 Constant k band pass filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
6.6.4 Constant k band Stop filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6.7 m-derived filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6.7.1 m-Derived low pass filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.7.2 m-Derived high pass filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.7.3 m- Derived band pass filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.7.4 m- Derived band stop filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.8 Composite filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.9 Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.10 Classification of attenuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.11 Symmetrical Attenuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
v
6.11.1 Symmetrical T attenuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.11.2 Symmetrical π attenuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.11.3 Symmetrical Bridged T - attenuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.11.4 Symmetrical Lattice Attenuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.12 Asymmetrical Attenuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.12.1 Asymmetrical T attenuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.12.2 asymmetrical π Attenuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.13 Inverse, or reciprocal Impedance networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.14 Classification of equalizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.14.1 full series equalizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.14.2 Full shunt equalizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.14.3 Bridged-T Attenuation Equaliser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.14.4 Bridged-T Phase equalizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.14.5 Lattice equalizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.14.6 Lattice Phase Equalizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.15 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.17 True or False Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7 Network Synthesis 109

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.2 Network Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.2.1 Network functions for one-port networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
7.2.2 Network functions for Two-port networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
7.2.3 Network functions of ladder networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7.2.4 Network functions for Non-ladder networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7.3 Poles and zeros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7.3.1 Properties of of poles and zeros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
7.4 Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
vi
7.5 Positive Real Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
7.5.1 Properties of Positive Real Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
7.6 Maximum Modulus Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
7.7 Hurwitz Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
7.7.1 Special cases of Hurwitz polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
7.8 Sturm’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.9 Testing of positive real functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
7.9.1 Testing For Necessary Conditions or Inspection Testing . . . . . . . 118
7.9.2 Testing For Sufficient Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.10 Basic Pole Removal Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.11 Properties of an LC Immittance functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.12 Properties of RC impedance Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.13 Properties of RC Admittance Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7.14 Properties of RL Impedance Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7.15 Properties of RL Admittance Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.16 synthesis Using RLC elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.16.1 Brune’s Method of RLC Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.16.2 Bott-Duffin Method Of Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.18 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
vii
viii
Chapter 1
D.C.Circuit Analysis
1.1 Introduction
This chapter is intended to provide a brief overview of basic concepts in circuit theory.
Theory of Operation of basic passive elements,sources is discussed.Working procedure of
analysis techniques such as nodal method and mesh analysis method is explained. Some
of the Network theorems such as Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorem, superposition theorem
etc. are Presented.
1.2 Charge, Current, Voltage and Power
The concept of charge comes from the atomic theory. In SI system the fundamental unit
of charge is coulomb and is represented by C. Charge is represented by the symbol Q or
q.The charge in motion represents current. It is defined as the ”rate of change of
charge”.Current is represented by I or i. unit for current is ampere. Mathematically
dq
current i = dt
.A current that is constant with time is called as direct current, or simply
d.c. A bidirectional current is termed as alternating current or simply a.c. Some examples
of a.c and d.c currents are shown in figure below. Voltage is defined as the amount of
work done to move a charge from one point to another point. Unit of voltage is volt.
Voltage is designated by v(t) or V .If a charge is transported from one point to another
1
2 CHAPTER 1. D.C.CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
Figure 1.1: First three are examples of a.c current. Fourth one is an example of a D.C.
current.
through a potential difference certain energy W is transferred. The rate of energy transfer
is Called power. Power is denoted by P or p.Units of power is watt.Mathematically power,
dw
p= dt
. Power is simply product of voltage and current, p = vi.
1.3 Kirchhoff ’s Laws
Node is an interconnecting point of two or more number of elements in a circuit.According

to KCL ”the total current entering a node is equal to the current leaving that
node”.According to Kirchhoff’s voltage law or KVL ” the sum of all voltages in a
loop is equal to zero”.
Example Problem 1.1 By using KVL find Vx in the following circuit.

Sol:- Writing KVL in the circuit,
V3 + V2 − V4 + V1 + Vx = 0
⇒ Vx = −V3 − V2 + V4 − V1
1.4 Ideal and practical Voltage and Current sources
An ideal independent voltage source maintains constant voltage across its terminals in-
dependent of load resistance connected across its terminals. An ideal voltage source will
1.5. RESISTOR 3
have zero source resistance. The circuit symbol and the V-I characteristics of an ideal
voltage source are shown in figure below.
All practical sources will have some internal resistance which is shown in series with
an ideal source. The circuit symbol and V-I characteristics are shown below.
For a dependent voltage source, value of voltage depends on other voltage or current in
the circuit. The circuit symbol of a dependent voltage source is shown below. Independent
and dependent a.c sources are shown in figure below.
An ideal current source maintains constant value of current across its terminals in-
dependent of the load resistance connected across its terminals. An ideal current source
has an infinitely large input resistance. A practical current source will have a resistance
in parallel with an ideal current source. The circuit symbol and V-I characteristics of an
ideal, practical current source are shown in the figure below.
For a dependent current source the value of depends on another current or voltage
elsewhere in the circuit. The circuit symbol is shown in figure. Independent and dependent
a.c. current sources are shown in the figure.
1.5 Resistor
In an ideal resistor current and voltage are defined by ohm’s law v = Ri, where R is the
amount of resistance offered by the resistor and its unit is ohm Ω. The circuit symbol
and the V-I characteristics are shown in figure1.4. The expression for resistor current is
Figure 1.2: Circuit symbol of a resistor
v 1
i= R
= Gv , Where G = R
is called as conductance and its units are mhos or siemens.
v2
The power developed across the resistor is P = vi = i2 R = R
watts. This power is
converted into heat and is dissipated to environment. So the resistor is a memory less
element.
Series connection When n number of resistors R1 , R2 , R3 − − − −Rn are connected in

series they can be added.
REQ = R1 + R2 + R3 + − − − − − − − + RN (1.1)
Example problems Parallel connection When n number of resistors is connected in par-

allel, the equivalent resistance is given by
1 1 1 1
= + +−−−+ (1.2)
Req R1 R2 Rn
1.6 Capacitor
The circuit symbol and voltage polarities of a capacitor is shown below. The current
entering into one terminal of a capacitor is given by the expression,
dq dv
i(t) = =C (1.3)
dt dt
The integral relation between voltage and current of a capacitor is given by
Zt
1
v(t) = i(t)dt (1.4)
C
−∞
Where t is variable of integration.Splitting the integration as sum of two integrals
Z0 Zt
1 1
v(t) = i(t)dt + i(t)dt (1.5)
C C
−∞ 0
Where the First term represents the value of the capacitor voltage at t=0.So the expression
for the voltage across capacitor at time t can be written as
Zt
1
v(t) = v(0) + i(t)dt (1.6)
C
0
So the capacitor can be called as memory element.

1.7. INDUCTOR 5
1.6.1 Properties Of A Capacitor
• A capacitor acts as an open circuit to d.c.
• Capacitor stores energy in an electric field. The energy stored will be w(t) = 12 Cv 2 (t)
joules.
• When n numbers of capacitors are connected in parallel they can be added. Ceq =
C1 + C2 + − − − − +Cn .
1 1 1 1
• For the Series connection of capacitors, Ceq
= C1
+ C2
+ C3
+ − − − − + C1n .
1
Rt
• Voltage across terminals of a capacitor is given by v(t) = C
i(t)dt + v(0)
0
• In a capacitor voltage can not change instantaneously, it will take certain time to
change from one value to another value.
1.7 Inductor
Inductor stores energy in the magnetic field. The circuit symbol and voltage polarities of
an inductor are as shown in figure 1.16.The voltage and current are related to each other
as
di
v=L (1.7)
dt
Where L is an inductance having the units of webers per ampere or Henry. The integral
relation between voltage and current of an inductor is
Zt
1
i(t) = i(0) + v(t)dt (1.8)
L
0
Where i(0) is the initial current in an inductor.
1.7.1 Properties of an inductor
• The inductor acts as short circuit to d.c.

• In an inductor current can not change instantaneously, it will take certain time to
change from one value to another value.
• Inductor stores energy in the magnetic field. The energy stored is given by the
expression w(t) = 21 Li2 (t) joules.
• When n number of inductors is connected in series they can be added. Leq =

L1 + L2 + L3 + − − − + Ln .
1 1 1 1
• When n number of Inductors is connected in parallel Leq
= L1
+ L2
+−−−+ Ln
1.8 Nodal Voltage Method
Solution: Nodal analysis technique is used for the analysis of electric circuits making use
of KCL. The following is the procedure using nodal voltage method.
• Identify the number of nodes in a circuit and the number of branches connected to
these nodes.
• Select a node to which maximum number of elements or branches connected as

reference node or datum node.
• Assign node voltages to these N − 1 non-reference nodes with respect to datum

node. Let these voltages be V1 , V2 , − − − − VN −1
• Identify the no.of dependent or independent voltage sources present in the circuit.
If there is a voltage source in the circuit, then ”super-node” is present. Voltage
source can be present in between two non-reference nodes or in-between a non-
reference node and a reference node.
• If the voltage source is present in between two non-reference nodes
1. Write super node KCL
2. Express voltage source in terms of non-reference voltages.

1.9. MESH CURRENT METHOD 7
• If the voltage source is present between a non-reference node and a reference node,
express Voltage source value in terms of non-reference voltage. No need to write
KCL.
• Write KCL’S for the remaining nodes in the circuit.
• Solve these equations using Cramer’s rule to find unknown node voltages.
1.9 Mesh Current Method
Solution: This mesh current method is used for the analysis of Planar circuits. The
following is the procedure for the mesh analysis.
• For a given circuit identify the number of meshes (N) in the circuit.
• Assign N number of mesh currents in the clockwise direction.
• Identify the no. of dependent or independent current sources present in the circuit.
If there is a current source in the circuit, then ”super-Mesh” is present. Current
source can be present in between two meshes or on the outer periphery of the mesh.
• If the current source is present in between two loops
1. Write super mesh KVL
2. Express current source value in terms of assigned mesh currents.
• If a current source is present on the outer periphery of a particular mesh then that
mesh Current value is equal to value of current source.
• Write KVL’s in the remaining meshes
• By using Cramer’s rule find the mesh currents.
The following is the comparison of the two analysis methods.

S.no Nodal voltage method Mesh current method

1 This method is based on KCL This method is based on KVL
2 If there are N numbers of nodes in If there is N number of meshes
the Circuit N-1 KCL’s are obtained. in the circuit N Number of KVL’s
should be present.
3 This is suitable for any type of net- This is suitable only for planar net-
works works
4 This method is preferred when If the circuit contains more num-
more number Of current sources is ber of Voltage sources this method
present. is preferred.
1.10 Voltage Division
Consider two resistors R1 and R2 connected in series with a voltage source of value V
volts as shown in figure below.According to voltage division,
R1
V1 = V (1.9)
R1 + R2
R2
V1 = V (1.10)
R1 + R2
1.11 Current Division
Consider a circuit with two resistors R1 and R2 connected in parallel with a current
source of value I as shown in the figure. Let I1 and I2 be the currents flowing through
the resistors.Then according to current division,
V R2
I1 = = I (1.11)
R1 R1 + R2
V R1
I2 = = I (1.12)
R2 R1 + R2
Current division is applicable only for a circuit with two resistors. Voltage division can
be applied to a circuit with n number of resistors.
1.12. DUALITY 9
1.12 Duality
Two circuits are said to be dual to each other if the KCL in one circuit will have the same
form as that of the KVL in another circuit.
V oltage Current
KV L KCL
Resistor Conduc tan ce
Inductor Capacitor
Node Mesh
Short Circuit OpenCircuit
Series P arallel
1.12.1 Dot Method
The following is the procedure for drawing a dual network
• Place a dot inside of each mesh and one dot outside. Label each node with a number.
• If an element is present only in one mesh draw a line from the dot corresponding to
that mesh to the dot present outside passing through that particular element.
• If an element is common between two meshes draw a line connecting corresponding

dots passing through that element.
• Replace each line by the dual element.
The above method is called as dot method. For planar networks only dual network is
possible.
1.13 Source Transformations
Two sources are said to be equivalent if for any given load resistance connected to the
sources, the same load voltage and current are produced.
Example Problem 1.1 Find the equivalent current source between X − Y using
source transformations [Andhra University]
Sol:- Converting 10V, 2Ω into a current source
Similarly converting 2Ω, 5V source into a current source in parallel with a resistance
The given circuit will become,
Again using source transformation the circuit will be,
Combining voltage sources, and using resistance combinations, the circuit simplifies
to
Again using source transformation
Example Problem 1.1 Use source transformation technique to find the current I in
the circuit shown below.
Sol:-Converting 12V, 6Ω as a current source using source transformation,
Using resistance combinations,
Converting 2A, 4Ω source into voltage source,
Converting 8V, 8Ω source into current source,
Adding current sources, the circuit simplifies to
Using current division, load current
8
I= 7 = 3.5A
8+2+6
1.14 Superposition Theorem
super position theorem is useful in the analysis of linear circuits with more than one source.
This theorem is applicable for circuits containing linear elements. Superposition theorem
states that ”In a linear network containing several independent sources, the
overall response at any point in the network equals the sum of responses due
to each independent source acting, with all sources made inactive”. By the
1.14. SUPERPOSITION THEOREM 11
term inactive means replacing a source with its internal resistance. So, an ideal voltage
source is to be replaced with a short circuit when it is made inactive or killed. Similarly,
an independent current source is to be replaced with an open circuit when it is killed.
A dependent source can never be killed. Power can not be calculated directly using
superposition theorem.
Solved problem 2.3:- Find the current I through resistor, R using super position
theorem.
Sol:- when 2.5V source active and 5V source killed, let I1 be the current flowing through
resistor R.The circuit used to find I1 will be,
2.5
Ix = = 1A
2 + 1//1
Using current division,
1
I1 = Ix = 0.5A
1+1
When 2.5V source killed and 5V source active, let I2 be the current flowing through
resistor R.The circuit used to find I2 will be,
5
Iy = = 3A
1 + 2//1
Using current division,
2
I2 = Iy = 2A
2+1
using superposition theorem, current flowing, I = I1 + I2 = 0.5 + 2 = 2.5A.
Solved problem 2.4:- find the current through 10 ohm resistor in the following
circuit using superposition theorem [kerala University april.2004]
Sol:- when 100V source is killed and 10A source is active let I1 be the current. The
circuit used to find I1 will be,
By making use of source transformation the circuit will become,
Writing KVL in the circuit, 2.5 I1 + 15 I1 -50 = 0==¿ I1 = 50/17.5 = 2.857amp.
when 100V source is active and 10A source is killed, let I2 be the current. The circuit
used to find I2 will be,

Let V be the voltage across 5 ohm resistor, using voltage division,
5//(10+5) 300 V = ———————-100 = ——- = 42.86volts. 5+5//(10+5) 7
V 20 then, I2 = ———- = ——- = 2.857 amp. 10+5 7
using superposition theorem, total current I = I1 + I2 = 5.714amp.
solved problem 2.5:- By applying superposition theorem, find the power absorbed
by the resistor R shown in the following figure.
Sol:- let I1 be the current flowing when 120V source is active and 60V source is
killed. The circuit used to calculate I1 will be,
Applying KVL in the loop, 20 I1 + [20//40] I1 +[20//20] I1 +120 = 0==¿ I1 =
-360/130 = -2.8amp. let I2 be the current flowing when 120V source is killed and 60V
source is active. The circuit used to calculate I2 will be,
Writing KVL in the circuit, 20 I2 + [20//40] I2 +[20//20] I2 60 = 0==¿ I2 = 180/130
= 1.385amp Using superposition theorem, total current I = I1 + I2 = -1.415amp. Power
absorbed by the resistor, P = I2R = 40.04watts.
1.15 Millman’s Theorem
This theorem is used to reduce any number of parallel voltage sources into a single voltage
source. According to this theorem ”if n number of voltage sources of values
V1 , V2 , V3 − − − − − − − − − − − − − Vn with internal resistances R1 , R2 , R3 , − − − −
− − −Rn are connected in parallel, then these voltage sources can be replaced
by a single voltage source V in series with a resistance Req ”, where
V1 G1 + V2 G2 + − − − + Vn Gn
V = (1.13)
G1 + G2 + − − +Gn
1 1
where G1 = R1
,G2 = R2
so on,and
1
Req = (1.14)
G1 + G2 + − − +Gn
1.16. DUAL OF MILLMAN’S THEOREM 13
1.16 Dual of Millman’s Theorem
According to this ” if there are n number of current sources of values I1 , I2 , I3 , −−

− − − − − − − − In with internal Resistances R1 , R2 , R3 , − − − − − − −Rn are
connected in series, then these current sources can be replaced by a single
current source I in parallel with a resistance Req ” where,
I1 R1 + I2 R2 + − − − + In Rn
I= (1.15)
R1 + R2 + − − +Rn
and
Req = R1 + R2 + − − +Rn (1.16)
Solved problem2.6:- use millman,s theorem to simplify the circuit shown in figure
below to a single voltage source. Find the current through load resistor when RL =
10ohm.
Sol:- from the circuit, G1 =1/R1= 1/20,G2=1/R2 = 1/10, G3=1/R3 = 1/50and
G4=1/R4 = 1/10, 1 Req = ——————– = 3.7037 G1+G2+G3+G4
V1G1+V2G2+V3G3+V4G4 [12/20]+[6/10]+[-10/50]+[-5/10] V = ———————
———– = —————————————— G1+G2+G3+G4 [1/20]+[1/10]+[-1/50]+[-
1/10] 0.5 = ——- = 1.85volts. 0.27
The simplified circuit using millman’s theorem is
1.85 Load current, IL = ————– = 0.135amp 10+3.7037
solved problem 2.7:- Using Millman’s theorem, find the current through 10ohm
resistor of the network shown below[S.V.U.May 2002]
From the circuit, G1 =1/R1= 1/5,G2=1/R2 = 1/10, G3=1/R3 = 1/6, 1 Req = ——
——— = 2.143ohm G1+G2+G3
V1G1+V2G2+V3G3 [40/5]+[60/10]+[20/6] V = ———————– = ———————
———— G1+G2+G3 [1/5]+[1/10]+[1/6] 1040 = ——- = 37.142volts. 28 The simplified
circuit using millman’s theorem is
37.142 Load current, IL = ————– = 11.82amp 10+2.413
1.17 Thevenin’s Theorem
This theorem provides a method to reduce a linear circuit to a circuit consisting of a

voltage source in series with a resistance with respect to terminals of interest.According
to thevenin’s theorem” any linear circuit viewed from any terminals can be
replaced by a voltage source VT H in series with a resistance RT H . The value of
VT H is calculated by open circuiting the terminals A and B. Thevenin’s resistance, RT H
is the equivalent resistance appearing by looking into terminals A and B by killing all
independent sources. These quantities are related to each other as VT H = RT H ISC Where
ISC is the current flowing through the load when it is short circuited.
1.18 Norton’s Theorem
Like thevenin’s theorem, Norton’s theorem also used for reducing a linear circuit. Ac-
cording to Norton’s theorem ”any network such as the one shown in figure (a)
viewed from any two terminals can be replaced by a current source ISC in
parallel with the resistance RT H .” To find the Norton’s equivalent of a given circuit,
first find thevenin’s equivalent circuit as outlined in the procedure for thevenin’s theorem.
Then apply source transformation to find the Norton’s equivalent.
Solved problem 2.8:- Determine the current in the 5 ohm resistor for the following
circuit using thevenin’s theorem.
Sol:- To find RTH Kill all the sources, i.e 10V source is to be short circuited and 4A
source is to be open-circuited. The circuit for the calculation of RTH is,
RTH = 3+[2//2] = 4 To find ISC Short circuit 5 resistor and assume the current
flowing as ISC. The circuit for the calculation of ISC will be,
Writing KCL at node, V V V-10 — + 4+—–+——— = 0==¿V=3/4 volts. 3 2 2 V

1 ISC = —- = —-amp. 3 4 Thevenin voltage, VTH = RTH ISC = 4[1/4]=1V. So, the
thevenin equivalent circuit will be,
1.19. MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM 15
Current flowing through the 5 resistor is, 1 I = ——- = 111.11mA. 4+5+

Solved Problem 2.9:- Determine the thevenin equivalent circuit with respect to
terminals a and b.
Sol:- Since the circuit contains a dependent source, RTH cannot be computed di-
rectly. Calculate ISC and VTH and find RTH as the ratio of VTH to ISC. To find ISC
Short circuit terminals a and b and assume the current as ISC. Writing KVL equations
in meshes, 2 ISC 2VX +1(ISC+I) = 0 (1) 2VX +1(ISC+I)+2I+2+I =0 (2) and VX =
I (3) From equations 1,2 and 3 3 ISC I =0==¿3 ISC I (4) Substituting eqn.4 in eqn.2,
2[3 ISC] +1(ISC+3 ISC)+2[3 ISC] +2+3 ISC =0==¿ISC = 2/7 = -285.714mA. To find
VTH Open circuit terminals a and b and assume the voltage as VTH. Assume the current
flowing as I. writing KVL in the circuit, 2+I 2VX+I+2I=0 (1) and VX =I (2) solving
eqn.1 and 2, I= 1amp. VTH = 2VX I = 2I I = I = 1V. VTH Thevenin resistance, RTH
= ——- = 3.5 ISC The thevenin equivalent of the above circuit is
Solved Problem 2.10:- Find the thevenin equivalent of the network shown below.
Sol:- since the circuit contains only dependent sources, connect an independent volt-
age source of value 1V across terminals a and b. Assume the current flowing as I. then
RTH = 1V/I. The circuit is shown below.
Writing KCL, V V I= —–+2VX = 2+—- [since VX =1V] (1) 8 8 1 V but, I = ——–
(2) 4 from eqn.(1) and (2), V= 14/3 1 V 17 From (2) I = ——- = —— therefore, RTH
= 1V/I = 12/17 4 12 The thevenin equivalent is
1.19 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
The maximum power transfer theorem states that ”maximum power is delivered to
the load when the load resistance is equal to the output resistance of the
circuit”.
Solved problem 2.11:- Find the value of load resistance so that maximum power is
delivered to it.
Sol:- Killing all sources, circuit used to find the thevenin resistance will be,
RTH = 6+[18//9] = 6+6 = 12 When the value of load resistance is 12 , maximum

power will be delivered.
Solved problem 2.12:- In the circuit shown find the load resistance RL for maxi-
mum power transfer. Also find the value of maximum power transferred to RL [Kerala
University june 2000].
Sol:- To find RTH Killing all sources, the circuit used to find RTH is,
RTH = 1+1//3 = 1.33 . To find ISC Short circuit terminals a and b and assume the
current as ISC. Circuit used to find ISC will be,
From the circuit, Va =6V. Writing KCL at node b, Vb Va Vb Vb ————- + ——-

+ ——— =2==¿ Vb = 1.714 volts. 3 1 1 so, ISC = Vb /1 = 1.714 amp.
Thevenin voltage VTH = RTH ISC = 2.285V The thevenin equivalent circuit is
For maximum power transfer, RL = RTH = 1.333 (2.285)2 Maximum power = ———-
= 0.97w 4(1.333)
1.20 Star to Delta Conversions
Consider a star or T-network and or delta networks as shown in figure 3.9. According to
this theorem ”a star network can be converted into a delta network and vice-
versa provided certain relations are maintained between the elements of two
networks”. A star network can be converted into a delta network with the following
equations
RB RC
R1 = (1.17)
RA + RB + RC
RA RC
R2 = (1.18)
RA + RB + RC
RB RA
R3 = (1.19)
RA + RB + RC
1.20. STAR TO DELTA CONVERSIONS 17
Similarly a delta network can be converted into a star network with the following equations
Fig.2.10 a) Delta network b) Star Network
R2 R3
RA = R2 + R3 + (1.20)
R1
R1 R3
RB = R1 + R3 + (1.21)
R2
R1 R2
RC = R1 + R2 + (1.22)
R3
Solved problem 2.13:- Find the effective resistance between A and B [Nagarjuna
Univ.april2005]
Sol:- Using delta to star conversion,
(3) (3) 1
RDN = =
3 + 3 + 12 2
(3) (12)
RBN = =2
3 + 3 + 12
(3) (12) 1
RDN = =
3 + 3 + 12 2
(4) (2)
RAN = =1
2+4+2
(2) (4)
RXN = =1
2+4+2
(2) (2) 1
RY N = =
2+4+2 2
The circuit simplifies to,
Req = 1 + 1 + 2 = 4
Solved problem 2.14:- using star-delta transformation find the current I in the
circuit shown
Sol:- converting delta into star network,

The circuit simplifies to,
Writing KV L in the circuit,
(3//6.5) I + I − 2 + I = 0
I = 0.4935A
1.21 Summary
• charge in motion represents current
• Voltage is defined as the amount of work done to move a charge from one point to
another point
• Node is an interconnecting point of two or more number of elements in a circuit.
• An ideal voltage source will have zero source resistance.
• An ideal current source will have Infinite source resistance.
• Capacitor acts as an open circuit to d.c.
• Inductor acts as Short circuit to d.c.
• For planar networks only dual network is possible.
• According to source transformation an ideal voltage source VS in series with a

resistance RS can be converted into a current source IS in parallel with RS and
vice- versa.
• super position theorem is useful in the analysis of linear circuits

1.22. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS 19
• Power can not be added directly using superposition theorem
• Using thevenin theorem any circuit can be reduced to a voltage source in series with
resistance
• Using nortons theorem any circuit can be reduced to a current source in parallel
with resistance
• Thevenin and nortons theorems are dual to each other
• Power delivered to a load is maximum when source resistance is equal to load resis-
tance.
• Maximum power transfer theorem finds application in radio, public addressing sys-
tem etc.
1.22 Objective Type Questions
1. Mesh Analysis is Applicable for ——————————– Circuits
2. Inductor acts as ————————————- to D.C.
3. Identify the correct Answer
(a) Resistor is an Active element
(b) Two resistors in Parallel can be added
(c) Capacitor acts as an open circuit to D.C
(d) KCL can be applied in a loop
4. The dual element of the capacitor is———————–
5. Identify the correct statement
(a) Node voltage method is based on KVL
(b) Mesh analysis is based on KCL

(c) For any type of circuit Dual is possible
(d) KVL and KCL are Dual to each other
6. A Node to which Maximum number of elements connected is called as —————

——–. The voltage at this Node is assumed to be ———————–
7. Which of the following is an example of non-linear Resistor
(a) PN junction Diode
(b) Inductor
(c) Capacitor
(d) Voltage source
8. Resistor Converts electrical energy into ———————–
9. Alternating current is ———————-
(a) Unidirectional
(b) Bi-Directional
(c) Have No Direction
(d) None of the Above
10. In the following Circuit, I1=3A and V2=4Volts. Then IS is Given By,
(a) 8A
(b) 6A
(c) 5A
(d) 10A
11. An active Network has
(a) No Current Source

(b) No Voltage Source
(c) None of the above
(d) Both of the above
12. The resistance offered by short circuit is ——————– Ideally
13. The current flowing in open circuit is ——————— Ideally
14. The Resistance offered by open circuit is —————- Ideally
15. The voltage across a short circuit is —————– Ideally
16. Number of KCL’S Possible for a circuit with N number of nodes is ————–
17. Number of KVL’S Possible for a circuit with N number of Meshes is ————–
18. Which of the following circuit elements has no memory?
(a) Resistor
(b) Inductor
(c) Capacitor
(d) None of the above
19. The resistance connected to a 5V d.c. supply Consumes a power of 50Watts. The
value of resistance is ———————
20. For the following circuit, the value of V3 is —————
21. Superposition Theorem is applicable to —————————— Networks.
22. Which of the following cannot be calculated directly using superposition Theorem?
(a) Voltage
(b) Current
(c) Power
(d) Resistance
23. Which of the following can not be killed?
(a) Independent Voltage Source
(b) Dependent Source
(c) Independent Current Source
(d) Resistor
24. Maximum power transfer theorem finds applications in ———————–
25. Find the thevenin equivalent of the following
26. Norton’s equivalent current for the following network is
(a) 2A
(b) 3A.
3
(c) 4
A
(d) 5A
27. If we convert the circuit as a single voltage source in series with resistance. The
value of the resistance will be,
(a) 9
(b) 10
(c) 4
(d) 6
28. The equivalent Star network consists of each element of value
(a) 5R
(b) 8R
2
(c) 3
R
(d) 4R
29. The voltage Labeled V is given by
5
(a) 13
48
(b) 13
23
(c) 13
R
1
(d) 13
30. The value of thevenin Resistance for the following circuit is
(a) 9Ω
(b) 6Ω
(c) 24Ω
(d) 30Ω
31. To Kill a Current Source, The Terminals has to be ———
(a) Replaced with Short circuit
(b) Replaced with Open circuit
(c) Both of the above
32. To Kill a Voltage Source, The Terminals has to be ———
(a) Replaced with Short circuit
(b) Replaced with Open circuit
(c) Both of the above
33. Find the value of i1

(a) 3A
(b) 9A
(c) 4A
(d) 6A
34. An inductor of value 4h carrying a current of 2amp stores energy of value ———-
(a) 8joules
(b) 10joules
(c) 20joules
(d) 9joules
35. The thevenin equivalent resistance of the following circuit is
(a) 6Ω
(b) 12Ω
(c) 3Ω
(d) 10Ω
36. A network which does not contain linear elements is called as ———————
1.23 True Or False Questions
1. Inductor is a passive element.
2. Node Voltage method is based on KVL.
3. Power dissipated by the resistor is given by Li2
4. An ideal d.c voltage source can be called as Battery.
5. In case of an inductor voltage and current will have some phase angle.
1.23. TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 25
6. Series and Parallel Networks are dual to each other.
7. Dot method is used to draw Dual of a network.
8. When a circuit consists of a current source super node is present.
9. Current division is applicable when a circuit contains a current source in parallel

with N number of resistors.
10. Power is simply product of voltage and current.
11. A Dependent source can be killed.
12. Thevenin and Norton theorems are dual to each other.
13. A star network can be converted into a delta network.
14. Superposition Theorem is valid for linear networks only.
15. A voltage source in series with resistor can be converted into a current source in
parallel with resistor.
16. Maximum power is delivered to the load when the load resistance is equal to the
Source resistance.
17. An ideal voltage source is to be replaced with a short circuit when it is made inactive.
18. Millman’s theorem is used to reduce any number of Series current sources into a
single voltage source.
19. Diode is a linear Resistor.
20. Superposition obeys the principle of linearity.

1.24 Review Questions
1. State and Explain KCL and KVL.
2. Distinguish Between i) Independent and Dependent sources ii) Ideal and Practical
sources.
3. Write a note on source transformation.
4. State Maximum Power transfer theorem.
5. Derive the equations for energy stored in an Inductor and capacitor.
6. State Thevenin’s Theorem.
7. Write the V-I characteristics of three basic Circuit Elements.
8. Explain the concept of Duality.
9. What is an active network?
10. Explain clearly the differences between node voltage method and mesh analysis
method.
11. Show that N number of resistors in series can be added.
12. Derive an expression for the calculation of the parallel connection of N number of
inductors connected in Parallel.
13. Show that thevenin and Norton’s theorems are dual to each other.
14. Derive the condition for the maximum power transfer in a Network.
Chapter 2
First and Second Order circuits
2.1 Introduction
First order circuits are defined by first order differential equation. If the circuit contains
only one storage element it is a first order one. Calculation of the Responses of RL, RC
circuits with and without excitations is presented. If the circuit contains both the energy
storage elements, then the circuit will be second order one. A series RLC and parallel
RLC circuit, their response calculations is the discussion in this chapter.
2.2 Natural and Forced Response
Natural response of the circuit is the response under zero input conditions. In such cases
the circuit is a source free one.Forced response of the circuit is the response under some
excitation or input conditions. Under such conditions the initial conditions are assumed
to be zero.Complete response of the circuit is sum of the responses produced under zero
initial conditions and zero input conditions.Total response of the circuit is sum of the
natural and forced responses.
27
28 CHAPTER 2. FIRST AND SECOND ORDER CIRCUITS
2.3 TimeConstant
Time constant is defined as ”time required for the response to fall to 36.8 percent
of the initial value”.Time constant is also defined as ”the time required by the
response to rise to 63.2 percent of the final value”.For an RL Circuit the ratio
L/R is called as the time constant and is denoted with.It has the units of time. For an RC
circuit the time constant is simply the product of equivalent resistance and Equivalent
capacitance and τ = Req Ceq .
2.4 calculation of complete Response of an RL Cir-
cuit
• From the given circuit draw a circuit which is valid for t > 0 condition
• Find the value of equivalent inductance Leq .With respect to Leq terminals find
equivalent resistance Req by making all the sources inactive. If the circuit contains
any dependent sources use thevenin theorem to find the equivalent resistance Req.
Leq
Find the time constant τ = Req
.
• Find the steady state value of the inductor current in the circuit for t > 0 i.e final
value iL (∞) by making inductor as short circuit.
• Draw the circuit valid at t < 0 and find the value of iL (0−) by making inductor
short circuited. From this find iL (0+) (initial value)which is same as iL (0−) since
in an inductor current can not change instantaneously.
• Then the inductor current is calculated by using the formula iL (t) = f inalvalue −
t
(f inalvalue − initialvalue)e− τ
• To find the variables related to resistors same procedure is to be adopted.
• But in a resistor voltage and current change instantaneously. So iR (0−),iR (0+).

Here initial value refers the value of voltage or current at time t = 0+.
2.5. CALCULATION OF COMPLETE SOLUTION OF AN RC CIRCUIT 29
2.5 calculation of complete solution of an RC Circuit
The procedure for the calculation of total response of an RC circuit will be as mentioned
below.
• From the given circuit draw a circuit which is valid for t > 0 condition.
• Find the value of equivalent Capacitance Ceq .With respect to Ceq terminals find
equivalent resistance Req by killing all the sources. If the circuit contains any
dependent sources use thevenin theorem to find the equivalent resistance Req .Find
time constant τ = Ceq Req .
• Find the steady state value of the capacitor voltage in the circuit for t > 0 i.e final
value VC (∞) by making Capacitor open circuited.
• Draw the circuit valid at t < 0 and find the value ofVC (0−) by making capacitor
open circuited. From this find VC (0+) (initial value)which is same as VC (0−) since
in a capacitor voltage can not change instantaneously.
• Then the capacitor voltage is calculated by using the formula VC (t) = f inalvalue −
t
(f inalvalue − initialvalue)e− τ
• To find the variables related to resistors same procedure is to be adopted.
• But in a resistor voltage and current change instantaneously. So iR (0−),iR (0+).

Here initial value refers the value of voltage or current at time t = 0+.
2.6 Series RLC circuit
consider a source free series RLC circuit as shown in figure 4.1. Applying KVL to the
circuit,
di 1
Z
Ri + L + idt = 0
dt C
Figure 2.1: Series RLC Circuit.
Differentiating this equation once with respect to time and dividing all terms by L, so as
to set the coefficient of higher order derivative to unity, we obtain
d2 i R di 1
2
+ + i=0
dt L dt LC
Assume the solution i(t) as kest . Substituting this assumed solution in eqn.(4.14) , we
obtain
R kest
s2 kest + ksest + =0
L LC
This can be written as

2 R 1
s + s+ Aest = 0
L LC
Since kest is not zero the second order term in terms of s should be zero. Therefore we
have

2 R 1
s + s+ =0
L LC
This equation is called as characteristic equation of the differential equation in eqn.(4.13).
The roots of this equation are
s 2
R R 1
s1,2 =− ± −
2L 2L LC
Where positive sign stands for s1 and negative sign for s2 . The term under square root
called as discriminant decides the type of response. Define σ = R
and ω0 = √ 1 .σ is
2L LC
called as neper frequency or damping factor and ω0 is called as natural frequency.

neper frequency is expressed in nepers per second and natural frequency is expressed in
radians per second. The general expression for response is given by
i(t) = k1 es1 t + k2 es2 t

2.6. SERIES RLC CIRCUIT 31
If the value of σ > ω0 the response is said to be a over damped response. If σ = ω0

then the two roots will be equal and the response is a critically damped one. If σ < ω0
the two roots are imaginary and the response is an under damped response.
Over damped Response
If σ > ω0 then two roots s1 and s2 will be distinct and real. Then the expression for
current i(t) is given by,
i(t) = k1 es1 t + k2 es2 t
and k1 and k2 are the constants determined from initial conditions. A typical over damped
response variation with respect to time will be as shown in Fig.4.2.
Critically Damped Response
Critically damped behavior occurs when the element values satisfy the relation,σ = ω0 so
the roots will be repeated and is given by
R
s1,2 = −
2L
The expression for current is given by i(t) = est (k1 t + k2) where k1 and k2 are constants to
be determined form the initial conditions. A typical critically damped response is shown
in fig.4.3
Under damped Response
If σ < ω0 , then two roots will be complex numbers and conjugates to each other. Then,
s
2
R R 1
s1,2 = − ±j − = −σ ± jωd
2L 2L LC
where s 2
R 1
ωd = −
2L LC
R
is natural resonant frequency.and σ = 2L
. Substituting the values of s1 s2 in eqn.4.19,and
simplifying using euler’s identity,
i(t) = e−σt (A1 cos ωd t + A2 sin ωd t)

where A1 and A2 are constants to be determined from the initial conditions. A typical
under damped response is shown in fig.4.4. Comparison of three types of responses is
shown in fig.4.5. The following are the observations
Figure 2.2: Comparison of over damped,under damped and critically damped responses.
• All the three responses are of decaying exponentials in nature.
• For an over damped response roots of the characteristic equation are real, unequal,
and negative.
• For a critically damped response roots are equal and negative
• For an under damped response roots are complex conjugates to each other.
• The under damped response exhibits oscillations.
• Overdamped response takes longer time to reach the final value compared to the
rest of two responses.
• Critically damping response takes very less time to reach the final value.
• If we desire the fastest response without oscillations the critically damped response
is preferred.
2.7. COMPLETE RESPONSE OF A SERIES RLC CIRCUIT 33
2.7 Complete Response Of a Series RLC Circuit
Total response of a circuit is sum of forced response and natural responses. Natural
response can be any one of the above mentioned three types. The forced response is
calculated in the same way as that for RL and RC circuits. The following is the procedure
for the calculation of total response of a series RLC circuit.
1. Find the characteristic equation of the circuit. Calculate τ and initial conditions.
2. Decide the type of natural response. The response can be over damped, under
damped or a critically damped one.
3. Calculate the voltages and currents at time t=0+
4. Determine the unknown co-efficients in the solution obtained in step2 using the
initial values.
5. Now calculate the forced response of the circuit
6. Total response is the sum of Forced and natural responses.
2.8 parallel RLC circuit
Consider a Source free parallel RLC circuit shown in fig4.6. Writing a KCL equation for
the circuit,
v dv 1
Z
+C + vdt = 0
R dt L
1
Differentiating equation 4.20 with respect to time and multiplying all terms by C
, we
obtain
d2 v 1 dv 1
2
+ + v=0
dt RC dt LC
The characteristic equation can be written as

2 1 1
s + s+ =0
RC LC
The roots of the above equation are

s 2
1 1 1
s1,2 =− ± − = −σ ± ω0
2RC 2RC LC
Where σ and ω0 are neper frequency and resonant frequency respectively. Depending
upon the relation between σ and ω0 three types of responses are possible, viz.overdamped,
critically damped and under damped responses.The following are the expressions for these
responses,
• Over damped case,
v(t) = k1 es1 t + k2 es2 t
• Under damped case,v(t) = est (k1 t + k2 )
• Critically damped case,
v(t) = e−σt (A1 cos ωd t + A2 sin ωd t)
where k ′ s and A′ s are the conditions to be determined from initial conditions.
2.9 Evaluation of initial conditions
The values of voltages and currents exist at t = 0 are called as initial conditions in
a circuit. The evaluation of all voltages and currents and their derivatives at t = 0+
constitutes the evaluation of initial conditions.
Consider the situation of applying a unit step voltage to a resistor. For a resistor
v(t) = Ri(t) , the current value is dependent upon the value of time. As time changes the
value of current also change. So for a resistor the value of current and voltages change
instantaneously.
If the unit step signal is applied to an inductor, for t < 0 it acts as an open circuit if the
initial value of current is zero. Since the value of current can not change instantaneously
in an inductor it acts as an open circuit at t = 0+ also. At t = ∞ inductor acts as short
2.10. SUMMARY 35
circuit if there is no initial value of current. If the inductor carries an initial amount of
current I0 it acts as a current source of value I0 amperes.
If the unit step signal is applied to a capacitor with zero initial stored energy it acts
as short circuit at t = 0+.At t = ∞ it acts as an open circuit. If there is any initial
amount of voltage V0 is stored in a capacitor it acts a voltage source of value V0 volts at
t = 0+.The equivalent circuits of all three passive elements at t = 0+ and at t = ∞ are
as shown in the following Table4.2 The following is the procedure for the calculation of
Figure 2.3: Behaviour of passive elements under initial conditions.
initial conditions in a given circuit.
• First Write KVL or KCL equations in the circuit
• Replace inductors and capacitors with their equivalent circuits at t= 0+ as given in

the table4.2.
• Resistors are left without change in the circuit.
• By making some algebraic manipulations find required conditions in the circuit.
2.10 Summary
• Natural response of the circuit is the response under zero input conditions
• Forced response of the circuit is the response under some excitation or input condi-
tions
• Total response of the circuit is sum of the natural and forced responses.
• For an RL circuit The ratio L/R is called as the time constant and is denoted with
• the product RC will have the units of seconds and is called as time constant For an
RC circuit
• time constant is defined as ”the time required by the response to rise to 63.2
• time constant is also defined as ”time required for the response to fall to 36.8
• The voltages and current in general can be represented in terms of unit step function
• If the circuit contains two energy storage elements, then the circuit will be second
ordered one
• Second order circuits are used to model the response of an airplane, to model a
mechanical system etc.
• Natural response of an RLC circuit can be over damped, under damped or a critically
damped one.
• In an under damped response there will be oscillations
• Total response of a circuit is the sum of natural and forced responses
• To find the total response of a circuit initial conditions are to be calculated.
• For a resistor the value of current and voltages change instantaneously.
• In an inductor current cannot change instantaneously.
• In a capacitor voltage can not change instantaneously.
• voltage across a capacitor and current through an inductor at time t=0+ are called
initial conditions
• under damped response exhibits oscillations
• Critically damping response takes very less time to reach the final value.
1. For an RL circuit time constant is the Product of ————————————
2. Time constant of RC Circuit is ——————–
3. The units of σ are —————————–
4. Natural frequency ω0 will have the Units of ——————————–
5. If σ = 0 the Type of the Response is called as —————————
6. Time constant will have the units of ——————————
7. Voltage across capacitor and current through an inductor at time t = 0+ are called
as — —————————-
8. In order to have faster response with less damping ——————— Response is

preferred.
9. The energy stored in an inductor ——————— with time in an RL circuit.
d2 v
10. The Units of dt2
is ——————-
11. Time-constant of a RC Circuit is the time during which voltage rises to ————-
of its final value.
12. A Parallel RLC circuit has R=5,L=3 and C=1/50. The roots of the characteristic
equation are —————
13. A capacitor with zero initial voltage acts as ———————– at t = 0+
14. An inductor with zero initial current acts as ————————-at t = 0+
15. Voltage across resistor ——————- change instantaneously.
16. A capacitor with an initial voltage of 6v acts as a ———– source at t = 0+
17. A capacitor at t = ∞ with zero initial voltage acts as ——————

18. The dimensions of 1/RC is —————
19. The Dimensions of 1/ LC is ———————-
20. U(t − 5) = 1 for ————
21. U(−t + 2) = 0 for ——————-
22. Natural Response of the circuit obtained under ———– conditions.
23. Forced Response takes ———- into consideration.
24. In a source-free Circuit, Response Reaches to zero value in ———— time-constants.
25. A resistor of value 5 , at t = 0+ behaves as ——————–.
26. In an RLC circuit which response exhibits oscillations?
27. Mechanical systems can be Modelled as ————– Circuit.
1. Natural response is dependent on the nature of the circuit elements.
2. Natural response and forced response are same.
3. The Units of time constant is HZ.
4. δ(t) is called as Unit step function.
5. For over damped case ω0 = 0
6. The values of voltages and currents exist at t = 0+ are called as initial conditions
in a circuit.
7. For a resistor the value of current and voltages change instantaneously.
8. Capacitor acts as Voltage source at t = 0+

9. The Units of σ and ω0 is same.
10. In a circuit Total Response is sum of the Natural and Forced responses.
11. First order circuit contains three energy storage elements.

Chapter 3
A.C. Circuit Analysis
3.1 Chapter Outline
This chapter covers the following
• Millman’s theorem and its dual
• Tellegen’s theorem
• Thevenin and Norton’s theorems
• Superposition theorem
• Maximum power transfer theorem
• Substitution and compensation theorems
• Applications of above theorems
3.2 Introduction
In this chapter analysis of circuits using sinusoidal forcing function is discussed. Fun-
damentals of sinusoidal forcing function are explained. Impedance and admittance were
defined. Analysis of circuits with sinusoidal input is explained. Finally the definitions
41
42 CHAPTER 3. A.C. CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
of RMS and average values are discussed. The resonance concept finds applications in
several communication circuits. A resonant circuit is characterized by quality factor,
resonant frequencies and bandwidth. The quality factor Q is then defined in terms of
series and parallel resonant frequencies. Comparison is made among series and parallel
resonant circuits. Three Phase sources, Loads and their Interconnections were also dis-
cussed.In this chapter focus is made on a.c network theorems. Using network theorems,
the given circuit can be reduced to find the response of interest. Relevant derivations,
Areas of applications of theorems were presented. Mathematical examples covered after
each section makes the concept clearer.
3.3 Fundamentals of alternating current
The word a.c is an acronym of alternating current. This can be any type of alteration
but in circuit analysis this refers generally to sinusoids. Consider a sinusoidally varying
voltage, v(t) = Vm sinωt Here Vm refers to amplitude of the voltage and t is the argument.
ω is called as radian frequency. The waveform swings between +Vm and -Vm . The distance
between two maximum values or between two minimum values is called as Time period
of the waveform and is designated with T . A sinusoidal function repeats itself every 2π
radians, and its period is therefore 2π radians. So, T = 2π The reciprocal of the time
period is called as cyclic frequency and is denoted with f . Units of frequency is hertz.
1
Thus, f = T
From eqns.(5.1) and (5.2) we can write the relation between radian frequency
and frequency as ωT = 2πf In general, a sinusoid can be written as v(t) = Vm sin(ωt + θ)
The additional term θ is called as phase angle. This phase angle θ is measured
in degrees.The phase angle is used to compare two sinusoidal signals when they have
same amplitude and frequency. A comparison of Vm sin(ωt + θ)and Vm sin(ωt) is shown
in fig.5.2.From the fig.5.2.a it can be noted that Vm sin(ωt + θ) achieves maximum or
minimum values prior to Vm sin(ωt). This means Vm sin(ωt + θ) is leading Vm sin(ωt) by
an angle of θ . Similarly, from Fig.5.2 b. it can be noted that Vm sin(ωt + θ) achieves
maximum or minimum values after Vm sin(ωt). This is called as lagging in phase. Usually
3.4. PHASOR 43
the value of θ will in the range −180o to180o .When θ = 180o the two signals are said to
be out of phase and if θ = 0o the two signals are said to be in phase to each other.
3.4 Phasor
Although in eqn.(5.4) sinusoidal waveform was written as Vm sin(ωt+θ) , but in a.c circuit
analysis, it is a standard convention to express voltage waveform as Vm cos(ωt + θ) These
sinusoids have three parameters amplitude Vm , frequency f , and phase θ . These three
parameters also used to characterize phasor. Phasor is a frequency domain representa-
tion of a current or voltage. Phasors are represented in capital letters. Representing v(t)
in exponential form, v(t) = Re(Vm ej(ωt+θ) ) . In a linear circuit under sinusoidal steady
state conditions operating at a frequency,ω , v(t) = Re(Vm ejθ ) and can be written as
V = Vm ∠θ . This representation is called as Phasor. Phasor gives the information of the
magnitude and phase angle of voltage or current.
3.4.1 Phasor equations of passive elements
Phasors are used to represent passive elements in the frequency domain. Let us consider
the case of Resistor. A resistor is defined in time-domain as v(t) = Ri(t). In the frequency
domain, V = RI.Where V and I are voltage and current phasors .For an inductor, in
di
time-domain, v(t) = L dt . In frequency domain V = jωLI. Similarly for a capacitor, in
time-domain i(t) = C dv
dt
. In the frequency domain I = jωCV .
Ratio of voltage phasor to current phasor is called as Impedance and is denoted by Z.
mathematically,
V
Z= = R + jX
I
Impedance Z is a complex number. Real part of Z is called as Resistance and the
imaginary part, X is called as reactance. Impedance Z is not a phasor. Units of Impedance
are ohms. Reciprocal of impedance is admittance, Y , whose units are mhos.
1 1 R − jX
Y = = = 2 = G + jB
Z R + jX R + X2
R
G=
R2 + X2
−X
B=
R2+ X2
Where G and B are conductance and susceptance respectively. The following are the
expressions for Impedance and admittance for passive elements.
Element Z Y
1
Resistor R G= R
1
Inductor jωL jωL
1
Capacitor jωC
jωC
3.5 Circuit analysis using phasors
Sinusoidal steady state analysis is possible by using the concepts of phasors and impedance.
By using phasors the complexity in the calculation is reduced. The Kirchhoff’s laws apply
to phasor voltages and currents as did in time-domain. Ohm’s law has the phasor notation
V = ZI. Source transformation allows the conversion of a voltage source in series with
impedance to a current source in parallel with the same impedance. Impedances in series
can be added as done previously for resistive circuits. Similarly, admittances in parallel
can be added. The steps in the analysis of a.c.circuits using phasors is
1. Check whether all the sources are operating at same frequency or not. If they are
operating at the same frequency, then impedances have unique values. If not it is
not possible to define a numeric value for reactances in the circuit.
2. Draw the frequency domain circuit from time-domain circuit by replacing sinusoids
with phasors and calculating element impedances at source frequency.
3. Calculate the phasors of interest by using analysis techniques to the frequency-

domain circuit.
4. Convert the resulting response phasors to time-domain.

3.6. THEOREMS 45
A.C.Mesh analysis
The final aim of the mesh analysis is to determine the unknown mesh current phasors.The
mesh equations for the a.c.circuit can be represented in a general form as [V ] = [Z][I]
Here [I] is the unknown current phasor matrix, whereas [V ] is the voltage phasor matrix.
The elements of impedance matrix [Z] are complex numbers. The matrix equations are
solved by using Cramer’s rule.
A.C node-voltage method
The nodal equations for the a.c.circuit can be represented in general form as [I] = [Y ][V ]
Here [V ] is the unknown source voltage phasor matrix, whereas [I] is the current pha-
sor matrix. The elements of admittance matrix [Y ] are complex numbers. The matrix
equations are solved by using Cramer’s rule.
3.6 Theorems
3.6.1 Millers’ theorem and it’s dual
Millers theorem is used to simplify the network when there is presence of an impedance
connected between two nodes. This theorem is useful for the simplification of circuits
with transistors, operational amplifiers, and bridged T networks etc. According to millers
theorem ” if an impedance Z is connected between any two nodes of a two-port
network , it can be split into two impedances Z1 and Z2 , with Z1 connected
between first node and a ground and Z2 connected between second node and
ground”.
The values of Z1 and Z2 are given by
Z
Z1 =
1 − Av
ZAv
Z1 =
Av − 1
V2
Where Av = V1
, is the voltage gain of a two port network Dual of millers theorem:-
If an impedance Z is connected between two loops of a two-port network as in fig.8.2 , it
can be split into two impedances Z1 and Z2 which are given by Z1 = Z(1 − AI ) (8.3)
Z (1 − AI )
Z2 =
AI
3.6.2 Tellegen’s theorem
Tellegen’s theorem states that ” the total power in a network is zero provided
the branches in the network satisfy the constraints imposed by kirchhoff ’s
laws.” Tellegen’s theorem is independent of Nature of the elements.
3.6.3 Superposition theorem
super position theorem is useful in the analysis of linear circuits with more than one
source. Superposition theorem states that ”In a linear network containing several
independent sources, the overall current flowing through a particular branch
or voltage across a particular branch equals the phasor sum of responses due
to each independent source acting, with all remaining sources made inactive
or killed”. By the term inactive means replacing a source with its internal resistance.
Superposition theorem can be applied to the circuit containing the sources operating at
different frequencies.
3.6.4 Millman’s theorem and it’s dual
This theorem is used reduce any number of parallel voltage sources into a single voltage
source. According to this ”if n number of voltage sources of values V1 , V2 , V3 −
−−−−−−−−−−−−Vn with internal resistances Z1 , Z2 , Z3 , −−−−−−−Zn are
connected in parallel, then these voltage sources can be replaced by a single
voltage source V in series with a resistance Zeq ”, where
V1 Y 1 + V2 Y 2 + − − − + Vn Y n
V = (3.1)
Y1 + Y2 + − − +Yn
3.6. THEOREMS 47
1 1
where Y1 = ,Y
Z1 2
= Z2
so on,and
1
Zeq = (3.2)
Y1 + Y2 + − − +Yn
3.6.5 Thevenin’s Theorem
This theorem provides a method to reduce a linear circuit to a circuit consisting of a

voltage source in series with an impedance with respect to terminals of interest. According
to thevenin’s theorem ” any linear circuit shown in figure (a) viewed from any
terminals can be replaced by a voltage source VT H in series with Impedance
ZT H as shown in figure (b).” The value of VT H is calculated by open circuiting the
terminals A and B. Thevenin’s resistance, ZT H is the equivalent impedance appearing by
looking into terminals A and B by making all independent sources killed. These quantities
are related to each other as VT H = ZT H ISC Where ISC is the current flowing through the
load when it is short circuited.
3.6.6 Norton’s theorem
Like thevenin’s theorem, Norton’s theorem provides a method for reducing a linear circuit.
According to Norton’s theorem ”any network such as the one shown in figure (a) viewed
from any two terminals can be replaced by a current source ISC in parallel with impedance
ZN as shown in figure (b).”
3.6.7 Maximum power transfer theorem
The maximum power transfer theorem states that ”maximum power is delivered to
the load when the load impedance is the complex conjugate of the output
impedance of the circuit”. That means in a.c circuits maximum power occurs when
the impedances are conjugately matched with each other.
3.6.8 Substitution theorem
According to this theorem,” In any linear bilateral network any branch carrying
a current I and having a voltage V across it’s terminals can be replaced by
an independent voltage source of value V or an independent current source
of value I without affecting other voltage and current in the network”. Let
us consider an nth branch in the circuit of impedance Zn in which the current is In and
voltage as Vn as shown in fig.8.9. According to substitution theorem this impedance can
be replaced by an independent voltage source of value Vn with the same polarities as
that of the nth branch or with an independent current source of value In with the same
direction.
3.6.9 Compensation theorem
According to this theorem ”In a linear bilateral network if any of the branches
is changed in impedance by a value rZ, the resultant change in current is
compensated by connecting a voltage source of value −rZI in series with the
modified branch”, where I is the current flowing initially in the modified branch.
3.7 Resonance
A circuit containing resistive, reactive elements is said to be in resonance when the ap-
plied voltage and current are in phase. At resonance the circuit behaves as a purely
resistive one.The frequency at which resonance occurs is called as resonant frequency and
is designated with ω0 .
3.7.1 Series resonant circuit
A series resonant circuit is shown in figure. The impedance offered by the circuit is
1
Zin = R + jωL +
jωC
3.8. QUALITY FACTOR, BANDWIDTH AND SELECTIVITY 49
At resonance frequency ω0 the impedance is purely real, so imaginary part is to be

zero. Then,

1
j ω0 L − =0
ω0 C
⇒ ω0 = √1
LC
1
⇒ f0 = √
2π LC
The expression for current,
V R
I= = 1

Z R + j ωL − ωC
3.7.2 Parallel Resonant circuit
A parallel resonant circuit is shown in figure6.3.For the parallel R-L-C circuit the admit-
tance is given by
1
Yin = G + jωC +
jωL
At resonance frequency ω0 the impedance is purely real, so imaginary part is to be zero.
Then,

1
j ω0 C − =0
ω0 L
⇒ ω0 = √1
LC
1
⇒ f0 = √
2π LC
So the expression for resonant frequency of a parallel resonant circuit is identical to that
of the resonant frequency of series R-L-C circuit. These circuits are called as anti resonant
circuits or rejector circuits. These circuits find applications in receiver circuits.
3.8 Quality factor, bandwidth and selectivity
The following figure shows the typical variation of voltage in a parallel RLC circuit.
Quality factor is defined as the ability of a resonant circuit to produce large output
at resonant frequency. The quality factor is figure of merit of a resonant circuit and is
denoted by Q. the governing equation for quality factor is
Maximumenergystored
Q = 2π
Energydissipatedforcycle
Energy is stored in an inductor and capacitor and dissipated in resistor.
Maximumenergystored WL (t) + WC (t)|max

Q = 2π =
Energydissipatedforcycle PR T
Where T is the period of the sinusoidal signal at which Q is calculated. Quality factor
being the ratio of two similar quantities is dimensionless.
Bandwidth is defined as the band of frequencies for which the value of current or
voltage is above 70.7. These above 70.7 points contain useful information. In the diagram
points A and B represent half power frequencies. The point f1 is called as lower cut-off
frequency and the point f2 is higher cut-off frequency. The difference between these two
is bandwidth so BW = f2 − f1 .
Selectivity is the ability of a resonant circuit to discriminate among waves of different

frequencies. It is the ratio of bandwidth to resonant frequency. As the bandwidth increases
selectivity decreases. So,
BW
Selectivity =
ω0
Quality factor Q and selectivity are reciprocals to each other. Hence good selective
circuit should have small Q.
Let us assume a sinusoidal voltage of value Vm and frequency w is applied to the series
RLC circuit. At resonance w=w0 V(t) = Vm cosw0t At resonance current is maximum,
i(t) = Vmcosw0t/R LVm2cos2w0t The energy stored in the inductor is given by WL(t)
= Li2 = ——————— 2R2
Vm2cos2w0t = woL———————- 2R2wo The energy stored in a capacitor is WC(t)

= Cv2 =(C/2)(1/C i dt)2 1 Vmsinw0t = – ———– 2 2C Rw0
Vm2sin2w0t = ———————- 2Cw02R2

3.8. QUALITY FACTOR, BANDWIDTH AND SELECTIVITY 51
Vm2 Total energy stored, WL(t) +WC(t) = ———– 2Cw02R2 Vm2 Vm2 For resistor
PR = ——–, PRT = ———– 2R 2Rf0
Vm2/2 Cw02R2 4? f0R w0L 1 Q =2? ———————- = ————- = ——– =

——— (6.11) Vm2/2Rf0 Cw02R R w0CR
Since w0C= 1/ w0L. Similarly, R Rw0 w0 BW= ——– = ——— = ——- (6.13) L
Lwo Q From the above equation it can be noted that BW and Q factor are related in an
inverse manner to each other. For higher values of Q bandwidth should be less. Example
problems Derive the Expression for Q factor of a parallel resonant circuit? Let us assume
a sinusoidal current of value Im and frequency w is applied to the parallel RLC circuit. At
resonance w=w0 I(t) = Im cosw0t At resonance voltage is maximum, v(t) = RImcosw0t
The energy stored in the capacitor is given by WC(t)=(1/2) Cv2 =(1/2) Im2R2C cos2w0t
The energy stored in an inductor is WL(t)= LI2 =(1/2) L(1/L v dt)2 1 RImsinw0t = –
———– 2 2L w0
= Im2R2Csin2w0t substituting w0=1/ LC Total energy stored , WL(t)+WC(t)=

Im2R2Csin2w0t + Im2R2C cos2w0t = Im2R2C
R Im2 Im2 TR Im2 R For resistor PR = ———, and PRT = ———— = ——– 2 2
2f0 Im2R2C R Q =2? ————– = 2? f0RC = w0RC= ——– Im2R/2f0 w0L
Since w0C= 1/ w0L example problems

3.9 Compare series and parallel resonant circuits
The following table compares the series and parallel resonant circuits
Series P arallel
Pr operty
Resonant Circuit Resonant Circuit
Resonant
√1 √1
LC LC
F requency, ω0
T he Circuit
Current V olatge
magnif ies
at ω = ω0 Z=R Y =G
Quality F actor, Q ω0 L
R
, ω01RC R
ω0 L
, ω0 RC
f0 f0
Bandwidth Q Q
Geometric mean Geometric mean

Resonant
of half power of half power
F requency is
f requencies f requencies
Acceptor Rejector
Also Called as
Circuit Circuit
F inds applications in T uning Circuits T uning Circuits
3.10 Instantaneous and Average Powers
Power is related to energy transfer in a network.The instantaneous power of a network

is defined as the product of the instantaneous voltage across it and the instantaneous
current flowing through it. If v(t) and i(t) are voltage across and current flowing through
a network, then Instantaneous power P (t) = v(t)i(t). A positive value of P (t) means
flow of energy into the network. If the flow of energy is out of the network then the
instantaneous power is negative.When a load connected to a circuit draws instantaneous
power with time interval from t1 to t2 seconds, then the average power is
Zt2
1
Pav = P (t)dt
t2 − t1
t1
3.11. RMS VALUE, FORM FACTOR AND CREST FACTORS 53
This represents the rate of energy transfer from time t1 to t2 . If P (t) varies periodically,
t2 = t1 + T . Then the expression for average power will be,
1 +T
tZ
1
Pav = P (t)dt
T
t1
Average power is also called as true power or active power. The average power has
following properties
• The average power for a periodic P (t) is Independent of starting time
• If P (t) contains two-parts, Average of P (t) is sum of averages.
• If P (t) contains a constant component then the average of the component just equals
the constant.
• The average power delivered to any reactive element is zero.
3.11 RMS Value, Form Factor and Crest Factors
Consider a resistance R carrying a time-varying current i(t) with period T . Then the
average power is
1 +T
tZ 1 +T
tZ
1 1
Pav = P (t)dt = R i2 (t)dt
T T
t1 t1
If the same resistor carries a d.c CurrentI, then the average power is Pav = RI 2 Comparing
eqns (5.12) and (5.13) it is possible for both i(t) and I to produce the same power only
when
1 +T
tZ
1
i2 (t)dt = I 2
T
t1
I is called as effective value of i(t) and is also called as RMS(root mean square) value. So
the RMS value of the current is
v
u tZ1 +T
u1
u
Irms =t i2 (t)dt
T
t1
So, the RMS value of an alternating current is defined as that value of Direct current
when passed through a resistance produces the same power as produced by the alternating
current while passing through the same resistance for the same time interval.Similarly the
RMS value of voltage of period T can be defined as
v
u tZ1 +T
u1
u
Vrms = t v 2 (t)dt
T
t1
Average value of a current or voltage is given by the ratio of the area enclosed over a
cycle to the base.The average value of a.c wave which is symmetrical about zero axis is
zero.Mathematically,
1 +T
tZ
1
Iav = i(t)dt
T
t1
The average value of voltage is
1 +T
tZ
1
Vav = v(t)dt
T
t1
The ratio of RMS value to the average value of a wave is called as Form Factor. So,
Vrms
F ormF actor =
Vav
Crest factor is defined as the ratio of maximum value to RMS value of the wave. So,
Vm
CrestF actor =
Vrms
3.12 Summary
1. The distance between two maximum values or between two minimum values is called
as Time period of the waveform
2. The reciprocal of the time period is called as cyclic frequency
3. Phase angle is measured in degrees

3.12. SUMMARY 55
4. Phasor is a complex number, it can be expressed either in polar or rectangular

notation
5. A.C analysis is valid for circuits with single source frequency
6. So, the RMS value of an alternating current is defined as that value of Direct
current when passed through a resistance produces the same power as produced by
the alternating current while passing through the same resistance for the same time
interval
7. The average power delivered to any reactive element is zero.
8. Average value of a current or voltage is given by the ratio of the area enclosed over
a cycle to the base.
9. The product of the effective values of voltage and current is called as apparent power
10. The ratio of average power to apparent power is called as power factor
11. circuit containing resistive, reactive elements is said to be in resonance when the
applied voltage and current are in phase
12. At resonance the circuit behaves as a purely resistive one.
13. Resonance phenomenon finds applications in oscillators, radio, television, tuned

amplifiers and other communication circuits etc.
14. For a parallel circuit at resonance voltage attains maximum value
15. Parallel resonant circuits are called as anti resonant circuits or rejector circuits
16. Quality factor is defined as the ability of a resonant circuit to produce large output
at resonant frequency
17. Quality factor is dimensionless

18. Bandwidth is defined as the band of frequencies for which the value of current or
voltage is above 70.7
19. Selectivity is the ability of a resonant circuit to discriminate among waves of different
frequencies
20. Miller’s theorem finds application for the simplification of transistor circuits, oper-
ational amplifier circuits and bridged-T circuits.
21. Tellegen’s theorem is independent of Nature of the circuit elements
22. Superposition theorem can be used for the simplification of circuit containing sources
with more than single frequency of operation.
23. Thevenin and Norton equivalents are dual to each other.
24. According to maximum power transfer theorem the source and load impedances
should be complex conjugates to each other for the maximum power transfer to
take place.
25. Millman’s Theorem is used to simplify the circuit containing n number of voltage
sources to a single voltage source.
26. When n number of current sources is connected in parallel with their internal
impedances then dual of millman’s theorem is used to simplify the network.
27. Maximum power transfer theorem finds application in communication receivers,

public addressing systems etc.
28. Compensation theorem finds applications in Bridge circuits
3.13 Exercise Problems
1. explain the quality factor and band width for a series resonant circuit and prove
that the quality factor is the ratio of resonant frequency to band width.
3.13. EXERCISE PROBLEMS 57
2. a series RLC circuit consists of R=10ohms,L=0.002H,C=0.002microF. calculate the

frequency of resonance. A variable frequency sinusoidal voltage of constant r.m.s
value 25 volts is applied to the circuit. At resonance,calculate the quality factor,3-db
band width, lower and upper cut-off frequencies.
3. For the RLC circuit, find resonant frequency,half power frequencies and the band
width
4. a) derive an expression for band width of a parallel RLC circuit
5. b) find the value of L for which the circuit shown below is resonant at a frequency
of 5000rad/sec.
6. The Q of a series circuit is 10. the maximum amplitude of the current at resonance
is 1amp, when the amplitude of the applied voltage is 10V. if L=0.1H find the
resonant frequency in Hz.
7. A series resonant circuit is having a band width of 200Hz and Q=100. It uses a
capacitor of value 200microF. Calculate the rest of the circuit elements.
8. a capacitor of 2.5nF is in parallel with a variable inductor to form an oscillator

circuit. To what value inductor should be adjusted to tune to a 600millimeter wave
length broad casting station
9. for the following circuit determine the resonant frequency, the impedance at reso-
nance
10. A parallel resonant circuit has R=1000 ,L=150mH, and C=0.47 F. Find its resonant
frequency, band-width and quality factor.
11. Two Impedances 10+j15 and 20-j25 are connected in parallel. This parallel combi-
nation is in series with another impedance 15+jX. Find the value of X at resonance.
12. In a series resonant circuit R=6 , the resonant frequency is 4.1x106 rad/sec, and
the band width is 105 rad/sec. Find L and C,Q of the circuit.
13. An RLC circuit of 10 resistance is to be designed for a bandwidth of 500Hz.Determine

the values of L and C if the circuit resonates at 5000Hz.
14. Determine the values Of RL and Rc for which the the circuit resonates at all fre-
quencies
15. For the circuit shown below, determine the value of C at which the The circuit
resonates at f=1000Hz.
Determine the resonant frequency, quality factor for the fo

Chapter 4
Circuit Analysis in s-domain
4.1 Introduction
In this chapter, a technique for converting a time-domain function into S-domain function
is introduced. The properties of Laplace transform are derived. This Laplace transform
technique is useful for solving electric circuits. The procedure for the circuit analysis
using Laplace transform is explained. The concept of system function is explained. The
definition of network function and its calculations is discussed. Properties of poles and
zeros are also explained. Laplace transform For a time-domain function f(t), the laplace
transform F(S) is defined as ? F(S) = LT (f (t)) = f(t) = f(t) e-st dt (4.1 ) 0 Laplace
transform serves to transform a time-domain function from time domain into another
domain called as complex frequency domain (S domain). This complex frequency is
defined as S= +j , where is neper frequency and is the angular frequency. A function f(t)
is laplace transformable, when ? f(t) e-st dt ¡ ? (4.2) 0 The functions f(t) and F(S) are
regarded as a Laplace transform pair, and are designated as f(t) F(S)
59
60 CHAPTER 4. CIRCUIT ANALYSIS IN S-DOMAIN
4.2 properties of Laplace transform
4.2.1 Additive Property
Laplace transform of sum or difference of two functions is equal to sum or difference of the
Laplace transforms of individual functions. This is called as additive property. Let f1(t)
and f2(t) be the two time domain functions and F1(s) and F2(s) be their corresponding
laplace transforms. Then, ? f1(t)+f2(t) = [f1(t)+f2(t) ]e-st dt 0 ? ? = f1(t) e-st dt +
f2(t) e-st dt 0 0 = F1(s) + F2(s) (4.4)
4.2.2 Multiplication Property
When a time domain function is multiplied by a constant K, then the corresponding

Laplace transform of the function is also multiplied by the same constant. Let f(t) be
the time domain function and let F(s) be its corresponding laplace transform. Then, ? ?
Kf(t)= Kf(t) e-st dt = K f(t) e-st dt = KF(s) (4.5) 0 0
4.2.3 Linearity Property
Let f1(t) and f2(t) be two time-domain functions and F1(s) and F2(s) be their correspond-
ing laplace transforms. If f1(t) is multiplied with a constant K1 and f2(t) is multiplied
with a constant K2, then
K1f1(t)+K2f2(t) = [K1f1(t)+K2f2(t)]e-st dt = K1F1(s)+K2F2(s) (4.6) 0 This prop-
erty is called as linearity property.
4.2.4 Laplace Transform of a Derivative
If a time-domain function f(t) is multiplied with t then the corresponding laplace transform
has to be differentiated and to be inverted in sign. So, dF(S) (tf(t)) = ——– (4.9) ds ?
To prove this property, start with F(S) = f(t) = f(t) e-st dt 0 Differentiating this equation
with respect to s dF(s) d ——- = —— f(t) e-st dt = t f(t) e-st dt = t f(t) e-st dt = (tf(t))
ds ds 0 0 0 dF(S) Therefore, (tf(t)) = ——– dS
4.2. PROPERTIES OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM 61
4.2.5 time-scaling property
If F(S) is the laplace transform of f(t) then the laplace transform of f(at) is (1/a)F(S/a).
This is known as time-scaling property of Laplace transform. ? f(at) = f(at) e-st dt =
1/a f(U) e-s(U/a) dU = (1/a)F(S/a). (4.10) 0 0 Where U=at==¿dU=adt.
4.2.6 Initial Value theorem
According to initial value theorem the initial value f(0) of the function f(t) can be found
from its laplace transform multiplied by s and letting s ?. That means to find the initial
value of a given function f (t), calculate its Laplace transform F(S) multiply with s and
substitute s as infinity. That is, Lt f(t) = Lt SF(S) = f(0) (4.11) t 0 S We know that ?
Ldf/dt = SF(S) - f(0) = f(t) e-st dt 0 Taking limit as s ? for the above equation,
? Lt SF(S) - f(0) = Lt f(t) e-st dt s ? s ? 0 ? = f(t) Lt e-st dt ( since Lt e-st = 0) 0 s

? s ? ? = f(t) (0) = 0. 0 Therefore Lt SF(S) - f(0) = 0 ==¿ Lt SF(S) = Lt f(t) = f(0) s
? s ? t 0 Hence the initial value theorem is proved.
4.2.7 Final Value theorem
According to Final value theorem the Final value f(?) of the function f(t) can be found
from its laplace transform multiplied by s and letting s 0. That means to find the Final
value of a given function f (t), calculate its Laplace transform F(S) multiply with s and
substitute s as zero. That is, Lt f(t) = Lt SF(S) = f( ) (4.12) t ? S 0 Proof:- We know
that ? Ldf/dt = SF(S) - f(0) = f(t) e-st dt 0 Taking limit as s 0 for the above equation,
? Lt SF(S) - f(0) = Lt f(t) e-st dt s 0 s 0 0
? = f(t) Lt e-st dt (since Lt e-st = 1) 0 s 0 s 0 ? = f(t)dt =f(?)-f(0). 0 Therefore Lt

SF(S) - f(0) = f(?)-f(0) S 0
==¿ Lt SF(S) = f (?) = Lt f(t) . S 0 t ? Hence the final value theorem is proved. Final
value theorem is applicable to functions which have negative real parts in denominator
polynomial.
4.2.8 Laplace transform of periodic functions
Laplace transform of a periodic function f(t) is F1(S) F(S) = ————– (4.13) 1-e-TS
Where T is the time-period of the periodic function.F1(S) is the laplace transform of the
Function in unit period.
Time-Shifting Property: If F(S) is the laplace transform of f(t),the laplace transform

of f(t-a)U(t-a) is e-asF(S). This is known as time-shifting property of Laplace transforms.
Table4.1 properties of Laplace transform Table 4.2 Some important laplace transform
pairs.
4.2.9 behaviour of Passive elements in S-domain
Resistor:- For a linear resistor, according to ohm’s law v(t)=R i(t) (4.17) Taking la-
palce transform on both sides of this eqn 9.18, V(S) = RI(S) (4.18) Ratio of voltage
transform to current transform is called as Impedance function and is designated as Z(s)
Z(s)=V(s)/I(s)=R (4.19) Similarly, the inverse of impedance is admittance and is desig-
nated with Y(S). Therefore Y(S) = 1/Z(S) =1/R=G (4.20)
Fig.4.1.Time domain and S-domain representations of a resistor. Inductor:- For an in-

ductor, in time-domain di(t) V(t) = L —- (4.21) dt Taking laplace transform on both sides
of equation 9.22, V(S) = LSI(S)-i(0) where i(0) is the initial current through the induc-
tor. When initial stored energy is zero for an inductor, i(0)=0 and V(S) = LS I(S) (4.22)
Impedance function,Z(s) = V(s)/I(s) = LS and admittance functionY(s)=1/Z(s)=1/LS.
For an inductorZ(S) = LSI(S)-i(0) ==¿I(s) = V(s)/LS + i(0)/S (4.23) The following will
be the representations of an inductor in terms of a voltage source and current sources.
Fig.4.2 Representation of an inductor in S-domain Capacitor:- For a capacitor, in

time-domain
v(t) i(t) = C —- (4.24) dt Taking laplace transform on both sides of eqn (9.25),I(S)
= CSV(S)-v(0) where v(0) is the initial voltage across the capacitor. When initial stored
energy is zero for a capacitor v(0)=0 and I(S) = CSV(S) (4.25)
Impedance function, Z(s) = V(s)/I(s) = 1/CS and admittance function, Y(s)=1/Z(s)=CS.

4.3. INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORM 63
For a capacitor, I(S) = C SV(S)-v(0) ==¿V(s) = I(s)/CS + v(0)/S (4.26) The following
will be the representations of a capacitor in terms of a voltage source and current sources.
4.3 inverse Laplace transform
If F(S) is the laplace transform of f(t) then f(t) is called as the inverse laplace transform of
F(S). In general, any F(S) can be written as the ratio of two-polynomials in S, as N(S) F(S)
= ———– (4.14) D(S) To find the inverse Laplace transform of F(S), i)Partial fraction
expansion of F(S) has to be taken and the inverse Laplace transform is calculated for
each term of the expansion. ii) By making use of convolution integral. If f1(t) F1(S) and
f2(t) F2(S), then f1(t)* f2(t) is called as the convolution of two functions. The operator *
indicates convolution operation. The Laplace transform of convolution of two functions is
the product of their individual Laplace transforms. So, t f1(t)*f2(t) = f1( )f2(t- )d (4.15)
0 and f1(t)*f2(t)= F1(S)F2(S) (4.16)
4.4 analysis of electric circuit Using Laplace Trans-
form
” The following is the procedure for the analysis of circuits using Laplace transforms. ”
Draw the s-domain equivalent from the given time-domain equivalent. A resistor remains
unchanged. An inductor has to be replaced with an impedance of value LS and capacitor
is to be replaced with 1/CS. Laplace transform has to be applied for the rest of the circuit
elements. ” Solve the circuit using nodal analysis, mesh analysis, Source transformation,
superposition or any other circuit analysis technique to obtain solution in s-domain. ”
Take the inverse transform of the solution in step (ii) to obtain the time-domain solution.
4.5 Summary
• Laplace transform converts a time-domain function to S-domain.

• Complex frequency is denoted with S.
• Laplace transform technique simplifies the analysis of a circuit.
• Impulse response is the output of the circuit for the unit impulse input.
• Impulse response is designated with h(t)
• The expressions for Z(s) = R for resistor, LS for an inductor, 1/CS for a capacitor.
• Inverse Laplace transform can be calculated by using partial fraction expansion.
• Convolution integral is used to find the response of the network if the impulse
response and the input are known.
• Initial and final value theorems are used to find the values of the function at time t
= 0 and t = ?.
• The possible number of network functions is six for a two-port network.
• For a one-port network only one network function is possible.
• Poles and zeros are represented in s-plane.
• All poles should lie in LHP for the stable system.
• Poles and zeros are called as critical frequencies.
• Poles used to decide time-domain response.
• Zeros decide the amplitude of the time-domain response.
• Scaling can be of two types, scaling up and scaling down.
1. Laplace transform of unit impulse function is————

2. Laplace Transform of unit step function is ————
3. Laplace transform of f(at) is ———
4. Laplace transform of U(t-a) is ———————–
5. Laplace transform of tn is ———————–
6. Pole is a frequency at which the function attains ———-value.
7. Zero is a frequency at which the function attains ———-value.
8. Laplace transform converts from ———-domain to ———-domain.
9. Time domain response is decided by———- a) Only zeros b) only poles c) none d)
both
10. Impulse response is denoted by ——————-
11. The Number of poles for S/(S+1)(S+9) is ——– a) 2 b)9 c)1 d)0
12. Convolution integral is used to find —————–
13. Time-domain convolution leads to s-domain———————-
14. Zero of transfer function is called as —————
15. Network functions with left half plane zero are called as ——————
16. Poles and zeros are called as —————– frequencies.
17. The magnitude of the time-domain response is decided by —————-
18. Total number of possible Transfer functions for a Two-port network are a) Two b)
Four c) Six d) Eight
19. The number of network functions possible for a one-port network are—- a) One
b)two c) Four d) Six.
20. The Inverse Laplace transform of 4/s+6 is —————–
21. An S-plane Contains Both RHP and ——————-
22. All poles and zeros should be present in ———- for a stable system.
23. The initial value of function, F(s) = (s+1)/s is —————–
24. The dimensions of complex frequency is —————–
25. The real part is measured in ———————
1. Laplace transform of f(t) is denoted with F(S).
2. Complex frequency is defined by .
3. Initial value theorem is used to find f(0).
4. Poles are called as natural frequencies.
5. Zeros will decide the nature of time-domain response.
6. Poles at origin produce oscillations.
7. A Left Half Plane should contain multiple poles.
8. To find network function initial values should not be equal to zero.
9. In S-domain Inductor is replaced with LS.
10. Poles are represented with o in s-plane.
11. The Laplace transform of t is 1/s.
12. For a two-port network 7 network functions are possible.
13. For a one-port network, two network functions are possible.

4.8. EXERCISE PROBLEMS 67
14. For a ladder network series element is admittance.
15. Transfer function is a type of a network function.
16. Driving point function and transfer function are same.
1. An impedance function has poles at s = -4,-6 and zeros at s = -3,-7.If Z(-2) = 15ohms,
write the expression for Z(s) as a ratio of two polynomials. 2. Find the driving point
impedance Z(s) of the following networks
3. Find G12 and 12 of the following networks
4. Find the driving point impedance of the following ladder networks
5. Find the Transfer function for the following ladder networks using unit output
method.
6. For the bridged T network calculate G12 and 12.
7. Find G12 of the following lattice networks
8. Find the natural and forced poles of the following network
9. Give the pole-zero plot of the following 2s+12 F(s) = —————— S2+9s+8 10.
List some of the properties of pole and zeros. 11. Write a MATLAB programme to find
pole-zero diagram of the network function 64s4+24s2+1 F(S) = —————– 4s(4s2+1)
12. Write a MATLAB programme to find the residues of the network function s2+5s+4
F(S) =25 —————– s2+7s+10 13. For the given network function, write a MATLAB
programme to get the transfer function form and zero pole gain form. s2+2s+2 F(S) =
————- s+1 14. Write a MATLAB programme to plot the magnitude and phase angle
variation of the following network function 4s2+4s+1 F(S) = —————– 2(s2+6s+1)
Review Questions:
Chapter 5
Two Port Networks
5.1 Introduction
The main objective of this chapter is to explain about two-port network and its associated
parameters. A network with a pair of terminals is called a 2terminal or one-port network.
A network with two input terminals and two output terminals is called a four terminal
or two-port network. These networks are also called as transmission networks, are used
mainly in the construction of attenuators, filters, equalizers and many others. Different
possible parameters of the two-port networks and interconnections among networks are
discussed in detail.
5.2 Two port network
For a two-port network there will be four terminals, two associated voltages and two
currents. A general two-port network is as shown below. V1 and I1 are voltage and
Figure 5.1: Two-Port Network
current at port1. Similarly V2 and I2 are voltage and current at port2. Always current at
69
70 CHAPTER 5. TWO PORT NETWORKS
port 1 and port 2 should enter into the respective terminals. Input (stimulus) is applied
at port1 and output (response) is measured at port2. So, port1 is called as input port
and port2 is called as output port.
5.3 Two-port network Parameters
There are six direct ways of describing the behavior of a two-port network. These are
called as two-port network parameters. These are listed in the table below.
Depedendent Independent Implicit P arameter

V ariables V ariables Relation Equations
V1 = f (I1 , I2 ) V1 = z11 I1 + z12 I2
V1 , V2 I1 , I2
V2 = f (I1 , I2 ) V2 = z21 I1 + z22 I2
I1 = f (V1 , V2 ) I1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2
I1 , I2 V1 , V2
I2 = f (V1 , V2 ) I2 = Y21 V1 + Y22 V2
V1 = f (I1 , V2 ) V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2
V1 , I2 I1 , V2
I2 = f (I1 , V2 ) I2 = h21 I1 + h22 V2
I1 = f (V1 , I2 ) I1 = g11 V1 + g12 I2
I1 , V2 V1 , I2
V2 = f (V1 , I2 ) V2 = g21 V1 + g22 I2
V1 = f (V2 , −I2 ) V1 = AV2 − BI2
V1 , I1 V2 , −I2
I1 = f (V2 , −I2 ) I1 = CV2 − DI2
V2 = f (V1 , −I1 ) V2 = aV1 − bI1
V2 , I2 V1 , −I1
I2 = f (V1 , −I1 ) I2 = cV1 − dI1
5.3.1 z-Parameters
If we choose I1 and I2 as independent variables and V1 and V2 as dependent variables then

the two-port network can be characterized by the following set of equations
V1 = z11 I1 + z12 I2
(5.1)
V2 = z21 I1 + z22 I2
5.3. TWO-PORT NETWORK PARAMETERS 71
Where z11 , z12 , z21 , z22 are called as impedance parameters.

    
V1 z11 z12 I1
 =   (5.2)
V2 z21 z22 I2
I1 = 0 I2 = 0
V1 V1
z12 = I2
z11 = I1
V2 V2
z22 = I2
z21 = I1
Note that all the parameters obtained by open circuiting either port 1 or port 2 are having
the units of ohms. While defining these Z-Parameters, since either input port or an output
port is open, these are called as open-circuited Impedance Parameters. The Z-parameter
model for a two-port network is as shown in the following diagram.
5.3.2 Y -Parameters
If we choose V1 and V2 as independent variables and I1 and I2 as dependent variables

then the two-port network can be characterized by the following set of equations
I1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2
(5.3)
I2 = Y21 V1 + Y22 V2
Where Y11,Y12,Y21,Y22 are called the Admittance-Parameters which are defined as,
V1 = 0 V2 = 0
I1 I1
Y12 = V2
Y11 = V1
I2 I2
Y22 = V2
Y21 = V1
These parameters are also called as short circuited admittance parameters.

    
I1 Y11 Y12 V1
 =   (5.4)
I2 Y21 Y22 V2
The Y-parameter model will be as shown below.

5.3.3 Hybrid parameters
If we choose V1 and I2 as dependent variables and I1 and V2 as independent variables

V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2
(5.5)
I2 = h21 I1 + h22 V2
Where h11,h12,h21,h22 are called the hybrid-Parameters and defined as
I1 = 0 V2 = 0
V1 V1
h12 = V2
h11 = I1
I2 I2
h22 = V2
h21 = I1
From the table, we see that h11 is short circuited input impedance, h22 is open circuited
output impedance, h12 is the open circuited reverse voltage gain, h21 is the negative of
the short circuited current gain.
    
V1 h11 h12 I1
 =   (5.6)
I2 h21 h22 V2
Since the units are mixed dimensionally, these are called as hybrid parameters.
5.3.4 g-parameters
If we choose I1 and V2 as dependent variables and V1 and I2 as independent variables

I1 = g11 V1 + g12 I2
(5.7)
V2 = g21 V1 + g22 I2
Where g11,g12,g21,g22 are called the Inverse hybrid-Parameters and are defined as
below.
V1 = 0 I2 = 0
I1 I1
g12 = I2
g11 = V1
V2 V2
g22 = I2
g21 = V1
5.3. TWO-PORT NETWORK PARAMETERS 73
From the table, we see that g11 is open circuited input admittance, g22 is short circuited
output impedance, g12 is the short circuited current gain, g21 is open circuited voltage
gain.
    
I1 g11 g12 V1
 =   (5.8)
V2 g21 g22 I2
The g-parameter model is as shown below.
5.3.5 ABCD parameters
If we choose V1 and I1 as dependent variables and V2 and I2 as independent variables

V1 = AV2 − BI2
(5.9)
I1 = CV2 − DI2
Where A,B,C,D are called the transmission parameters, since they relate the voltage
and current at one port to the other port. ABCD-parameters can be expressed in matrix
form as
    
V1 A B V2
 =   (5.10)
I2 C D −I2
The transmission parameters are defined as follows, Table 5.6 Defining Transmission-
parameters
V2 = 0 −I2 = 0
V1 V1
B= −I2
A= V2
I1 I1
D= −I2
C= V2
The negative sign in the equations is for the current I2 not for the parameters A, B, C,D.
5.3.6 abcd parameters
If we choose V2 and I2 as dependent variables and V1 and I1 as independent variables

V2 = aV1 − bI1
(5.11)
I2 = cV1 − dI1
Where a,b,c,d are called the reverse transmission parameters, since they relate the volt-
age and current in reverse direction i.e., from output to input abcd-parameters can be
expressed in matrix form as
    
V2 a b V1
 =   (5.12)
I2 c d −I1
The four transmission parameters are defined as follows,
V1 = 0 −I1 = 0
V2 V2
b= −I1
a= V1
I2 I2
d= −I1
c= V1
5.4 Interconnections of two-port networks
There are basically five different ways of connecting the two-port networks, namely,
1. series-series
2. parallel-parallel
3. cascade
4. series-parallel
5. parallel-series
5.4. INTERCONNECTIONS OF TWO-PORT NETWORKS 75
5.4.1 Series Connection
In the series-series connection the inputs and outputs of the two-ports are connected in
series individually. The series-series connection of two two-port networks is shown below
in figure(5.7 ). These series connected networks will have the same current flowing through
them at both port1 and port2. Under such circumstances the Z-parameters of individual
networks is added. From the inspection of the figure,
II = I1 = I3 (5.13)
IO = I2 = I4 (5.14)
and
VI = V1 + V3 (5.15)
VO = V2 + V4 (5.16)
5.4.2 Parallel connection
If the inputs and outputs of the individual two-ports are connected in parallel, the overall
connection is called as Parallel connection. The parallel-parallel connection of two two-
port networks is shown below. In this way of connection the two networks have the same
input voltages and same output voltages. Under such circumstances the Y-parameters of
individual networks is added. From the inspection of the figure,
II = I1 + I3 (5.17)
IO = I2 + I4 (5.18)
and
VI = V1 = V3 (5.19)
VO = V2 = V4 (5.20)
5.4.3 Series-parallel Connection
The Series-parallel connection of two two-port networks is shown below. Under such cir-
cumstances the h-parameters of individual networks is added. Let V1,V2 be the voltages
at port1 and port2 of a first network From the inspection of the figure,
II = I1 = I3 (5.21)
IO = I2 = I4 (5.22)
and
VI = V1 + V3 (5.23)
VO = V2 + V4 (5.24)
5.4.4 Parallel-Series Connection
The Parallel-series connection of two two-port networks is shown below. Under such
circumstances the g-parameters of individual networks is added. Let V1,V2 be the voltages
at port1 and port2 of a first network. From the inspection of the figure,
II = I1 + I3 (5.25)
IO = I2 + I4 (5.26)
and
VI = V1 = V3 (5.27)
VO = V2 = V4 (5.28)
5.4.5 Cascade connection
The Cascade connection of two two-port networks is shown below. In cascade connection
output of the first network becomes the input of the second network. Under such circum-
stances the ABCD-parameters of individual networks is multiplied together. This type
of connection is present in filters, multistage amplifiers, transmission line elements etc.
From the inspection of the figure,
5.5. RECIPROCAL AND SYMMETRICAL NETWORKS 77
5.5 Reciprocal and Symmetrical networks
A two-port network is said to be a reciprocal one if it obeys reciprocity theorem. Accord-

ing to reciprocity theorem, the ratio of excitation to response remains unchanged if the
positions of excitation and response are interchanged. A two-port network is said to be a
Symmetrical one if the ratio of voltage and current at one port remains unchanged if the
other port is open circuited. The conditions for reciprocity and symmetry are summarized
in the table below.
P arameters Symmetry Condition Reciprocity Condition

z z11 = z22 z12 = z21
Y Y11 = Y22 Y12 = Y21
h ∆h = 1 h12 = −h21
g ∆g = 1 g12 = −g21
ABCD A=D AD − BC = 1
abcd a=d ad − bc = 1
5.6 Summary
• A network with two input terminals and two output terminals is called a four ter-
minal or two-port network
• Modeling is to represent a two-port network in terms of passive and active elements.
• There are six direct ways of describing the behavior of a two-port network
• z-parameters are called as open-circuited Impedance Parameters
• Y -parameters are also called as short circuit admittance parameters
• Units of hybrid parameters are mixed.
• g-parameters are also called as inverse hybrid parameters.
• It is not possible to draw ABCD or abcd parameter model.

• Conversion of two-port network parameters is possible.
• When two-port networks are cascaded their transmission parameters are multiplied.
• When two-port networks are connected in series their individual z-parameters can
be added
• When two-port networks are connected in parallel their individual z-parameters can
be added
• A reciprocal network obeys reciprocity theorem
• For a Symmetrical network the ratio of voltage and current at one port remains
unchanged if the other port is open circuited.
1. Impedance Parameters will have the Units of ———–.
2. Y21 is called as ————————————————-
3. The Units of h11 and z11 is ———————————
4. ABCD Parameters are also called as ———————–
5. The other name of abcd parameters is ————————-
6. When two two-port networks are cascaded —————Parameters are multiplied.
7. Individual z parameters are added when two individual Networks are connected in
—————————–manner.
8. Interconnection of two-port Networks is useful in ———————— Circuits.
9. A network which obeys Reciprocity theorem is called as —————————
10. A network is said to be symmetrical if ——————– condition for ABCD param-

eters is satisfied.
11. In a Two-port network, z-parameters express ———— in terms of ——————-
12. When two Two-Port networks are connected in Cascade, it is convenient to use
(a) z-Parameters
(b) Y -Parameters
(c) h-Parameters
(d) ABCD Parameters
13. Match the following
P arameter Model
z − parameters No mod el
Y − parameters Series Circuit
ABCD parameters P arallel C ircuit
i ii iii
(a) A B C
(b) B C A
(c) A C B
(d) none
14. Match the following

P arameters Units
z12 mho
Y22 ohm
h12 nounits
i ii iii
(a) A B C
(b) B C A
(c) A C B
(d) none
15. Y - Parameters are also called as ——————–
16. h12 is also called as ——————–
17. The units of parameter D is ————-
18. The z-parameter, z21 for the below circuit is,
(a) 3Ω
(b) 5Ω
(c) 2Ω
(d) 6Ω
19. For a Network a = d, the network is ——————-
20. A Network for which, g12 = −g21 is called as ————-
1. A One-Port network contains four terminals.
2. z parameters are obtained by short circuiting the respective port.
3. h-Parameters will have mixture of Units.
4. g-parameters are called as inverse h-parameters.
5. Cascade connection of two-port networks results multiplication of ABCD Parame-

ters.
6. A two-port network will have Black-box Representation.
7. z-Parameters cannot be converted into Y -parameters.
8. A network is called as reciprocal when it obeys miller’s theorem.

5.9. REVIEW QUESTIONS 81
9. A two-port network is said to be a Symmetrical one if the ratio of voltage and

current at one port remains unchanged if the other port is open circuited.
10. A two-port network can be both reciprocal and symmetrical.
5.9 Review Questions
1. What is a Two-port network?
2. Explain about Y -parameters.
3. Define h-parameters of a two-port network.
4. What are transmission Parameters?
5. Why g-Parameters are called as Inverse h-Parameters?
6. Explain about series connection of two-port Network?
7. Show that Y -Parameters are added when two-port networks are connected in par-
allel.
8. Derive the condition for reciprocity of a two-port network in terms of z parameters.
9. What are Symmetrical networks?
10. Derive the condition for Symmetry of a two-port network in terms of ABCD Pa-
rameters.
Chapter 6
Symmetrical And Asymmetrical

Networks
The concepts introduced in this chapter are
• Classification of networks
• Characteristic impedance
• Propagation constant
• Image impedance
• Iterative impedance
• Image transfer constant
• Iterative transfer constant
• Definition and Classification of filters
• Design of constant k filters
• Decibel and neper concept
• m-Derived filters
83
84 CHAPTER 6. SYMMETRICAL AND ASYMMETRICAL NETWORKS
• Design of m-Derived filters
• composite filter
6.1 Introduction
In this chapter Symmetrical and asymmetrical networks are introduced. These networks
find applications in the design of attenuators, filters, and equalizers. The definitions of
the properties of symmetrical and asymmetrical networks and the required derivations
are presented.This chapter mainly discusses about the operation and design of different
types of passive filters. A detailed analysis of constant k type low pass, high pass, band
pass and band elimination type filters is given. The disadvantages of constant-k filters
and the origin of m-derived filters is discussed. Finally a composite filter concept is
explained.Attenuators are purely resistive networks used to reduce the signal level (voltage
or current) by a given amount. Usually it is four terminal network inserted between input
and load. The process of attenuation is just reverse of the amplification. In this chapter
detailed analysis of symmetrical and asymmetrical attenuators is presented. When a signal
passes through an electrical networks both amplitude and phase distortions take place.
Networks, inserted in the original circuit to counteract these distortions are called as
equalizers. Focus is made on the design of series, shunt, bridged T and lattice equalizers.
6.2 Symmetrical and asymmetrical networks
A network is a symmetrical one in which the electrical properties remain unchanged by

interchanging the input and output terminals. For a symmetrical T network the values
of series arm impedance is same. Similarly for a symmetrical network the shunt arm
impedances are equal.
For an asymmetrical T network the series arm impedances are not equal to each other.
For an asymmetrical network the shunt arm impedances are not equal. The following
figure shows the symmetrical and asymmetrical networks.
6.3. ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF SYMMETRICAL NETWORKS 85
6.3 Electrical properties of Symmetrical networks
For symmetrical networks characteristic impedance and propagation constant are the
electrical properties.
Characteristic impedance
Consider a network with input current as Ii and output current as IL . Assume that
an impedance ZL is connected across the load terminals. The input impedance of this
network will be ZL . So the ”characteristic impedance Z0 is the impedance appearing
across the input terminals of a network when it is terminated with a load impedance of
value Z0 ”. For a symmetrical network,
Zin = ZL = Z0 (6.1)
Characteristic impedance can also be calculated from the knowledge of short circuit and
open circuit impedances. If ZOC is the open circuited impedance at load terminals and ZSC
is the short circuited impedance then the characteristic impedance ZO is the geometric
mean of ZOC and ZSC . So
p
Z0 = ZOC ZSC (6.2)
Propagation constant
It is defined as the ratio of phasor current entering to leaving”. It is denoted by γ = α+jβ.

Propagation constant γ is always a complex number. The real part is called as attenuation
constant and The imaginary part is the phase constant. Mathematically,
Vi Ii
eγ = = (6.3)
VL IL
Where Ii and IL are the input and output phasor currents, Vi , VL are phasor voltages at
input and output terminals respectively.
6.3.1 symmetrical T network
Consider a symmetrical T network shown in the figure below.The input impedance of the
network will be,
Z2 Z21 + ZL

Z1
Zin = + (6.4)
2 Z2 + Z21 + ZL
For a symmetrical network since Zin = ZL = Z0
Z2 Z21 + ZL

Z1
Zin − = (6.5)
2 Z2 + Z21 + ZL
On cross multiplication,

Z1 Z1 Z1
Z0 − Z2 + + ZL = Z2 + ZL (6.6)
2 2 2
Z12
Z02 = Z1 Z2 + (6.7)
4
r
Z12
Z0 = Z1 Z2 + (6.8)
4
From the above using current division,
Z2
IL = Z1
Ii (6.9)
Z2 + ZL + 2
Z1
Z2 + ZL + 2
eγ = (6.10)
Z2
!
Z1
Z2 + ZL + 2
γ = loge (6.11)
Z2
Z

Z2 + 21
Substituting the value of Z0 in the equation for γ and letting x = Z2
, the expression
simplifies to,

−1 Z1
γ = cosh (6.12)
2Z2
6.3. ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF SYMMETRICAL NETWORKS 87
6.3.2 Symmetrical π Network
consider a symmetrical π network shown in the fig.14.9 below.

s
Z1 Z2
Z0 = Z1
(6.13)
1 + 4Z 2
Propagation constant γ simplifies to

−1 Z1
γ = cosh (6.14)
2Z2
6.3.3 Symmetrical Lattice network
consider the lattice network and its bridge equivalent as shown in the
p
Z0 = Z1 Z2 (6.15)
γ r
Z1 Z1
tanh = = (6.16)
2 Z0 Z2
Hence,
γ
Z1 = Z0 tanh (6.17)
2
γ
Z2 = Z0 coth (6.18)
2
6.3.4 Symmetrical Bridged T Network
Consider the bridged T network shown in the fig.14.11 with a load impedance of Z0
ohms.Then the characteristic impedance
s
Z1 Z3 (Z1 + 4Z2 )
Z0 = (6.19)
4 (Z1 + Z3 )
Propagation constant can be calculated as

Z3 Z0
γ = loge 1 + = loge 1 + (6.20)
Z0 Z2
6.4 Electrical properties of asymmetrical Networks
An asymmetrical network is not symmetrical with respect to input and output ports.
It possesses different characteristic impedances on both sides. As asymmetrical network
have the following electrical properties.
1. Image impedance
2. Iterative impedance
3. Image transfer constant
4. Iterative transfer constant
Image impedance is defined as the impedance which when connected across the
appropriate terminals of the network, in such a way that the same is presented by the
other pair of terminals.
Iterative impedance is defined as the impedance at its one pair of terminals when
the same impedance is connected at the other pair of terminals. Iterative impedance is
designated with ZT .
Image transfer constant is the propagation constant of the asymmetrical network
when it is terminated with an image impedance. For an asymmetrical network, the ratio
Ii Vi
6= (6.21)
IL VL
So the image transfer constant is defined as half of the natural logarithm ratio of volt
ampere power entering the network and the volt ampere power at the output of the
network. It is denoted by the symbol ZI . Thus, by definition,

1 VI II
ZI = ln (6.22)
2 VL IL
Iterative transfer constant is defined as half of the natural logarithm ratio of

volt ampere power entering the network and the volt ampere power at the output of the
network when terminated with iterative impedances. It is denoted by the symbol ZT .
6.5. CLASSIFICATION OF FILTERS 89
6.4.1 Asymmetrical T network
let us consider an asymmetrical T network shown in fig.14.15
ZA + ZC
ZI1 = (ZA ZB + ZB ZC + ZC ZA ) (6.23)
ZB + ZC
ZB + ZC
ZI2 = (ZA ZB + ZB ZC + ZC ZA ) (6.24)
ZA + ZC
s
ZA − ZB (ZA + ZB )2
ZT 1 = ± ZC (ZA + ZB ) + (6.25)
2 4
s
ZB − ZA (ZA + ZB )2
ZT 2 = ± ZC (ZA + ZB ) + (6.26)
2 4
6.4.2 Asymmetrical π Network
consider an asymmetrical π network as shown in fig14.17.

s
ZA2 ZC (ZB + ZC )
ZI1 = (6.27)
(ZB + ZC ) (ZA + ZB + ZC )
s
ZB2 ZC (ZA + ZC )
ZI2 = (6.28)
(ZB + ZC ) (ZA + ZB + ZC )
q
− (ZB ZC − ZC ZA ) ± (ZB ZC − ZC ZA )2 + 4ZA ZB ZC (ZA + ZB + ZC )
ZT 1 = (6.29)
2 (ZA + ZB + ZC )
q
(ZB ZC − ZC ZA ) ± (ZB ZC − ZC ZA )2 + 4ZA ZB ZC (ZA + ZB + ZC )
ZT 2 = (6.30)
2 (ZA + ZB + ZC )
6.5 Classification of Filters
Filters are electrical networks which allow freely a certain range of frequencies and atten-
uate frequencies out side this band. Filters are in general four terminal networks. Passive
filters contain reactive elements. Active filters contain sources of energy like op-amp, and
reactive elements. The range of frequencies in which attenuation is zero ideally is called
as pass band of the filter. Where as stop Band is the range of frequencies in which at-
tenuation is infinity ideally. The frequencies at which transition from stop band to pass
band and vice versa takes place are called cut-off frequencies. A filter may in principle
have any number of pass bands separated by stop bands. Filters can be classified in the
following ways
• Depending upon type of elements
1. Active filters
2. Passive filters
• Depending upon application
1. Low-pass filter
2. High - pass filter
3. Band - pass filter
4. Band - stop filter or Band reject filter or Band elimination filter.
The following are the Gain VS frequency characteristics of various types of filters.
6.6 Constant k filters
Constant-k filters are T or π networks in which the series and shunt arm impedances are
inverse reactance such that Z1 Z2 = k 2 = constant where k is a positive real quantity
independent of frequency.
6.6.1 Constant-k low pass filter
The following are the design equations.
1
fc = √
π LC
r
L
R0 =
C
6.6. CONSTANT K FILTERS 91
R0
L=
πfc
1
C=
πR0 fc
6.6.2 Constant k high pass filter
if the series impedance is a capacitance and shunt impedance is an inductance then the
circuit will be a high pass filter. The prototype T section and section filters are shown in
fig.17.5.
1
fc = √
4π LC
r
L
R0 =
C
R0
L=
4πfc
1
C=
4πR0 fc
6.6.3 Constant k band pass filter
A band pass filter is a cascaded connection of a low pass filter and a high pass filter. These
provide free transmission in a limited range of frequencies and attenuation on either side
of this range. The following are the T sections and π section representations of a band
pass filter.
fh − fL
C1 =
4πR0 fh fL
R0
L1 =
π (fh − fL )
1
C2 =
πR0 (fh − fL )
R0 (fh − fL )
L2 =
4πfh fL
6.6.4 Constant k band Stop filter
A band Stop filter is a cascaded connection of a High pass filter and a Low pass filter. This
provides attenuation in a limited range of frequencies. The following are the T sections
and PI section representations of a band Stop filter. Consider the following T section
filter for the analysis.
R0 (fh − fL )
L1 =
πfh fL
1
C1 =
4πR0 (fh − fL )
R0
L2 =
4π (fh − fL )
fh − fL
C2 =
πR0 fh fL
6.7 m-derived filters
Constant-k filters suffers from the following disadvantages
• Image impedance is not a constant in pass band.
• There will be a slow attenuation rate past cutoff frequency.
m-derived filter section is modification of the constant-k section designed to overcome

these problem. The impedances Z1 and Z2 in a constant-k T section are replaced with
Z¯1 and Z¯2 by choosing,
Z̄1 = mZ1 (6.31)
Then we choose Z¯2 to obtain the same value of Zin as for the constant-k section. Thus
Z12
Zin = Z1 Z2 +
4
2
Z¯1
Z¯in = Z̄1 Z¯2 +
4
6.7. M-DERIVED FILTERS 93
Solving for Z¯2 from the above two equations

2
Z12 ¯ ¯ Z¯1
Z1 Z2 + = Z1 Z2 +
4 4
1 − m2 Z2
Z¯2 = Z1 +
4m m
So Z¯2 represents two elements in series. The m-derived prototype is as shown in the
figure below. From the figure it can be noted that for series impedance to be realizable
1−m2
4m
is to be positive. Thus m is chosen to be 0 < m < 1.Similarly m-derived π net-
work is also obtained from constant-k type filter by modifying its series and shunt arm
impedances. For a m-derived network, we choose Z¯2 = Z2
m
and Z̄1 is calculated so that the
characteristic impedances of constant-k type network and the m-derived section is same.
The derived prototype will be as shown below.
6.7.1 m-Derived low pass filter
m-Derived T-section Filter
m-derived T-section low-pass filter is as shown in figure below. The resonant frequency of
the shunt arm fr is to selected such that it is closer to the cut-off frequency of the filter.
So, at resonance, fr = f∞ . The expression for m will be,
s 2
fc
m= 1−
fr
Where fc is the cut-off frequency of the constant-k low pass filter.
m-Derived π -section Filter
m-derived π -Section low-pass filter is as shown in figure below.The resonant frequency of

the series arm, fr is to selected such that it is closer to the cut-off frequency of the filter.
So, at resonance, fr = f∞ . The expression for m will be,
s 2
fc
m= 1−
fr
6.7.2 m-Derived high pass filter
m-Derived T-section Filter
m-derived T section high pass filter is shown in figure below. For such type of filter the
shunt arm is to be selected such that it is resonant at some frequency fr much higher
than the cut-off frequency.The expression for m will be,
s 2
f∞
m= 1−
fc
m-Derived π -Section High pass filter
m-derived section high pass filter is shown in figure below.For such type of filter the series
arm is to be selected such that it is resonant at some frequency fr much higher than the
cut-off frequency.The expression for m will be,
s 2
f∞
m= 1−
fc
6.7.3 m- Derived band pass filter
m-Derived Band-Pass filter is as shown in figure below. This band-Pass Filter will have
two frequencies of infinite attenuation.
s
(fh − fL )2
m= 1−
(f∞2 − f∞1 )2
6.7.4 m- Derived band stop filter
m-Derived Band-Stop Filter is shown in figure below.

s
(f∞2 − f∞1 )2
m= 1−
(fh − fL )2
6.8 Composite filters
By combining in cascade the constant-k, and the m-derived matching sections we can
realize a filter with the desired attenuation and matching characteristics. This type of
6.9. ATTENUATION 95
design is called as composite filter, and is shown in the figure below The Composite Filter
consists of the following Parts
1. The constant -k sections which provide desired cut-off frequency.
2. The bisected-π sections at the ends of the filter match the nominal source and load
impedance R0 to the internal impedances of constant-k and m-derived sections.
3. m-Derived networks to provide infinite attenuation into the stop band
To design a composite filter for the given specifications the following is the Procedure
1. For the required cut-off frequency a constant-k filter is to be designed.
2. The m-derived filter is to be designed for the given cut-off frequency and the fre-
quency of infinite attenuation f∞ .The desired filter can have two or more frequencies
of infinite attenuation.
3. For m = 0.6, terminating half sections are to be designed.
4. All the three sections are to be cascaded to get the desired composite filter.
6.9 Attenuation
Attenuation is defined as the ratio of input power to output power. Usually attenuation
is expressed in decibels or in nepers.Let us consider a two-port network shown in figure
8.1. Let the current, voltage and power at port1 be I1 ,V1 and P1 . I2 ,V2 ,P2 be the current,
voltage and power at the second port. Then the attenuation offered by the network is

P1
Attenuation in Bels = log10
P2
Since Bel is a bigger unit generally decibel is used. Thus

P1
Attenuation in Decibels = 10 log10
P2
Let R0 be the characteristic impedance of a two-port network, then
V12
P1 = = I12 R0
R0
V22
P2 = = I22 R0
R0

P1 V1 I1
Attenuation in decibels = 10 log10 = 20 log10 = 20 log10
P2 V2 I2
It can Be proved easily that, attenuation in nepers = 0.11515 attenuation in
decibels Therefore attenuation in decibels=8.684 attenuation in nepers. In
general,N is used to denote the amount of attenuation. So
V1 I1
= =N
V2 −I2
6.10 Classification of attenuators
Attenuators are classified as symmetrical and asymmetrical attenuators. Symmet-

rical attenuators are placed always between two equal impedances. An asymmetrical
attenuator is a four terminal resistive network placed between source and load having
unequal input impedance when looked into from the input and output terminals respec-
tively.
6.11 Symmetrical Attenuators
6.11.1 Symmetrical T attenuator
Consider the attenuator shown in the figure 8.2 The design equations are
N −1
R1 = R0 (6.32)
N +1
2N
R2 = R0 (6.33)
N2 − 1
6.12. ASYMMETRICAL ATTENUATOR 97
6.11.2 Symmetrical π attenuator
The symmetrical - π attenuator is shown below. For a symmetrical π attenuator design

equations are
N2 − 1
R1 = R0 (6.34)
2N
N +1
R2 = R0 (6.35)
N −1
6.11.3 Symmetrical Bridged T - attenuator
The Bridged-T attenuator is shown below. The design equations are
R1 = R0 (6.36)
1
R2 = R0 (6.37)
N −1
R2 = R0 (N − 1) (6.38)
6.11.4 Symmetrical Lattice Attenuator
The Lattice attenuator is shown below Series arm element,

N −1
R1 = R0 (6.39)
N +1
Shunt arm element,

N +1
R2 = R0 (6.40)
N −1
6.12 Asymmetrical Attenuator
6.12.1 Asymmetrical T attenuator
An asymmetrical T attenuator is shown in fig.8.6. An asymmetrical attenuator works

between two unequal impedances Z1 and Z2 . If Ri1 , Ri2 are image impedances at source
and load ends respectively then
I1 Ri1
N= = (6.41)
I2 Ri2
2N p
R3 = Ri1 Ri2 (6.42)
N2 − 1
N2 + 1 2N p
R2 = Ri2 2 − 2 Ri1 Ri2 (6.43)
N −1 N −1
N2 + 1 2N p
R1 = Ri1 2 − 2 Ri1 Ri2 (6.44)
N −1 N −1
6.12.2 asymmetrical π Attenuator
An asymmetrical attenuator with series arm R2 and shunt arms R1 and R3 is as shown
in figure15.7. The design equations are given by
N2 − 1
R1 = Ri1 (6.45)
N 2 − 2Nk + 1
N2 − 1p
R2 = Ri1 Ri2 (6.46)
2N
N2 − 1
R3 = Ri2 2 (6.47)
N − 2N

k
+1
Ri1
Where k = Ri2
6.13 Inverse, or reciprocal Impedance networks
Two Impedances are said to be inverse if the variation of one with frequency is the inverse
of the variation of the other. Then the product of their individual impedances is a constant
independent of frequency.
Consider the network shown in the figure below. Assume z1 and z2 as inverse network
to each other such that z1 z2 = R2 for all the frequencies.From the circuit,
z1 R z2 R
zin = +
z1 + R z2 + R
z1 R (z2 + R) + z2 R (z1 + R)
=
(z1 + R) (z2 + R)
z1 R2 + z2 R2 + 2z1 z2 R
=
z1 z2 + R2 + R (z1 + z2 )
R (z1 z2 + R2 + R (z1 + z2 ))
=
z1 z2 + R2 + R (z1 + z2 )
=R
The above circuit is also called as constant resistance equalizer .

6.14. CLASSIFICATION OF EQUALIZERS 99
6.14 Classification of equalizers
Basically these are of four types,
1. Full series equalizers
2. Full shunt equalizers
3. Bridged-T equalizers
4. Lattice equalizers
6.14.1 full series equalizers
A full series equalizer in general form is shown below. Fig 8.10. General Full series
equalizer Assume Z1 and Z2 as inverse network to each other such that Z1 Z2 = R2 for all
the frequencies. From the circuit
Z1 R0 Z2 R0
Zin = +
Z1 + R0 Z2 + R0
Z1 R0 (Z2 + R0 ) + Z2 R0 (Z1 + R0 )
=
(Z1 + R0 ) (Z2 + R0 )
Z1 (Z2 + R0 ) + Z2 (Z1 + R0 )
= R0
(Z1 + R0 ) (Z2 + R0 )
= R0
From the figure VI = II R0 and

Z2 R0
VL = II
Z2 + R0
Now attenuation,
2 2
Pin VI Z2 + R0
N= = =
Pout VL Z2
2 2
R0 Z1
= 1+ = 1+
Z2 R0
Since Z1 Z2 = R02 .Simplifying for Z1 and Z2 , we get
√
|Z1 | = R0 N − 1
R0
|Z2 | = √
N −1
The impedances Z1 and Z2 should be of opposite reactance type. If one is inductive the
other one should be a capacitive one. The following are the design equations for the series
equalizer. i) If Z1 is an inductive, and Z2 is capacitive, Equalizer is as shown in figure
below.

1 L1
Z1 Z2 = (jωL1 ) = = R02
jωC2 C2
√
R0 N − 1
L1 =
ω
√
N −1
C2 =
ωR0
ii) If Z1 is Capacitive, and Z2 is Inductive, then the equalizer is as shown in figure below.

1 L2
Z1 Z2 = (jωL2 ) = = R02
jωC1 C1
1
C1 = √
ωR0 N − 1
R0
L2 = √
ω N −1
6.14.2 Full shunt equalizers
Fig.16.7 shows the full shunt equalizer, with impedances Z1 and Z2 such that Z1 Z2 = R02 .it
can be shown easily that, ZIN = R0 .The design equations for the shunt equalizer and the
series equalizer are same, only difference is the arrangement of the circuit elements.
6.14.3 Bridged-T Attenuation Equaliser
Bridged-T equalizer can be used both as attenuation as well as phase equalizer. When
used as attenuation equalizer circuit contains both resistive and reactive components.
When used as a phase equalizer circuit contains reactive components only. i) Bridged-
T Attenuation equalizer: - The following is the diagram of the bridged-T attenuation
equalizer. Each series arm consists of a resistor of value R0 . Shunt element Z2 and Bridged
element Z3 are selected such that Z3 Z2 = R02 . Propagation Constant γ of the Bridged-T
6.14. CLASSIFICATION OF EQUALIZERS 101

Z3 Z0 RjωL
circuit is given by, γ = loge 1 + Z0
= loge 1 + Z2
From the fig.16.8, Z3 = R+jωL
and
Z0 = R0 .Substituting the values of Z0 and Z3 in to the expression for γ and solving for α,
ω 2LR (R + 2R0 )

1
α = loge 1 + 2 2
2 R0 (R + ω 2 L2 )
6.14.4 Bridged-T Phase equalizers
A Bridged-T Phase Equalizer will have all of its elements as reactive elements. The
attenuation offered by such circuits is zero at all frequencies, So these are called as all-
Pass Equalizers. The configuration of a bridged-T Phase Equalizer is as shown in fig.16
.9.From the result of 14.22 it can be shown that the propagation constant of a bridged-T
network is given by,
Z1 Z3 + 2Z0 (Z1 + Z3 )
eγ =
2Z0 (Z1 + Z3 ) − Z1 Z3
Z1 Z3 + 2Z0 (Z1 + Z3 )
eγ =
2Z0 (Z1 + Z3 ) − Z1 Z3
eγ − 1 (Z1 Z3 + 2Z0 (Z1 + Z3 )) − (2Z0 (Z1 + Z3 ) − Z1 Z3 ) Z1 Z3
= =
eγ + 1 (Z1 Z3 + 2Z0 (Z1 + Z3 )) + (2Z0 (Z1 + Z3 ) − Z1 Z3 ) 2Z0 (Z1 + Z3 )
Since all the impedances is to be purely reactive, Z1 = jX1 , Z2 = jX2 , Z3 = jX3 andZ4 =
jX4 .Substituting the Z1 = jX1 , Z2 = jX2 , Z3 = jX3 andZ4 = jX4 in the above expression,
γ −X1 X3 jX1 X3
tanh = =
2 2R0 j (X1 + X3 ) 2R0 (X1 + X3 )

−1 jX1 X3 −1 X1 X3
γ = 2 tanh = j2 tan = α + jβ
2R0 (X1 + X3 ) 2R0 (X1 + X3 )
Equating Real Part and imaginary parts
α=0

X1 X3
β = 2 tan−1 2R0 (X1 +X3 )
6.14.5 Lattice equalizers
This is a constant-resistance type equalizer. For a Lattice network shown in fig.16.10,

Z1 Z2 = Z02 = R02 So, Z0 = R0 Therefore, the characteristic impedance of a lattice
network is equal to the resistance R0 , meaning that the characteristic impedance does
not vary with frequency. Lattice Equalizers are of two types, Attenuation equalizer and
Phase equalizer.
Lattice Attenuation Equalizer
A Lattice Attenuation Equalizer is as shown in fig16.11.For a Lattice Network propagation

constant is given by,
Z1 + Z0
eγ =
Z0 − Z1
Substituting, Z1 = R1 + jX1
R1 + jX1 + R0
eγ =
R0 − R1 − jX1
Taking magnitude of the above equation,
s
(R0 + R1 )2 + X12

α
e =N =
(R0 − R1 )2 + X12

(Since for an attenuation equalizer α = 0) Squaring on both sides of eqn() ,
(R0 + R1 )2 + X12

= N2
(R0 − R1 )2 + X12
This equation is called as the design equation for the lattice attenuation equalizer. if the
value of R1 = R0 ,
2
4R02 + X12

2 2R0
N = =1+
X12 X1
This means that the attenuation is inversely proportional to the frequency of operation
if the series arm contains an inductor. Similarly attenuation increases with the frequency
if the series arm contains a capacitor. The following figure shows the possible lattice
attenuation equalizers.
6.14.6 Lattice Phase Equalizer
This phase equalizer contains only reactive elements. Shunt element and series element
are selected such that the network is a constant resistance type. The propagation constant
6.15. SUMMARY 103
of a lattice network can be expressed as

γ r
Z1
tanh =
2 Z2
Since for a Phase equalizer α = 0 So γ = jβ ,

γ r
jβ Z1
tanh = tanh =
2 2 Z2
r r
β Z1 Z1 Z1 Z1
j tan = = =
2 Z2 Z1 Z2 R0

−jZ1
β = 2 tan−1
R0
The above equation is called as the design equation for the Lattice phase delay equalizer.
6.15 Summary
• A network is defined as an interconnection of two or more circuit elements
• A network can be either passive or active.
• A network is a symmetrical one in which the electrical properties remain unchanged

by interchanging the input and output terminals.
• Characteristic impedance is the geometric mean of ZOC and ZSC .
• Propagation constant is always a complex number
• When n number of symmetrical networks is cascaded then the total propagation

constant is the sum of individual propagation constants.
• Image impedance, Iterative impedance, Image transfer constant and Iterative trans-
fer constant are the properties of an asymmetrical network
• Symmetrical networks and asymmetrical networks are basic building blocks of at-
tenuators, filters and equalizers
• Filters have a property of discriminating between alternating currents of different

frequencies
• A filter may in principle have any number of pass bands separated by stop bands
• Cut-off frequency is the boundary between stop band and pass band
• Filters find applications in communication circuits
• For a constant-k filter product of series and shunt impedances remains constant
• For a constant-k filter image impedance varies with frequency
• M-derived filter provides fast attenuation rate compared to constant-k filter
• Composite filter uses both constant-k and m-derived sections
• A band pass filter and a band stop filter can be derived from a low-pass and high
pass filters
• Neper and decibel are the units of attenuation
• When two or more filters are cascaded, total attenuation is sum of individual atten-
uations in decibels
• Attenuators are used to reduce the signal level by a given amount
• Attenuation is just reverse process of amplification
• Attenuation is expressed in decibles
• Symmetrical attenuators are placed always between two equal impedances.
• An asymmetrical attenuator is placed between source and load having unequal input
impedance
• A fixed attenuator is called as PAD
• For an attenuator propagation constant, is zero.

• Attenuators consists of only resistances
• Equalizers are used to counteract amplitude and phase distortions
• Two impedances are said to inverse to each other if the product of the two impedances
is a constant independent of frequency.
• For a constant resistance equalizer the input impedance is a resistance.
• Four terminal equalizers can be of full series, full shunt, bridged-T and lattice type.
• For full series equalizer attenuation, N= 1+(Z1/R0)2
• The design equations for the shunt equalizer and the series equalizer are same, only
difference is the arrangement of the circuit elements.
• Bridged-T equalizer can be used both as attenuation as well as phase equalizer.

Bridged-T equalizer when used as a phase equalizer circuit contains reactive com-
ponents only.
• Bridged-T phase equalizer offers zero attenuation at all frequencies.
• characteristic impedance does not vary with frequency in Lattice Equalizers
1. A fixed attenuator is also called as —————-
2. The units of attenuation are ————-
3. A decibel is equal to —————— nepers.
4. An attenuator consists of the following
(a) Only resistors
(b) Only impedances

(c) Only inductors
(d) All of the above
5. An equalizer is used to counteract both amplitude and ————— changes.
6. For inverse networks product of impedances is always ————–
7. Phase equalizer offers —————- amount attenuation.
8. Attenuation equalizer contains both resistive and ————– components.
9. Phase equalizer contains only ——————- components.
10. Attenuators find applications in ——————– circuits.
11. Equalizers find applications in ———————-
12. Which of the following is used as both attenuation and phase equalizer
(a) Series equalizer
(b) Shunt equalizer
(c) Bridged T equalizer
6.17 True or False Questions
1. Attenuation is the process of raising the amplitude of the signal level.
2. Attenuators contains inductors.
3. Symmetrical attenuator operates between two unequal impedances.
4. An equalizer is used for amplification.
5. For a constant resistance equalizer the input impedance is a resistance.

6. characteristic impedance vary with frequency in Lattice Equalizers
7. Inductor and Capacitor are inverse networks to each other.
8. Whenever a signal passes through a network it will undergo only phase change.
9. Lattice equalizer is a two-terminal one.
10. Phase constant is measured in decibels.

Chapter 7
Network Synthesis
The concepts introduced in this chapter are
• Network Function
• Pole And Zero
• Pole-Zero Diagram
• Properties Of Poles And Zeros
• Calculation Of Network Function For Various Circuits
7.1 Introduction
In previous chapters, different analysis techniques were presented. Network synthesis is

the design of the network for the given specifications. The specification for the design of
a network is a network function. In this chapter the definition of network function and
its calculations is discussed. Properties of poles and zeros are also discussed.
7.2 Network Function
A network function is defined as the ratio of transform of the response to the transform of
excitation with all initial conditions as zero. In general the symbol H(S) is used to denote
109
110 CHAPTER 7. NETWORK SYNTHESIS
a network function.
7.2.1 Network functions for one-port networks
For one-port network only one voltage and current are possible. So the network function
is either the ratio of voltage to current or the ratio of current to voltage. These are called
as driving point impedance function or driving point admittance function respectively,
V (s)
and are defined as below. Driving point impedance function,Z(s) = I(s)
Driving point
Figure 7.1: One-port Network.
I(s)
admittance function,Y (s) = V (s)
In general, a term Immittance (impedance + admittance) is used represents both driv-

ing point impedance Z(s) and admittance Y (s).
7.2.2 Network functions for Two-port networks
For a two-port network two voltages and two currents are possible at the respective ports.
The possible number of network functions is six taking four different quantities taken two
at a time. When the excitation and response are at the same port the ratio is referred
Figure 7.2: Two-port Network.
to as driving point impedance or admittance function. When the excitation and response
are at different ports, the network functions are called as transfer functions. So for a two
port network two driving point functions and four transfer functions are possible.
7.3. POLES AND ZEROS 111
7.2.3 Network functions of ladder networks
A ladder Network consists of series and shunt elements arranged one after another. Series
elements are represented with impedances and shunt elements with admittances.To find
the driving point impedance and driving point admittance of a ladder network continued
fraction expansion method is used. In order to calculate the value of transfer function a
Figure 7.3: Ladder Network.
method called as unit output method is used. The procedure is listed below.
1. Assume either V2 = 1V or I2 = 1ampere.
2. Repeatedly using KVL and KCL find V1 and I1 .
3. Calculate the required ratio.
7.2.4 Network functions for Non-ladder networks
Bridge network, bridged-T network twin-T network are some of the possible Non-ladder
networks. In order to calculate the network functions for non-ladder networks either
Nodal or Mesh analysis technique is made use of. Some of the non-ladder networks are
shown in the diagram below.
7.3 Poles and zeros
Any network function can be written as a ratio of two polynomials in s. Therefore
p(s) a0 sn + a1 sn−1 + − − − − +an

H(s) = = (7.1)
q(s) b0 sm + b1 sm−1 + − − − + bm
Figure 7.4: Non-Ladder Network.
where a and b coefficients are constants. N is degree of Numerator polynomial p(s) and
M is degree of denominator polynomial q(s). p(s) has n number of roots and q(s) has m
number of roots. If p(s) and q(s) are factored, then
p(s) (s − z1 ) (s − z2 ) − − − (s − zn )
H(s) = = H0 (7.2)
q(s) (s − p1 ) (s − p2 ) − − − (s − pm )
a0
Here H0 = b0
is called as scale factor. Roots of p(s) where the network function attains
a value of zero are called zeros. Roots of q(s) where network function attains a value
of infinity are called as poles. Poles and zeros of a network function are represented on
s-plane or complex frequency plane. In this plane σ is represented on x-axis and jω is
represented on y-axis. Poles are represented with X and zeros are represented with O.
Both σ and jω axes are extended from −∞ to ∞. s-plane is divided into two parts named
as left half plane and right half plane. A typical s-plane is shown below.
Figure 7.5: s-Plane.

7.3. POLES AND ZEROS 113
7.3.1 Properties of of poles and zeros
1. A pole is defined as the frequency for which the network function H(s) attains an
infinite value. Similarly, A zero is defined as the frequency for which the network
function H(s) attains a value of zero.
2. A pole is denoted by the symbol X and a zero is denoted by the symbol O in s-plane.
3. For a network function total number of poles should be equal to the total number
of zeros by considering the poles and zeros that lie at zero and infinity.
4. If the numerator polynomial is of higher degree than the denominator polynomial

there will be a pole at infinity with multiplicity of (n − m).
5. If the denominator polynomial is of higher degree than the numerator polynomial

there will be a zero at infinity with multiplicity of (m − n).
6. If a network function contains imaginary or complex poles and zeros, complex con-
jugates should also be present.
7. For driving point immittance functions, the higher degrees of numerator and de-
nominator polynomials must differ at most by unity. Similarly the lowest degree
terms should differ at most by unity.
8. For the transfer functions, the higher degrees of numerator and denominator poly-
nomials must differ at most by unity. Similarly the lowest degree terms should differ
at most by unity.
9. The residues at the respective poles should be real and positive.
10. For any network function there should not be any missing terms between highest
degree and lowest degree.
11. There should not be multiple poles or zeros at origin. But multiple pole and zeros
are permitted in left half plane.
12. All the coefficients of numerator and denominator polynomials should be positive
and real. Scale factor H0 should also be real and positive.
13. Poles and zeros are used to decide the behavior of passive elements.
14. Pole is used to determine the wave form of the response in time domain. Whereas
a zero determines the magnitude of the response.
15. Network functions with left half plane zero are called as minimum-phase functions.
Network functions with zeros in right half plane are called as non-minimum phase
functions.
16. The zeros of a transfer function are called as transmission zeros. These transmission
zeros can be located any where in the s-plane.
7.4 Scaling
If F is the frequency scaling factor and M is the magnitude scaled factor, then
Rs = MR
M
Ls = L
F
1
Cs = C
MF
Where Rs , Ls and Cs are the scaled values of resistor, inductor and capacitor respectively.
If M and F are greater than one, then the elements are scaled up and if M and F are
less than one then the elements are scaled down.
7.5 Positive Real Function
The brune’s positive real function is defined as
Re Y (s) ≥ 0 f or Re s ≥ 0 (7.3)
7.6. MAXIMUM MODULUS THEOREM 115
and
π
arg Y (s) ≤ arg s f or arg s ≤ (7.4)
2
For positive values of s the real part of Y (s) is to be positive, hence these functions are
called as real functions. If in addition Y (s) satisfies the above equation it is called as
positive real function also called as brune functions.
7.5.1 Properties of Positive Real Functions
• The coefficients of numerator and denominator polynomials should be positive. The

scale factor should be real and positive.
• The poles and zeros should have negative or zero real parts. Complex poles and
zeros should occur in conjugate pairs
• The poles and zeros on imaginary axis should be simple and their residues should
be real and positive.
• The highest powers of numerator and denominator polynomials should differ at most
by unity.
• The lowest powers of numerator and denominator polynomials should differ at most
by unity.
7.6 Maximum Modulus Theorem
The maximum modulus theorem states that a rational function with no singularities
within and on the boundary of a region attains its maximum or minimum value of mag-
nitude in that region on the boundary and that maximum is bounded. According to this
theorem the maximum or minimum values of a function is possible only when the region
does not contain any poles in it or on the boundary. If there are any poles present in the
boundary, the function value will increase rapidly and may tend towards infinity which
is not a bounded one.As a summary of maximum modulus theorem positive realness of a

function can be tested by the following steps
1. There should not be any poles or zeros in the right half plane. (Hurwitz test)
2. Poles on jω axis should be simple and their residues should be real and positive.
3. ReY (jω) ≥ 0 for 0 ≤ ω ≤ ∞ (Sturm’s test)
If driving point impedance or an admittance function satisfies these conditions then it is

strictly a positive real function.
7.7 Hurwitz Test
The Hurwitz test is used to test whether the positive real function contain poles and zeros
on left half plane or not. If a polynomial is such that all real roots and the real parts
of all complex roots are either zero or negative then the polynomial is known as Hurwitz
polynomial. Given a polynomial P (s) separate this into two parts as even part m(s) and
odd part n(s).Depending upon the order of m(s) and n(s) we define a new function ψ(s).
m(s) n(s)
ψ(s) = or (7.5)
n(s) m(s)
This ψ(s)is expanded as a steiltjes continued fraction by the process of repeated division
and inversion.
1
ψ(s) = a1 (s) + 1 (7.6)
a2 (s) + a3 (s)+ 1
a4 (s)+ 1
a5 (s)+−−−−+ 1
an (s)
Hurwitz criterion states that it is necessary that all coefficients should be positive, for a
polynomial to be a Hurwitz one. If any of the coefficients is negative the given polynomial
is not Hurwitz.
7.7.1 Special cases of Hurwitz polynomial
There are two special cases of Hurwitz Polynomial.

7.8. STURM’S THEOREM 117
Premature termination
In case of continued fraction expansion the no of divisions to be performed is equal to

order n of the given polynomial P (s).In some cases the expansion terminates without
performing n number of divisions. This is called as premature termination, which indicates
a common factor between denominator and numerator, and hence poles on jω axis. Under
such situations the common factor is to be identified, given polynomial is to be split into
two parts, and each part is to be checked separately. If these two are independently
Hurwitz then the given polynomial is Hurwitz.
Only Odd or Even Polynomial
If the given P (s) is only odd or even polynomial then differentiate P (s) to get even or
odd polynomials respectively. Now the Hurwitz test is performed as usual.
7.8 Sturm’s Theorem
Sturm’s test is used to check whether ReY (jω) is positive or not for all Real values of ω
. This ReY(j ) can be written as,
A(ω 2 ) = m1 m2 − n1 n2 |s=jω
= A0 ω 2r + A2 ω 2r−2 + − − − − − − +A2r (7.7)
= A0 (ω 2 + δ12 )(ω 2 + δ22 ) − − − − − − − −(ω 2 + δn2 )
For A(ω 2 ) to be positive for all values of ω the roots will have the following limitations.
• All δ’s should be positive and real
• If any of the δ’s are negative then there should be even multiplicity.
• If any of the roots is complex in nature then complex conjugate terms should be
present.
If A(ω 2 ) satisfies all these conditions then given polynomial is positive for all real values
of ω. If the order of the polynomial is high then it is tedious job to factor A(ω 2 ). In order
to reduce the order of A(ω 2 ) substitute x = ω 2 . The resulting polynomial is first sturm’s
polynomial P0 (x).
P0 (x) = A0 xr + A2 xr−1 + − − − − − − +Ar (7.8)
Then second sturm’s function denoted by P1 (x) is calculated by differentiating P0 (x) once,
So
dP0 (x)
P1 (x) = = rA0 xr + (r − 1)A2 xr−1 + − − − − −− (7.9)
dx
P0 (x)
To find the next sturm’s function we calculate P1 (x)
P0 (x) −P2 (x)

= β1 x + β2 + (7.10)
P1 (x) P1 (x)
The order of P2 (x) is lower than P1 (x). Similarly P3 (x) whose degree is lower than P2 (x)
is obtained by dividing P1 (x) with P2 (x).
P1 (x) −P3 (x)
= β3 x + β4 + (7.11)
P2 (x) P2 (x)
This procedure is continued till
• Last sturm’s function of order zero is obtained.
• Remainder is zero.
Now in order to decide the no of real zeros a table is to be prepared.
In T he lim its of P0 P1 P2 − − − Pn No of Sign Changes

x=0 + − + − − Va
x=∞ − + − + + Vb
According to sturm’s theorem the number of real zeros of P0 (x) in the interval x = 0 to
x = ∞ is given by |Va − Vb |.
7.9 Testing of positive real functions
7.9.1 Testing For Necessary Conditions or Inspection Testing
• The coefficients of numerator and denominator polynomials should be positive. The

scale factor should be real and positive.
7.10. BASIC POLE REMOVAL OPERATIONS 119
• The poles and zeros should have negative or zero real parts. Complex poles and
zeros should occur in conjugate pairs
• The poles and zeros on imaginary axis should be simple.
• The highest powers of numerator and denominator polynomials should differ at most
by unity.
• The lowest powers of numerator and denominator polynomials should differ at most
by unity.
7.9.2 Testing For Sufficient Conditions
• Hurwitz test to check the presence of poles on LHP. Normally for a given Z(s) or
Y(s) Hurwitz test is to be performed for denominator polynomial.
• Once Hurwitz test is satisfied next is to perform sturm’s test.
For a given Z(s) or Y(s) inspection testing is to be performed first. Then the other two
tests will confirm its positive real ness. If the given Z(s) or Y(s) has satisfied both of the
above two testing then it is a strictly positive real function.
7.10 Basic Pole Removal Operations
Synthesis means repeated removal of poles at origin, infinity etc. The basic removal
operations are
1. Removal of pole at origin
2. Removal of pole at infinity
3. Removal of complex conjugate pole
4. Removal of a constant
5. Partial removal of a pole.

7.11 Properties of an LC Immittance functions
The properties of an LC Immittance function are
• ZLC (s) or YLC (s) is always a ratio of even to odd or odd to even polynomials
• There should be a pole or zero at s = 0 or at s = ∞
dZ
• The slope dσ
is positive for all values of
• Poles and zeros of an immittance function should alternate on j -axis. This is known
as separation property.
• Poles and zeros on jω -axis are simple and their residues should be positive and
real.
• The numerator and denominator polynomial should differ by one, in both highest
and lowest powers.
7.12 Properties of RC impedance Functions
The following are the properties of RC Impedance functions.
• Poles and zeros of RC impedance function should lie on negative real axis. All poles
and zeros should be simple.
• Poles and zeros should be interlaced
• There should be a pole at origin(s = 0).
• There should be zero at infinity(s = ∞ ).
• The residues will be real and positive
dZ
• The slope dσ
should be negative
• ZRC (∞) < ZRC (0).

7.13. PROPERTIES OF RC ADMITTANCE FUNCTIONS 121
7.13 Properties of RC Admittance Functions
The following are the properties of RC admittance functions.
• Poles and zeros of RC admittance function should lie on negative real axis. All poles
• There should be a zero at origin(s = 0).
• There should be pole at infinity(s = ∞).
YRC (s)
• The residues of YRC (S) should be real and negative. The residues of s
should
dY
• The slope dσ
should be positive
• YRC (∞) > YRC (0).
7.14 Properties of RL Impedance Functions
The following are the properties of RL Impedance functions.
• Poles and zeros of an RL impedance function should lie on negative real axis. All
poles and zeros should be simple.
• Poles and zeros should be interlaced on real axis
• There should be a zero at origin(s = 0).
• There should be pole at infinity(s = ∞).
ZRL(s)
• The residues of ZRL (s) should be real and negative. The residues of s
should
dZ
• The slope dσ
should be positive
7.15 Properties of RL Admittance Functions
• Poles and zeros of RL admittance function should lie on negative real axis. All poles
• There should be a pole at origin(s = 0).
• There should be zero at infinity(s = ∞).
• The residues will be real and positive
dY
• The slope dσ
should be negative
• YRL (0) > YRL (∞).
7.16 synthesis Using RLC elements
Some of the available methods of synthesizing a network with R, L, Celements are,
1. Series - parallel withdrawal procedure
2. Brune’s method
3. Bott-duffin synthesis procedure
4. Reza’s synthesis procedure etc
Series-parallel with drawl procedure employs the continued fraction expansion to realize
a network. Brune’s method employs the ”minimum Impedance” approach to realize a
network with a transformer. Bott-Duffin method making use of Richards theorem realizes
a network without transformer. Reza’s synthesis procedure is out of scope of this book.
7.16. SYNTHESIS USING RLC ELEMENTS 123
7.16.1 Brune’s Method of RLC Synthesis
This method is employed to synthesize minimum impedance functions.
1. For the Given impedance function Z(s),split it into Real and Imaginary Parts. Let
at frequency ω1 , Real Part of Z(jω1 ) = 0.Now at ω = ω1 the value of Z(jω1 ) = jX1 .
If X1 is positive the realized element is an inductor of value X1 henries. If X1 is
negative the realized element is a negative inductor.
2. After the first step, Z1 (s) = Z(s) −sL1 . The value of L1 can be positive or negative.
Calculate Y1 (s) and Synthesize it.
3. After the second step the remained admittance is Y2 (s).Thus Z2 (s) has a pole at
infinity since the order of numerator is more than the order of denominator by unity.
L1
Removing this pole at infinity from Z2 (s) gives an inductor of value L3 = − 1+2R1 L1
4. After removing an inductor of value L3 from Z2 (s) the remained impedance is

Z3 (s) = Z2 (s) − sL3 .this process of pole removal is continued till the remainder
is a positive constant.
5. The cycle of operations will reduce the order of numerator and denominator by 2
is called as brune cycle. The network containing three inductors and a capacitor
is called as brune network. The final network after step4 is shown in the following
figure.
6. the network containing three inductors is replaced by a transformer named as brune’s

transformer, which requires a coupling coefficient of unity.
7. It is evident from the figure that if L1 is negative L3 should be positive one. If L1 is a

positive one then L3 should be a negative one. The greatest disadvantage of brune’s
method is designing a transformer having unity coupling coefficient practically.
S.no When X1 is positive When X1 is negative

X1 −1
1 Find L1 = ω1
Find C1 = X1 ω1
1
2 Find k from Z(k) = kL2 Find k from Z(k) = kC1
1 Z(k)
3 Find C1 from C1 = kZ(k)
Find L1 from L1 = k
4 Find Z ∗ (s) Find Z ∗ (s)

5 Find Za ,Zb where Za = Z(k)Z ∗ (s) and Find Za ,Zb where Za = Z(k)Z ∗ (s) and
Z(k) Z(k)
Zb = Z ∗ (s)
Zb = Z ∗ (s)
1 1
6 Synthesize Za
and Zb Synthesize Za and Zb
7 The final realized network is shown be- The final realized network is shown be-
low(figure ) low(figure)
7.16.2 Bott-Duffin Method Of Synthesis
The bott-duffin method uses a series of steps similar to brunes method. This method does
not use a transformer to realize a network. This method makes use of Richards theorem
Z(s)
which is stated below. ”if a function Z(s) is positive real and if Z(k)
is not identically
1
equal to s or s
then the function Z ∗ (s) is also a positive real. Z ∗ (s) can be written as
kZ(s) − sZ(k)
Z ∗ (s) = (7.12)
kZ(k) − sZ(s)
where k is a real positive number.

The first step of bott-duffin method is similar to brune’s method of synthesis. After
the first step, The series of steps to be performed are summarized in the following table
1. An impedance function has poles at s = -4,-6 and zeros at s = -3,-7.If Z(-2) =

15ohms, write the expression for Z(s) as a ratio of two polynomials.
2. find the driving point impedance Z(s) of the following networks
3. Find G12 and 12 of the following networks

7.18. SUMMARY 125
4. find the driving point impedance of the following ladder networks
5. Find the Transfer function for the following ladder networks using unit output
method.
6. For the bridged T network calculate G12 and 12.
7. Find G12 of the following lattice networks
8. Find the natural and forced poles of the following network
9. Give the pole-zero plot of the following 2s+12 F(s) = —————— S2+9s+8
10. List some of the properties of pole and zeros.
7.18 Summary
• In order to synthesize a network the given specification should be a positive real

function
• Positive real functions should have poles located on LHP
• If a function is positive real then its inverse is also a positive real
• Sum of two positive real functions is also a positive real function
• Hurwitz test is used to test the location of poles in LHP for a positive real function
• Sturm’s test is used to check for the positive ness of the given function for all values
of .
• For a complex conjugate poles the residues are also conjugates to each other
• For a positive real function the poles at origin should be simple
• Hurwitz test is based on the continued fraction expansion of the given polynomial
• Poles and zeros are called as singularities of a positive real function

• Network synthesis is nothing successive removal of poles
• LC immittance functions should have poles and zeros located on imaginary axis
• LC Immittance function should be a ratio of either even to odd or odd to even

polynomials
• RC driving point functions should have poles and zeros located on negative real axis
• RL driving point functions should have poles and zeros located on negative real axis
• Foster forms are obtained from partial fraction expansion
• Cauer forms are obtained from continued fraction expansion
• Foster forms and cauer forms together called as canonic forms
• Brune’s method is applicable for minimum functions
• Brune’s transformer should have a Unity coupling coefficient
• Bott-duffin method does not use a transformer for its realization
1. Positive Real functions were basically ———————–.
2. Premature termination indicates ——————-
3. Poles on jω axis produce——————————
4. Sturms test indicates the number of —————poles.
5. Residues for complex conjugate poles should be ————– to each other.
6. An inductor of value 3h is connected in series with a capacitor of value 5f . The

overall impedance is
(a) Positive real
(b) Not a positive real function
(c) Both a and b
7. Network Synthesis is nothing but repeated removal of ———————
8. If a pole at s = 0 is removed for an impedance function then the realized element

is—————
9. Removing a constant from admittance will produce —————————–
10. For an LC Immittance function
(a) Poles and Zeros interlace
(b) Poles and zeros interlace on σ axis
(c) Poles and zeros should interlace on jω axis
11. Foster form-I is realized as —————–Circuit
12. Cauer form-II always produces ——————– Circuit
13. Two foster forms and two cauer forms together called as——————
14. The properties of RC Impedance function and RL admittance function is ————

———
15. Brune’s method is used to synthesize ————— Functions.
16. Brune’s method uses Transformer of ————— Coupling co-efficient.
17. The following network is
(a) Foster form-II

(b) Foster form-I
(c) Brune’s network
(d) Cauer form-I
18. An impedance function is a ratio of even to odd polynomials. It is ——-
(a) RC function
(b) RL function
(c) LC function
(d) RLC function
19. Slope for an RL Impedance function is to be ———–
20. When a pole at s = 0 is removed for an impedance function the realized element is
—————-
21. When a complex conjugate pole removed from Z(s), ————– Circuit is Realized.
22. For an RC admittance function the degrees of numerator and denominator Should
differ by —————-
23. The input impedance of the four canonic forms is ————-
(a) Same
(b) not same
(c) both a and b
(d) None
24. When a region contains poles in it, the function will have ——-
(a) Maximum value
(b) Minimum Value
(c) None
(d) Both a and b

1. Hurwitz test is based on continued fraction expansion method.
2. Positive real function will have multiple poles.
3. A Positive real function can also be called as brune’s Positive real function.
4. Sum of two positive real functions is also positive real.
5. Network synthesis is nothing but design of network.
6. Network synthesis is based on removal of zeros.
7. Foster forms and cauer forms are used to synthesize RLC Networks.
8. Brune’s method is a modification of Bott-Duffin Method.
9. Bott-Duffin method uses Richards’s theorem.
10. Foster form is based on partial fraction expansion.

Bookbct

Transféré par

Informations du document

Description originale:

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Bookbct

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Preface

2 First and Second Order circuits 27

3 A.C. Circuit Analysis 41

4 Circuit Analysis in s-domain 59

5 Two Port Networks 69

6 Symmetrical And Asymmetrical Networks 83

7 Network Synthesis 109

1.2 Charge, Current, Voltage and Power

1.3 Kirchhoff ’s Laws

Node is an interconnecting point of two or more number of elements in a circuit.According

Example Problem 1.1 By using KVL find Vx in the following circuit.

1.4 Ideal and practical Voltage and Current sources

Figure 1.2: Circuit symbol of a resistor

Series connection When n number of resistors R1 , R2 , R3 − − − −Rn are connected in

Example problems Parallel connection When n number of resistors is connected in par-

The integral relation between voltage and current of a capacitor is given by

Where t is variable of integration.Splitting the integration as sum of two integrals

So the capacitor can be called as memory element.

1.6.1 Properties Of A Capacitor

• A capacitor acts as an open circuit to d.c.

Where i(0) is the initial current in an inductor.

1.7.1 Properties of an inductor

• The inductor acts as short circuit to d.c.

• When n number of inductors is connected in series they can be added. Leq =

1.8 Nodal Voltage Method

• Select a node to which maximum number of elements or branches connected as

• Assign node voltages to these N − 1 non-reference nodes with respect to datum

• If the voltage source is present in between two non-reference nodes

1. Write super node KCL

2. Express voltage source in terms of non-reference voltages.

• Write KCL’S for the remaining nodes in the circuit.

1.9 Mesh Current Method

• Assign N number of mesh currents in the clockwise direction.

• If the current source is present in between two loops

1. Write super mesh KVL

2. Express current source value in terms of assigned mesh currents.

• Write KVL’s in the remaining meshes

• By using Cramer’s rule find the mesh currents.

The following is the comparison of the two analysis methods.

S.no Nodal voltage method Mesh current method

1.10 Voltage Division

1.11 Current Division

1.12.1 Dot Method

The following is the procedure for drawing a dual network

• If an element is common between two meshes draw a line connecting corresponding

• Replace each line by the dual element.

1.13 Source Transformations

1.14 Superposition Theorem

used to find I2 will be,

1.15 Millman’s Theorem

1.16 Dual of Millman’s Theorem

According to this ” if there are n number of current sources of values I1 , I2 , I3 , −−

1.17 Thevenin’s Theorem

This theorem provides a method to reduce a linear circuit to a circuit consisting of a

1.18 Norton’s Theorem

Writing KCL at node, V V V-10 — + 4+—–+——— = 0==¿V=3/4 volts. 3 2 2 V

Current flowing through the 5 resistor is, 1 I = ——- = 111.11mA. 4+5+

1.19 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

RTH = 6+[18//9] = 6+6 = 12 When the value of load resistance is 12 , maximum

From the circuit, Va =6V. Writing KCL at node b, Vb Va Vb Vb ————- + ——-

1.20 Star to Delta Conversions

Sol:- converting delta into star network,