Challenges and Opportunities in Cell and Module I-V Testing
Ronald A. Sinton, Adrienne L. Blum, Justin Dinger, Wes Dobson, Cassidy Sainsbury
and Harrison W. Wilterdink
Sinton Instruments, Boulder, CO, 80301, USA
Abstract — The most basic and important characterization of a
solar cell is the power output. Within industry, the I-V test is
perhaps the only detailed characterization that is uniformly
performed on 100% of the product. At calibration laboratories,
this is the basis for benchmarking R&D with efficiency records
and the source of traceability for a ~100B US$ industry. This paper
compares and contrasts methodologies used in calibration
laboratories with production facilities. It will highlight
opportunities to optimize the information available in production
in order to best serve both the requirements of accurate nameplate
ratings and provide relevant information for process control and
continuous improvement of the crystalline silicon production.
Specific topics will include minimizing uncertainties in reported
values and advanced characterization of the parameters relevant
to full device physics models for root-cause identification of
process variation.
Index Terms — silicon, measurement, photovoltaic cells,
capacitance.
I. INTRODUCTION
Traditionally, cells are measured in production in order
to rate them for efficiency and bin them in order to optimize
module production. Modules are primarily rated for power,
representing the value of the production. The framework for
these measurement procedures has often come from calibration
laboratories, with an emphasis on traceability of measurements.
The uncertainty analysis for this process is very complex, as
shown in Table I. In contrast, solar cell R&D has developed
detailed characterization techniques based on device physics
understanding. This differs from the traceability approach in
that the measurements use detailed device physics models that
are specific to the material and device designs. The results can
include a detailed model of the devices under test, instead of a
simple report of current and voltage at one sun conditions.
This paper will present three related concepts. First, we
discuss methods for production line uncertainty analysis, with
TABLE I: CALIBRATION OF REFERENCE MODULE IN CALIBRATION LABORATORY VS. PRODUCTION POWER RATING
Reference Calibration Laboratory
Irradiance accuracy and traceability (e.g., WPVS reference cell)
Voltage accuracy and traceability
Current accuracy and traceability
Temperature uniformity, accuracy, and traceability
Illumination non-uniformity
Spectrum measurement accuracy
EQE reference cell and EQE device under test
Reproducibility of testing
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an approach of relegating details of traceability and absolute
measurement accuracy to the calibration laboratory, resulting
in relatively simple procedures for production line assessment.
Results from an experiment demonstrating this principle are
described. Second, the opportunities for implementing device
physics models into the production testing in order to quickly
optimize the production with root-cause identification of the
power losses are presented. Third, the relevance of letter-grade
simulator ratings to this process are briefly discussed.
II. CALIBRATION LABORATORY VS. PRODUCTION TESTING
Table I illustrates some of the key uncertainties for traceable
measurements of the power of a cell or module at standard test
conditions (STC). Uncertainties come from several sources,
and include both systematic and random effects. For contrast,
consider a module production line, where traceability is
determined essentially by a transfer of measured power from a
reference module to production modules. Systematic effects on
the left-hand side of Table I may impact production line
measurements; however, the systematic uncertainty associated
with each effect ratios out of the total as long as the effect is
identical for the reference module and production modules.
This condition is generally satisfied when the reference module
the same product as the production modules. In this case, the
production line uncertainty assessment is vastly simplified:
total uncertainty will depend primarily on the reference module
uncertainty (treated as a systematic uncertainty by the
production line) and random uncertainties added at the factory
(which can be determined by reproducibility testing on site).
This principle of ratioing out select uncertainties is well
known, for example, with spectral mismatch effects. In the
calibration laboratory, there are uncertainties that must be
calculated based on the spectrum of the light source, the
Production Line Power Rating
Calibration module accuracy (from calibration laboratory)
Reproducibility of testing
0009
spectral response of the reference device that is used to There are several widely-cited references [7]-[8] that assume
determine light intensity, and the spectral response of the a one-to-one relationship between the non-uniformity value and
module under test. It is well known that in the factory, use of a the associated uncertainty in module power—i.e., a non-
reference module with the same size, construction, and nominal uniformity of ±4.9%, for example, would set the minimum
spectral response as the production modules makes the spectral uncertainty in power to ±4.9%. This assumption seems to be
mismatch correction unnecessary [4]. This principle is less well widespread in the general understanding of module power
known with respect to some of the other uncertainties in measurements, but is not present in the data shown here, or
Table I, especially the illumination non-uniformity [1]-[7]. predicted in detailed modeling [1]-[6], [17].
Fig. 1 has 300 data points (100 for each non-uniformity
pattern) that can be visualized more clearly: by normalizing
III. DEMONSTRATION OF PRODUCTION TOLERANCE
each module’s measured power values to the nominal “silver”
We have encountered skepticism that the principle described power value of that module, the data can be aggregated to show
in the last section applies to illumination non-uniformity. An the differences resulting from each non-uniformity pattern. The
experiment was designed to test this hypothesis, and will be resulting frequency histogram is shown in Fig. 2. The
presented at the European Conference in September [1]. Ten distributions are nominally Gaussian and have a standard
modules were sampled from production, and the power of each deviation of 0.05%, representing the measurement
was measured using a solar simulator calibrated using power reproducibility of this simulated production line scenario. It can
match with a single reference module (“gold module”); this
provided a baseline power value for each sample (“silver
module”). One-by-one, the solar simulator was calibrated to a
silver module and all ten modules were measured again, until
each module had been used once as a silver module (100
measurements total). The key idea in this experiment is that if
systematic uncertainties ratio out, then the difference in module
power measured under each silver module calibration should be
dominated by random effects which will be statistically
insignificant under rigorous analysis. This outcome was
confirmed using an analysis of variance (ANOVA) approach.
To test the ratioing principle for illumination non-uniformity,
we repeated the same test procedure for three different non-
uniformity patterns: ±2.2%, ±3.4%, and ±4.9%. This simulates
data that one might expect on a production line where the solar
simulator non-uniformity drifts over time, or if comparing
measurements between production lines using different solar Fig. 1: Measured power for 10 modules. Each sample ID includes
simulators. Note—non-uniformity is determined by the power measurements relative to 10 different calibration modules.
Color coding differentiates the non-uniformity patterns.
maximum and minimum irradiance measured in the module
area: ሺ‫ܩ‬௠௔௫ െ ‫ܩ‬௠௜௡ ሻȀሺ‫ܩ‬௠௔௫ ൅ ‫ܩ‬௠௜௡ ሻ.
The result is shown in Fig. 1 for the ten modules. The module
power data shows expected production variability, spanning
265 W to 271 W. However, the data from each of the three non-
uniformity experiments aligns very well. The average power of
the ten modules for the three different non-uniformity cases was
268.20 W, 268.11 W and 268.11 W for the three cases of
different non-uniformities. The maximum difference between
the three cases was 1 part in 3000, despite the large range of
non-uniformity represented in this experiment.
This result agrees with a review of the literature for model
and data-based experiments on the effects of non-uniformity
and cell mismatch [1]-[6]. It is well appreciated in this literature
that there will be little effect of non-uniformity on the power
measurement for non-uniformity less than 5%. Additionally, in
this emulation of a production measurement, the non-
uniformity effect is present for both the reference module and Fig. 2: Normalized data showing the normalized spread in
measurements for the entire data-set for the three non-uniformity
the device under test, and so will ratio out. patterns. Color coding differentiates the non-uniformity patterns

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be concluded that for this experiment, the “production”
measurement introduced about 0.05% uncertainty to the
measurement in addition to whatever uncertainty was present
in the golden module.

IV. DISCUSSION OF NOTABLE EXCEPTIONS

The previous section presented the advantages of using a
transfer standard of a power from a calibration reference to the
device under test in order to simplify measurement procedures
and minimize uncertainties. There are complications to this
method that are worth noting. Two will be discussed here in the
context of production cell measurements.
Silver is one of the most expensive components in modern
silicon solar cells. As a result, there is less and less of this silver
on the front of solar cells in order to minimize costs. This leads
to the necessity of extensive probe bar shading, with numerous
current and voltage probes to extract the current while
maintaining the solar cell at a uniform lateral voltage.
In order to have a uniform definition of cell efficiency,
procedures have been developed at calibration laboratories to
measure these cells [9]-[11]. Generally, the short circuit current
is measured with probing as close to the edge of the cell as
possible, using negligible shadowing, in order to obtain an
unambiguous value for the short circuit current. That is, a value
that is independent of probe bar shadowing. Then, the probe
bars are put down onto the cells (creating extensive shadowing)
but normalized out by increasing the light intensity to match the
measured Isc. The probe bars are carefully optimized so that the
measured voltage corresponds to the case of a uniform average
voltage across the cell [9], [11]. This procedure has the desired
effect of being unambiguous. It can be reproduced at any
calibration laboratory. However, it results in an upper bound of
the Isc of the solar cell, since tabbing will eventually increase
the shadowing, and also an optimistic measure of the power,
since the probing configuration eliminates the effects of lateral
series resistance in the busbars and tabbing that will be present
in the final solar cells when current is extracted only from the
ends of the tabbing.
The problem of interest here though, is how to “transfer” this
idealized result to a production tester. The production tester has
significant shadowing from the probe bars, uses a single
measurement instead of separate Isc and power measurements,
and has less ideal placement and number of pins in the probe
bars to save costs and maximize throughput. In addition, while
calibration laboratries are often steady-state testers, production
testers are usually flash testers that measure the entire IV curve
as rapidly as possible.
With industrial probe bars in place, the calibration of the cell
tester can be set by matching Isc of the reference calibration cell.
The Voc should be relatively good since this is relatively
insensitive to the shadow, as long as the Isc is the same [9]-[12].
However, how should the power, especially the Fill Factor
(FF), be matched? Our experience is that the many factories
Fig. 3: An illustration of the errors possible when ramping voltage
up or down during a flash measurement on an n-type solar cell
[12]. The cell has “extra” current when ramping down in voltage
and a deficit when ramping up.
simply normalize this with a correction factor to match the
calibration laboratory result.
This could be problematic in the case of modern solar cells
with significant capacitance. Fig. 3 shows a modelled I-V curve
for an n-type solar cell measured with a steady-state tester
(center curve) compared to measurements using a ramped
voltage from short-circuit to open circuit (red) or Voc to Isc, blue.
The maximum power, and FF, will be different in each case.
The discrepancies in power are well-described as a function
of the charge in the cell, and the ramp rate of the junction
voltage. There is extra current (dQ/dt) when the cell is
discharging from high voltage, or a deficit in current when the
cell is charging from low voltage.
݀ܳ ݀ܳ ܸ݀௝
ൌ (1)
݀‫ܸ݀ ݐ‬௝ ݀‫ݐ‬
Where dQ/dVj is the “differential capacitance” of the device and
dVj/dt is the junction voltage sweep rate used in the
measurement of a device. The differential capacitance is a well-
defined function of cell thickness, substrate doping, and series
resistance; its value can be readily computed when these
parameters are nominally known or measured. The full
expression of dQ/dVj is defined as [12], [13]:
‫ܸݍ‬
݀ܳ ‫ݍ‬ ‫݊ݓݍ‬௜ ଶ ݁‫ ݌ݔ‬൬ ௝ൗ݇ܶ൰
ൌ (2)
ܸ݀௝ ݇ܶ ‫ܸݍ‬௝
ටܰ஺ǡ஽ ଶ ൅ Ͷ݊௜ ଶ ݁‫ ݌ݔ‬൬ ൗ ൰
݇ܶ
Vj is the junction voltage of the device and is related to the
terminal voltage (V), current (J) and series resistance (Rs) by:
ܸ௝ ൌ ܸ ൅ ‫ܴܬ‬௦ (3)

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Fig. 4: Suns-Voc and IV data measured on a production cell tester.
Every solar cell in a production line will have a different
transient response to the cell I-V tester, due to the dependence
of dQ/dt on the substrate doping (which varies from cell to cell)
as well as the series resistance. So a single calibration reference
can’t be used to “normalize” a FF for a steady-state
measurement of the reference cell, unless the production tester
has no errors due to capacitance. Production test errors will not
be normalized out correctly and could result in higher or lower
efficiencies relative to the correct value. The production tester
needs to be error-free with respect to capacitance.
IV. ADVANCED IV TESTING FOR ROOT CAUSE IDENTIFICATION
The previous sections described some key issues in the
production measurements of cells and modules. Another area
of recent interest is using the cell and module-test station to do
advanced measurements on the cells and modules in order to
enable a root-cause analysis and identification of the individual
cell or module characteristics that are limiting the efficiency
[14].
Fig. 5 (left) and Fig. 6 (right). Ideal limits for solar cell performance to allow for reference points for a power loss analysis. The “Ideal Limit”
curve is shown at left and the Suns-Voc ultimate limit curve is shown at right.
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This is accomplished by measuring more than just the current
and voltage. If in addition the Suns-Voc curve and the substrate
doping is determined, this enables a full device physics module
to be used. The Suns-Voc, shown in Fig. 4, can be used with
the IV curve to determine the power loss at the maximum power
point, the current-series resistance product.
When the substrate doping is also determined during the cell
or module test, then the Suns-Voc curve can be interpreted in
terms of carrier density vs. effective lifetime, as is done in a
typical photoconductance measurement on wafers in and R&D
process optimization. For n-type solar cells or modules, this
data can be further analyzed to separate bulk SRH
recombination and emitter saturation current densities. Each
experimental parameter required for a high-efficiency device
physics model: voltage (V), current (J), short circuit current
(Jsc), doping (NA), carrier recombination lifetime (τeff), excess
carrier density (Δn), and shunt (Rsh) are measured and reported
at cell test and can be expressed with the following equation:
݇ܶ ሺ‫ܬ‬௦௖ െ ‫ ܬ‬െ ܸȀܴ‫݄ݏ‬ሻ൫ܰ஺ ൅ ο݊ሻ߬௘௙௙
ܸ െ ܴ௦ ‫ ܬ‬ൌ ݈݊ ቈ ቉ (4)
‫ݍ‬ ‫ܹ݊ݍ‬௜ ଶ
Where the effective lifetime (τeff) can be expressed with the
following equation further separating the effective lifetime into
its constituent components:
‫ܬ‬௢௘௙௥௢௡௧ ൅ ‫ܬ‬௢௘௕௔௖௞
ͳ ͳ
ൌ ൅ ሺܰ஺ ൅ ȟ݊ሻ (5)
߬௘௙௙ ߬௕௨௟௞ ‫݊ݍ‬௜ଶ ܹ
This then permits us to calculate the power loss due to the
various specific loss parameters; Rsh, Rs, emitter and bulk
recombination. An outline of several reference points for this
study is shown in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6. There are two relevant
reference points for a power loss study. The first is the ultimate
limit for the particular silicon substrate thickness. For this, we
use the limits defined by Richter et al., based on fundamental
Auger and radiative recombination, light trapping, and infra-red
parasitic absorption that competes with photogeneration to limit
0012

Fig. 7: Technology losses relative to cell power output for a
group of Al-BSF cells.
Fig. 8: Technology losses relative to cell power output for a group
of monocrystalline PERC cells.
the current[15]. The “Ideal Limit” IV curve is shown for a 190
mm cell in Fig. 5. Then, there is a second limit (Fig. 6), which
is determined by the cell design and its constituent components.
In this case, the Suns-Voc curve is reference. For example, if
you reduce the bulk and emitter recombination by 30%, you
will not move 30% of the distance towards the “Richter limit”
curve. Both the IV-curve and the Suns-Voc curve will move
towards higher voltage as in eq. 4. Similarly, if you lower Rs
by 30%, you will move 30% of the distance in voltage out
toward the Suns-Voc curve. This “local” loss analysis is a
useful metric for real-time feedback into the production line.
Two examples of loss analysis will now be discussed with
supporting data. For a group of Al-BSF solar cells, the global
losses relative to the limit curves are 84% for the Vmp and 78%
for the Jsc. This Jsc loss is due to imperfect light trapping,
parasitic absorption of IR and UV in the cell coatings and the
doped silicon, and grid shadowing. The Vmp loss is due to
emitter, surface, and bulk recombination. These figures are
based on the median losses for the group of cells.
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The technology losses are shown relative to cell power output
in the histogram found in Fig. 7. For this technology, the Rs loss
is very low, at 2%, and very well controlled. The shunt loss is
negligible. The bulk recombination and emitter recombination
losses are more significant, at 6% of the power loss, with a bit
of a yield tail of higher losses showing process variation in this
parameter.
Fig. 8 shows the same analysis for a group of monocrystalline
PERC cells. In this case, the global parameter are a Vmp limit of
88% of the ideal limit, and a Jsc limit of 84% of ideal. Then the
local losses, are negligible for the shunt, but 4-5% for Rs, and
4-8% for the emitter and bulk recombination losses. In this case,
significant process variation is seen in both of these parameters.
Another example is shown in Fig. 9. In this case, n-type HIT
modules were measured in a study of field test degradation [16].
For n-type modules, the excess carrier density in Equation 5 is
significant compared to the doping, and the slope of the curve
in inverse effective lifetime vs. excess carrier density can be
used to separate out the sum of the front and back emitter
saturation current densities.
Fig. 9 shows the IV curves and Suns-Voc curves of a control
module and one module that has been fielded for ten years. By
using the analysis of the Suns-Voc data and Equations 4 and 5,
the likely loss mechanisms can be identified. In this case, it is
most likely that of the 11 W in degradation (out of 200W), most
of it was due to emitter degradation, with an increase in series
resistance coming in a distant second place.
IV. THE RELEVANCE OF LETTER-GRADE SIMULATOR RATINGS
Letter grade simulator ratings are often used to promote cell
and module-test simulators for sale to manufacturing
companies. Recently, these ratings are generally defined by an
Fig. 9: Data reported for a study of HIT module degradation in the
field for 10 years [15]. A control module (dark red Suns-Voc data
and solid blue diamonds for IV data) was compared to a fielded
module (light red Suns-Voc data and open blue diamonds for IV
data).
0013
IEC standard [18]. What is the relevance of these ratings for
production? It is well known that the spectral classifications
have no benefit for production testing [4], [17]. Class C
spectrum simulators have often been shown to give superior
results to “Class A+” (a marketing extension of the IEC
standard) [17]. Inspection of the spectrum for many commercial
simulators has shown aspects that are clearly designed to test
well in the standard, but perhaps detrimental to actual
performance with respect to testing products [17].
In the first section of this paper, to be described in much
greater detail in a future publication [1], it is shown that for the
range of non-uniformity from 2-5%, spanning up to the B-C
boundary in the IEC standard, there is no detectable difference
in module power measurements. Although low non-uniformity
is a good goal, and useful for calibration labs that deal with
various sizes and shapes of solar cells, there is no detectable
benefit in production. The limits used for marketing are quite
arbitrary. On the other hand, the actual quantification of power
uncertainties on the production line is quite straightforward,
and has nothing to do with letter grade standards, as shown in
the second section in this paper.
We find it unfortunate that it is widely believed that these
ratings have value when we have been unable to find examples
in the literature to match the persistent commercial claims. We
conclude that the use of letter grade ratings for production
testing decisions is extraneous at best, and likely to be
detrimental to best practice.
IV. CONCLUSIONS
This paper described three issues of current interest to the
authors. First, the main high-level differences between
calibration laboratory measurements for absolute accuracy
were compared to the power ratings of cells and modules in
production. In production, the reference calibration cells and
modules are the key to low uncertainties. The production line
measurement reproducibility adds uncertainty, but this can be
determined and is generally small in comparison to the absolute
reference uncertainty. The opportunities for using IV-test
equipment with device physics models in order to provide
detailed information relevant to the process optimization was
described. This can be done on every cell or module in
production yielding relevant data in real time. The resulting
data has also been applied to degradation studies to identify the
root cause of power loss after degradation in the field. Finally,
the relevance of simulator letter-grade ratings to these issues
was discussed. The relevance of these ratings to industrial
production is not supported by experimental validation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to acknowledge Kris Davis
(University of Central Florida), and Trina Solar for providing
solar cells and modules for this work.
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0014