FUNDAMENTAL OF BUILDING

PHYSICS
CHAPTER CONTENT
 Basics of heat transfer
 Sources of heat gain in buildings
 Establishing thermal comfort
 Mechanism of regulating thermal comfort
INTRODUCTION
 BUILDING: To control the immediate environment around
people.

 BUILDING ENCLOSURE: provide shelter for the benefit of

human habitation, work or recreation.

 BUILDING SERVICES: operates and control environment

within the building by enabling occupants to live and work
comfortably.

 COMFORT: the state of being able to pursue some activity

without experiencing environmental distress.
 BASIC OF HEAT TRANSFER
 Heat; is a form of energy, appearing as molecular motion in substances
or as radiation in space. Measured in Joule, J

 Temperature; considered as presence of heat in a substance.

 Thermodynamics; the science of the flow of heat.

 The first law of thermodynamics/energy is the principle of

conservation of energy. Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only
changed from one form to another.

 The second law of thermodynamics, (Clausius 1850) states that

heat (or energy), transfer can take place in one direction only. i.e.
from hotter to a cooler body.
 BASIC OF HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transferred from hot to cold in 3 basic ways:
i) Conduction
ii) Convection
iii) radiation
 METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER
50° C 30° C

Heat transfer by
conduction

45° C
35° C Heat transfer by
35° C convection
50° C

20,000° C
20° C
Heat transfer by
radiation

If there is a temperature difference between two systems heat

will always find a way to transfer from the higher to lower
system
SOURCES OF HEAT GAIN FOR BUILDING
HEAT GAIN IN
BUILDING
Office building

Typical house
SOURCES OF HEAT GAIN IN BUILDING
 Why we study Heat?
To achieve THERMAL COMFORT.
 Thermal balance exists when the sum of all
heat flow is zero i.e.;

 When this sum is greater than 0(+),

temperature indoor will heat up.
 When less than 0(-), temperature indoor will
cooling down.
SOURCES OF HEAT GAIN IN BUILDING

Qi= internal heat gain, heat from human bodies, lamps, appliances
Qs=solar heat gain
Qc=conduction heat gain
Qv=ventilation heat gain
Qe=evaporative cooling
Qm=mechanical cooling
THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
SOURCES OF HEAT GAIN IN BUILDING
 SOURCES OF HEAT GAIN IN BUILDING
• Building envelope/enclosure/shell is the
part of the building which physically
separates the exterior environment from
the interior environment/s.
• An important parts and a critical
component of any building that protects
building occupants and regulate indoor
environment.
• Prevents air, moisture, heat/cool from
freely flow in/out from a building.
• Three parts of building envelope:
interior, exterior and the system consist
of:
• Roof,
• Floor slabs
• Walls
• Windows
• Doors.
 SOURCES OF HEAT GAIN IN BUILDING
• Appreciating this difference is
fundamental to understanding
why refrigerant is used in
cooling systems.
• It also explains why the terms
'total capacity' (sensible & latent
heat) and 'sensible capacity' are
used to define a unit's cooling
capacity.
• During the cooling cycling,
condensation forms within the
unit due to the removal of latent
heat from the air.
SENSIBLE HEAT • Sensible capacity is the capacity
When an object is heated, its temperature rises as heat is added. The required to lower the
increase in heat is called sensible heat. Similarly, when heat is removed temperature and latent capacity
from an object and its temperature falls, the heat removed is also called is the capacity to remove the
sensible heat. Heat that causes a change in temperature in an object is moisture from the air.
called sensible heat.

LATENT HEAT, or hidden heat, is the term used for the heat absorbed or LATENT HEAT &
given off by a substance while it is changing its physical state.
SENSIBLE HEAT
When this occurs, the heat given off or absorbed does NOT cause a
temperature change in the substance
 SOURCES OF HEAT GAIN IN BUILDING
Heat transmittance through the building fabric:
Conduction of heat through building fabric
Convection via air movement
Radiant transmission, typically through glass
WAYS HEAT LOSS FROM BUILDING
ESTABLISHING THERMAL COMFORT
 PHYSICAL & PSYCOLOGICAL COMFORT depends
on:
 Temperature Thermal
comfort
 Quality of Air
 Lighting Environment - Visual Comfort
 Acoustic Environment - Aural Comfort
ESTABLISHING THERMAL COMFORT
 ESTABLISHING THERMAL COMFORT
 ASHRAE STANDARD 55: thermal comfort is define as the state of
mind that expresses satisfaction with the surrounding environment.
 Humans- thermal comfort is maintained when heat generated by
human metabolism allow to dissipate (maintaining the thermal
equilibrium with the surrounding).
 Ways heat gain/transfer:
 convection,
 radiation
 evaporation.
 Physical
Variables (Air
Temperature,
Relative
Humidity, Air
Movement and
Ventilation)

Personal
Variables
(activity,
gender, age , Factors
clothing) Effecting

THERMAL
COMFORT
ESTABLISHING THERMAL COMFORT
 ESTABLISHING THERMAL COMFORT
 High performance building; envelope must be able control the heat gain in summer and heat loss in
winter.

 Optimal design of the building envelop fabric provide significant reductions in heating and cooling
loads-which in turn allowing downsizing of mechanical equipment

 Good insulation reduces the flow of heat into a building when there are differences of outside and
inside air temperature
 Factors to be considered when determining the appropriate insulation solution:
1. Effect on building design- impact of external wall thickness on layouts, net
2. Sources of heat gain in buildings floor area and light penetration through window
3. Balance between heavyweight and lightweight construction, including considerations
related to exposed thermal mass.
4. Performance in use and longevity.
5. Buildability and the risk of on-site work not meeting the required design standards.
6. Sustainability implications of the production process including sourcing of raw materials,
ozone depletion, embodied energy and eventual disposal.
ESTABLISHING THERMAL COMFORT
ESTABLISHING THERMAL COMFORT
ESTABLISHING THERMAL COMFORT
Thermal Conductivity (λ value or k value) and Resistivity (r)
 the measure of the rate at which heat is conducted through a particular
material under specified conditions
 property of a material that indicates its ability to conduct heat.
 Measured as the heat flow in watts across a thickness of 1 m of material for
a temperature difference of 1 degree K and a surface area of 1 m²
 Unit :W/m K
λ= thermal conductivity (W/moC, Btu in/hr ft2 oF)
Thermal resistivity (r)= 1/λ m.K/W
r = thermal resistivity (moC/W, hr ft2 oF/Btu)
k or 
 ESTABLISHING THERMAL COMFORT
 Happens if there exist a  Fourier’s Law for Conductive Heat Transfer:
temperature gradient.
 Conductive heat flow
occurs in direction of the
decreasing temperature
(higher
temperature=higher
molecule energy)
q  kAdT / d
q - Heat transferred per unit time
(W, Btu/hr)
k or - Thermal conductivity of the
material (W/m.K or W/m °C,
Btu/(hr °F ft2/ft))
A - Heat transfer area (m2, ft2)
dT - Temperature difference across
the material (K or °C, °F)
d - Material thickness (m,ft)
 ESTABLISHING THERMAL COMFORT
 Thermal conductivity for a material calculated using:
d

H A(1   2 ) insulation Measured

 Heat supply
Sample
material
heat flow

2
t d 1
insulation
A
 - Coefficient of thermal conductivity from the sample
material (W/m K)
H - rate of heat flow between the faces (J/s=W)
t
A - Cross sectional area of the sample (m2)

(1   2 ) - Temperature difference between the faces (°C or °K)

d - Distance between the faces (m)
 ESTABLISHING THERMAL COMFORT
 Example;
A plane wall constructed of solid with thermal conductivity 70 W/m
°C, thickness 50mm and with surface area 1m by 1m, temperature 150
°C on one side and 80 °C on the other.

Conductive heat transfer can be calculated as:

q  kAdT / d
q = (70 W/m°C)(1m)(1m)[(150°C)- (80°C)]/(0.05)
= 98,000 W
= 98 kW
ESTABLISHING THERMAL COMFORT
  or e is the relative power of Surface coefficients for building materials
material surface to emit heat
by radiation. Surface Emissivity Absorptivity
 Rough black surfaces absorb
most heat and emit least heat. Aluminum 0.05 0.2
 Color of most building Asphalt 0.95 0.9
materials has an important Brick-dark 0.9 0.6
effect on the heat absorbed by
the building from the sun. Brick-black 0.9 0.9
Paint 0.9 0.3
Slate 0.9 0.0
ESTABLISHING THERMAL COMFORT
 Thermal transmittance (U-value) and thermal resistance (R-value) indicate the
design thermal performance of a building material or assembly.

 R-value; resistance of heat flow through a building material (m2 K/W)

 bigger the value, better insulation (greater resistance).

 U-value of a construction is defined as the quantity of heat that flows through a unit
area of a building section under steady-state conditions.
ESTABLISHING THERMAL COMFORT
Material Resistance
 Thermal resistance of each layer of material depends on the rate at which the
material conduct heat and thickness of the material;

d
R

Alternatively;
R  rd

R -thermal resistance of that component (mK/W)

d -thickness of the material (m)
 -thermal conductivity of the material (W/mK)

r -resistivity of material = 1/λ (mK/W)

ESTABLISHING THERMAL COMFORT
ESTABLISHING THERMAL COMFORT
 Example
Find the thermal resistance of a 100mm thickness of
lightweight concrete block.
Solution:
value for given = 0.19W/m K

d for the block = 100mm @ 0.1m

0.1 2
Therefore; R m K /W
0.19
 0.526m 2 K / W
ESTABLISHING THERMAL COMFORT
Surface Resistances
 Depends on conduction,
convection and radiation of the
surface.
 Factors affect surface
resistance are:
 Direction of heat flow;
upward and downward
 Climatic affects; sheltered
or exposed
 Surface properties; high or
low emmissivity
Airspace Resistances
1. Depends on the nature of any
conduction, convection and radiation
within the cavity.
2. Factors affect airspace resistances:
• Thickness or airspace
• Flow of air in airspace;
ventilated or unventilated
• Lining of airspace; normal
surfaces of reflective surfaces of
low emmissivity.
ESTABLISHING THERMAL COMFORT

Total thermal Resistance Example of brickwall resistances;

(RT) is the sum of thermal

resistances of all the
components of the
structure elements RT

RT= Rsi +R1+R2+Rso

 ESTABLISHING THERMAL COMFORT

 U-value of a construction is defined as the quantity of

heat that flows through a unit area of a building section
under steady-state conditions.
 Unit: W/m2 K

1
U
RT
RT -Total thermal resistance.
 ESTABLISHING THERMAL COMFORT

 Average U-Values
 When a wall is composed of different construction
materials with different U-value.
 Overall insulation of the wall depends upon the
relative areas of constructions;

A1U1  A2U 2  ..  .. AnU n

U (average) 
A1  A2  .. An
Exercise

A portion of wall which is facing west in direction. Composition of the wall

includes 20 mm glass window (R=1.1 m2 oC/W) and 150 mm of brick wall
(λ=0.77 W/m oC) covered with 15mm thick cement plaster (λ = 0.18 W/ m
oC) finishes on both sides. Determine the average U-value for the wall.

3.0 m
1.5 m

2.5 m

4.0 m

Plaster
λ=0.18 W/ m oC
d=15mm

Window glass
Brickwall R= 1.1 m2oC/W
λ= 0.77 W/m oC d=20 mm
d=150 mm
Quiz:

The north wall of an existing construction is designed for 110 mm

thickness of brickwork inner leaf whereas the south wall of the
construction with 200 mm thick of heavyweight concrete blocks.

Given: The thermal conductivity values (λ) for brickwork is 0.62

W/mK, heavyweight concrete block is 1.63 W/m K and fibreboard is
0.06 W/mK

Calculate the,

i. thermal resistance value of the brickwork (2 marks)

ii. thickness of the south wall if the heavyweight concrete blocks is

replaced with fibre board having the same thermal resistance of
the original design. (3 marks)
 ESTABLISHING THERMAL COMFORT
Thermal Mass
 Materials that have the capacity to storage thermal
energy for extended periods.
 Absorb daytime heat gains (reducing cooling load)
and release heat during night (reduce heat load).
 Lower initial temperature than the surrounding
air (act as heat sink).
 Beneficial for country which had a big different
between day and night outdoor temperature. (e.g.
UAE).
ESTABLISHING THERMAL COMFORT IN
BUILDING DESIGN
 Optimal design of the building envelop fabric provide significant reductions in
heating and cooling loads-which in turn allowing downsizing of mechanical
equipment

 Materials that have the capacity to storage thermal energy for extended periods.

 Absorb daytime heat gains (reducing cooling load) and release heat during night
(reduce heat load).

 Lower initial temperature than the surrounding air (act as heat sink).

 Beneficial from country which had a big different between day and night
outdoor temperature.
MECHANISM OF REGULATING
THERMAL COMFORT
 Energy efficient building/Green Building
 MECHANISM OF REGULATING
THERMAL COMFORT
Roof ;
Insulation serves to limit the conduction of heat through the building shell.
Infiltration ;
When outside air enters a building, it has to be cooled or heated to maintain
comfort. The more unconditioned air entering the building, the greater the
load on the heating and cooling system and the greater the cost.
Windows ;
Low-E windows provide excellent thermal insulation against weather
extremes and can effectively reduce solar heat gain as well. Window tints
and reflective films are efficient at reducing solar gain but can also reduce
the visual connection with the outdoors. External window screens are
excellent solar control devices for single- or two-story facilities, and
architectural features such as awnings and overhangs allow year-round solar
control without minimizing visual quality.
 MECHANISM OF REGULATING
THERMAL COMFORT
Orientation ;
long, narrow buildings facing south with their long axis running east/west will have
lower peak cooling loads and electricity demand costs, and may be able to utilize
smaller cooling equipment.
Landscaping ;
Well designed landscaping can reduce cooling costs from summer heat gains in
building. Trees planted on the east, west and south sides of a one-or two-story
building can effectively reduce summer solar heat gains through windows which is
one of the major contributors to the cooling load on an air conditioning system. Trees
also produce a natural cooling effect in the areas surrounding a building by
evaporating water though their leaves.
Daylighting ;
Daylighting with skylights and other types of architectural glazing features can provide
natural lighting creating a pleasant working atmosphere. Daylighting strategies may
by particularly effective using skylights in large open areas such as warehouses and
manufacturing plants, and in office spaces where the electrical lighting system output
can be efficiently varied over a wide range of light levels. It is important to balance
daylighting strategies with good solar heat control in order to keep cooling loads
down.
Art School, Nanyang
Technological University,
Singapore

The glass facade provides a high performance

building envelope that reduces solar gain and heat
load while allowing the benefits of natural views
and daylight into creative spaces. The glass walls
provide a visual exchange between indoors and the
surrounding landscape or interior plaza as fluid
spaces. The diffused natural daylight is abundant
throughout studios and classrooms, thus making
them productive spaces for young creators.
The curving green roofs distinguish the building from among the other structures on campus but the line
between landscape and building is blurred. The roofs serve as informal gathering spaces. Besides that
purpose, the roofs serve as open space, insulate the building, cool the surrounding air and harvest
rainwater for the landscape irrigation.
This amazing design is surely going to be used more widely because it provides better and healthier
surrounding. In this particular example it offers a brand new experience in many perspectives, fulfilling the
intent that a school for art should inspire creativity, while solving the green surface deficiency.
END OF CHAPTER 2