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 O U T L I N E S
OUTLINES OF HEALTH PROFESSIONS EDUCATION
OUTLINES OF

HEALTH
PROFESSION
EDUCATION
Dr. Mohamed Nasr Alshendawi
MBBS - University of Khartoum
MSc in Health Profession Education
University of Gezira

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Dr. Mohamed Nasr Mohamed Ahmed Elsheikh (Alshendawi) is a graduate from faculty of
Medicine University of Khartoum with Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) in
2015, and Master degree holder in Health Profession Education from University of Gezira 2017.
Currently he is the Deputy Director and head of Training and CPD Department of Nahda
College›s Education Development Center; He was an active student and held several passions in his
undergraduate life and early postgraduate life.

F I R S T

1
E D I T I O N

Dr. Mohamed Nasr Alshendawi

FIRST EDITION MBBS - University of Khartoum
MSc in Health Profession Education – University of Gezira
ISBN: 978-99942-0-899-9
Copy Right NO: 1251/2017
 Principles of Teaching
and Learning
Mohamed A. Sidahmed
02
C h a pt e r t w o

Adult learning is a vast area of educational research and probably one

of the most complicated. Some researchers assume that adults learn

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differently and have different strategies in learning, and this gave rise to
the term (andragogy).

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The term andragogy was originally formulated by a German teacher,
Alexander Kapp, in 1833,to describe elements of Plato’s education
theory, and popularized in the 1960s by Malcolm Knowles, an American
educator who defined andragogy as “the art and science of helping adults
H
learn”. Andragogy could be contrasted with pedagogy which literally
meant «to guide or teach a child». For Knowles, andragogy is premised
on at least five crucial assumptions about the characteristics of adult
G
learners that are different from the five assumptions about child learners
on which traditional pedagogy is premised.
RI

Each of these assertions and the claims of difference between andragogy

and pedagogy are the subject of considerable debate. Critiques of
andragogy can be found in Davenport (1993) Jarvis (1977a) Tennant
PY

(1996). As a result, the contrasts drawn are rather crude and do not
reflect debates within the literature of curriculum and pedagogy.

Traditional/pedagogical model
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Five assumptions about learners are inherent in the pedagogical model:

The learner is a dependent personality. The teacher/trainer is expected

to take full responsibility for making the decisions about what is to be
learned, how and when it should be learned, and whether it has been
learned. The role of the learner is to carry out the teacher›s directions
passively.
The learner enters into an educational activity with little experience that
can be used in the learning process. The experience of the teacher/trainer
is what is important. For that reason a variety of one-way communication
strategies are employed, including lectures, textbooks and manuals,
and a variety of audio-visual techniques that can transmit information
20
02 Chapter two

efficiently to the learner.

People are ready to learn when they are told what they have to learn
in order to advance to the next grade level or achieve the next salary
grade or job level.
People enter into an educational activity with a subject- centred
orientation. Learning is a process of acquiring prescribed subject
matter content in a more or less logical sequence.
People are motivated to learn primarily by external pressures from

D
parents, teachers/trainers, employers, the consequences of failure,
grades, certificates, etc.

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Andragogical model
Meanwhile, andragogy is largely based on Knowles five assumptions-
about how adult learn and their attitudes towards and motivation
H
for learning. These assumptions assume that:

1. Adults are independent and self-directed. Adult learners

G
want to take responsibility for their own lives, including the
planning, implementing, and evaluating of their learning
RI

activities

2. They have accumulated a great deal of experience, which is

a rich resource for learning. It needs to be valued and used in
PY

the learning process.

3. They integrate learning to the demand of their everyday life.

Their readiness to learn may be stimulated by helping them
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to assess the gaps between where they are now and where they
want and need to be.

4. They are more interested in immediate, problem – cantered

approaches than in subject cantered ones. Learning activities
need to be clearly relevant to the needs of the adult.

5. They are more motivated to learn by internal drives than by

external ones. such as self-esteem, recognition, better quality
of life, greater self-confidence or the opportunity to self-
actualise. External factors such as pressure from authority
figures, salary increases, etc. are less important.

Another characteristic deemed to be relevant to adult to adult

learning environment, is the importance of mutual respect between
teacher and learner and among the learner themselves. Respect is

21
 Principles of Teaching and Learning 02

important since it is a catalyst for safe educational environment

Reflection is another important component of adult learning that is

left out of Knowles’s concept of adult learning. In fact, reflection is a
second of the four steps in Kolb’s learning cycle.

Motivation is another important pillar on which adult learning

is built. In andragogy, Knowles states that adult learners are self

D
(intrinsically) motivated. He fail to mention extrinsic motivation,
and specially the role of the teacher as a major source of motivation.
In fact, as Peyton points out, most adult learners required the

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motivation provided by teachers for effective learning to take place.

There are two major groups of theories describing motivation:

1. Content theories: these describe what motives people.

H
2. Process theories: these describe how people are motivated.
G
One of the most popular content theories is Maslow’s Hierarchy
of needs figure (1). Another more appealing content theory is the
one put forward by Clayton Alderfer, who describes and summarizes
RI

motivation in three needs, ERG:

Existence- this is more or less equivalent to Maslow,s safety and

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physical well-being.

Relatedness- stresses the importance of interpersonal and social

relationships.
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Growth- intrinsic individual desire for personal growth.

Given that andragogy fails to adequately address reflection and

motivation, Mezirow ,s concept of transformative learning seems
more appropriate. The Transformational Learning Theory originally
developed by Jack Mezirow is described as being “constructivist,
an orientation which holds that the way learners interpret and
reinterpret their sense experience is, central to making meaning and
hence learning” (Mezirow, 1991). The theory has two basic kinds of
learning: instrumental and communicative learning. Instrumental
learning focuses on learning through task-oriented problem solving
and determination of cause and effect relationships. Communicative
learning involves how individuals communicate their feelings, needs
and desires

22
02 Chapter two

Principles of adult learning

No definitive list of adult education principles exists in the literature,
but there is a great deal of agreement about what constitutes good
practice in adult education. Many writers in the field of adult
education have developed guiding principles to assist adult education
practitioners facilitate learning. The list of principles that follows
was developed by synthesizing information that appears in a number

D
of sources (Knowles 1992; Mezirow 1991; Brookfield 1986; Draper
1992; Draves 1997; Grissom 1992; Imel forthcoming; Vella 1994).

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1. Involve adults in program planning and implementation

Including learners in the planning and implementing of their

learning activities is considered to be a hallmark of adult education.
H
Their participation can begin with the needs assessment process
where group members establish the programme goals and objectives.
It is a widely held belief that people will make firm commitments to
G
activities in which they feel they participated and contributed to the
planning. Mutual planning of both curriculum, learning objectives,
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resources, assessment and evaluation methods encourages student

participation in, and engagement with, the learning process.

2. Create a physical and social climate of respect

PY

Create a climate that encourages and supports learning. The

classroom

environment should be characterised by trust and mutual respect

CO

among teachers and learners. It should enhance learner self-esteem.

Supporting and encouraging learning does not mean that the
environment is free of conflict. It does mean that when conflict
occurs, it is handled in a way that challenges learners to acquire new
perspectives and supports them in their efforts to do so. Adults will
generally learn best in an atmosphere that is non-threatening and
supportive of experimentation and in which different learning styles
are recognised.

3. Encourage collaborative modes of learning

Foster a spirit of collaboration in the learning setting. Collaboration

in the adult classroom is frequently founded on the idea that the
roles of teachers and learners can be interchangeable. Although

23
 Principles of Teaching and Learning 02

teachers have the overall responsibility for leading a learning activity,

Teacher
adult learning is a co-operative enterprise that respects and draws (Role Model)
upon the knowledge that each person brings to the learning setting.
TEACHING
4. Include and build on the student›s experiences in the learning AND
LEARNING
process Environment Learner
(Extrinsic (Intrinsic
motivation)
Develop an understanding of learners› experiences and communities. motivation)

D
Draw upon learners› experiences as a resource. Learners’prior
knowledge influences how they filter and interpret what they are Fig 2.1
Demonstrates the author
learning. Not only do adult learners have experiences that can be view of the relationship

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used as a foundation for learning new things but also, in adulthood, between teaching/learning;
readiness to learn frequently stems from life tasks and problems. The and teacher, tearner and
environment.
particular life situations and perspectives that adults bring to the
classroom can provide a rich reservoir for learning.

5. Foster critically reflective thinking

H
G
Adult learning is facilitated when teaching activities do not
demand finalised, correct answers and closure; express a tolerance
for uncertainty, inconsistency, and diversity; and promote both
RI

question-asking and -answering, problem-finding and problem-

solving.

Effective Learning by Students Requires Feedback

PY

The mere repetition of tasks by students—whether manual or

intellectual—is unlikely to lead to improved skills or keener insights.
Learning often takes place best when students have opportunities to
CO

express ideas and get feedback from their peers. But for feedback to
be most helpful to learners, it must consist of more than the provision
of correct answers. Feedback ought to be analytical, to be suggestive,
and to come at a time when students are interested in it. And then
there must be time for students to reflect on the feedback they
receive, to make adjustments and to try again—a requirement that
is neglected, it is worth noting, by most examinations—especially
finals.

Include learning which involves examination of issues and

concerns, transforms content into problem situations, and
necessitates analysis and development of solutions

Develop and/or use instructional materials that are based on

students› lives. An important part of the participatory approach

24
02 Chapter two

e Refl
nc ect
rie ive
pe Ask Discuss O
Ex

t h e t h e

be
te

rv
students to concept what
cre

ati
D
demonstrate an went right and what

on
Con

example about research went wrong & Think

methodologyconcept of ways for improvement

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H
tio n
Ac ti

liz a
Apply the new Formulization of new
concept on their conceptormodification
ve

tua
proposal on existing one
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Ex

ep
nc
pe

im o
C
r

en
tat tr act
io n Ab s
PY
CO

Fig 2.3
Demonstrates the typical way of delivering the tutorials according to the Kolb's Experiential
Learning Model. (Thorpe et al., 1993)

is using instruction that reflects the context of students› lives.

Sometimes referred to as contextualised learning, this instruction-
-and the instructional materials--draw on the actual experiences,
developmental stages, and problems of the learners to integrate
academic content with real-life problems. Furthermore, it has the
advantage of integrating academic skills; rather than focusing on
learning academic subjects separately, promoting learning in ways
that are meaningful to the student ensures that the classroom
becomes more authentic because adults learn to use skills in real-life
situations.

25
 Principles of Teaching and Learning 02

6. Generate a participative environment

Incorporate small groups into learning activities. Groups promote

teamwork and encourage co-operation and collaboration among Effort Intelligence
learners. Structured appropriately, they emphasise the importance of Praise Praise
learning from peers, and they allow all participants to be involved in
discussions and to assume a variety of roles.

D
7. Encourage self-directed learning
Incremental Entity view
Cultivate self-direction in learners. Self-direction is considered by view of of
Intelligence Intelligence

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some to be a characteristic of adulthood but not all adults possess
this attribute in equal measure. In addition, if adults have been
accustomed to teacher-directed learning environments, they may
not display self-directedness in adult learning settings. Adult learning
Learning Performance
empowered adults.
H
should be structured to nurture the development of self-directed,
Goals Goals
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How students organize knowledge influences how they learn and
apply what they know:
Mastery
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Students naturally make connections between pieces of knowledge. Helpless

oriented
When those connections form knowledge structures that are pattern
Pattern
accurately and meaningfully organized, students are better able to
retrieve and apply their knowledge effectively and efficiently. In
PY

contrast, when knowledge is connected in inaccurate or random Fig. 2.2

ways, students can fail to retrieve or apply it appropriately. This flowchart demonstrates
the two different patterns of
Students’ motivation determines, directs, and sustains what they do
CO

the Self-Theories and their

to learn: Role in Motivation,
Personality, And
As students enter college and gain greater autonomy over what, Development (Dweck, 2013)
when, and how they study and learn, motivation plays a critical
role in guiding the direction, intensity, persistence, and quality of
the learning behaviors in which they engage. When students find
positive value in a learning goal or activity, expect to successfully
achieve a desired learning outcome, and perceive support from their
environment, they are likely to be strongly motivated to learn.

To develop mastery, students must acquire component skills, practice

integrating them, and know when to apply what they have learned:

Students must develop not only the component skills and knowledge
necessary to perform complex tasks, they must also practice

26
02 Chapter two

combining and integrating them to develop greater fluency and

automaticity. Finally, students must learn when and how to apply
the skills and knowledge they learn. As instructors, it is important
that we develop conscious awareness of these elements of mastery so
as to help our students learn more effectively.

Goal-directed practice coupled with targeted feedback enhances the

quality of students’ learning:

D
Learning and performance are best fostered when students engage
in practice that focuses on a specific goal or criterion, targets an

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appropriate level of challenge, and is of sufficient quantity and
frequency to meet the performance criteria. Practice must be coupled
with feedback that explicitly communicates about some aspect(s)
of students’ performance relative to specific target criteria, provides
H
information to help students progress in meeting those criteria, and
is given at a time and frequency that allows it to be useful.
G
The P-12 (PoLT) and related componentsstate that students learn
best when:
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1. The learning environment is supportive and productive

2. The learning environment promotes independence,

interdependence and self-motivation
PY

3. Students’ needs, backgrounds, perspectives and interests are

reflected in the learning program
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4. Students are challenged and supported to develop deep levels

of thinking and application

5. Assessment practices are an integral part of teaching and

learning

6. Learning connects strongly with communities and practice

beyond the classroom

Further reading

McInerney Valentina D& M. Effective teaching and learning [Internet].

Educational Psychology: Constructing learning. 2010. 2-34 p.

Ball B. A summary of motivation theories by Benjamin Ball. Theory Motiv

[Internet]. 2013;2(1):26.

27
 Principles of Teaching and Learning 02

Blondy LC. Evaluation and Application of Andragogical Assumptions to the

Adult Online Learning Environment. J Interact Online Learn. 2007;6(2):116–30

Part A – Teaching philosophy

In my opinion, I think teaching/learning processis not simply
the transfer of knowledge from the educator to the learner.

D
But, ratherlearning is a more complex process of “acquiring
knowledgethroughthe transformation of experience” (Thorpe et al.,
1993) by anintrinsically motivated learner (Ryan and Deci, 2000).

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And this process is facilitated by both teacher (role model) (Cruess
et al., 2008)and environment (extrinsic motivator)(Genn, 2001))
Fig. 1(.
H
A single learning theory can’t fully explain the different aspects of
the learning process (Taylor, 2013). While the behavioral learning
theory focuses on the outcome, the experiential learning theory deals
G
with learning as a process (Thorpe et al., 1993).The social cognitive
theory considers that learning is affected by personal, behavioral
RI

and environmental factors, each factor exerts a variable degree of

influence on learning (Bandura, 1986). According to the self-theory
of intelligence and self-determination theory, motivation – which
PY

is brought by focusing on the learning process itself rather than the

performance outcome – is mandatory for successful learning(Dweck,
2013; Ryan and Deci, 2000).

Role of the teacher:

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For more than three decades, the teacherhas been considered as a

role model. (Tosteson, 1979)mentioned that “We must acknowledge
againthat the most important, indeed, the only, thing we have to offer
our students is ourselves. Everything else they can read in a book.”
While the teacher could be aware of his conscious role modelling,
the unconscious role modellingremains a huge influencing factor
on teaching and learning(Cruess et al., 2008).I think teachers
should always be aware of the potential hazards of negative role
modellingas no one is perfect. The uncritical adoption of teachers’
behaviour especially their negative one is harmful(Benbassat, 2014).
Thus, the teacher shouldexplain his role modelling and what he
was doing in the presence of the learners “reflection on action”
(Cruess et al., 2008), this could help the learners to critically analyse

28
02 Chapter two

their educators’behaviour aiming to endorsethepositive attributes

(Benbassat, 2014).

Role of the learner:

For the learning experience to be successful, it is essential to have
motivated learners. “The most important single factor influencing
learning is what the learner already knows. Ascertain this and teach

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him accordingly” (Ausubel, 1968, p. vi). Addressing what the
students already know is the primer of the motivation. According
to (Knowles, 1980), it facilitates addressing the gap between what

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is known and what is unknown, and thus motivate them to learn.
Maintaining the motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) is a shared
responsibility between the learners and educators. In a formal
teaching, learners who are intrinsically motivated will have a deeper
H
learning and a higher performance(Kusurkar et al., 2011).

The role of the learning environment.

G
The medical school learning environment “encompasses the physical,
social, and psychological context in which students learn; all
RI

interactions with faculty, staff, and peers; and the formal, informal,
and hidden curricula” (Shochet et al., 2013). The environmental
perception of the students determines their behaviourand thus
PY

influences their learning (Genn, 2001). The informal curriculum,

which includes the students’ interactions, accommodates asignificant
amount of learning (Cruess et al., 2008).
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Fig. 1 –Demonstrates the author view of the relationship between

teaching/learning; and teacher, tearner and environment.

Part B - Proposal of a teaching activity

My proposed teaching activity is “Research Methodology Course”,
for the fourth year medical students (about 30 students).

I have taught this course once, and it was almost one directional
tutorial in which the students were hearing just what I was saying,
apart from some questions there was a very minimalparticipation
from their side.So, I am proposing some changes on the upcoming
courses.

As a teacher, I will facilitate learning through applying the new

concepts and insight I gained from the course of the Principals of

29
 Principles of Teaching and Learning 02

teaching and learning.

The students are expected to gain knowledge and skills that qualify
them to be the principal investigator in conducting their research
projects.

The aim:
Despite that aims and objectives are often used synonymously, they

D
are slightly different in the context of teaching. The aim means
the broad intent of a teaching activity, while the objectives are the

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specific things that the learners will be capable of doing after they
finish the teaching activity(Noddings, 2007). A Good objective
should be Specific, Measurable, Achievable Realistic and Time-
bound(SMART)(Bovend’Eerdt et al., 2009) and follow the ABCD
H
approach (Audience Behaviour Condition and Degree) mentioned
by Debbie Aitken in the principals of teaching and learning course
(Personal connections, 2016) .
G
The objectives that I have previously used in the course were broad
aims, by refining them through the SMART and ABCD approaches,
RI

the objectives will be as the following:

The general aim behind the course is to:

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• Provide the students with the basic knowledge and skills in

research methodology to allow them to design a research proposal
and conduct a research project.
CO

By the end of Research methodology course the students are expected

to be able to:

• Select a research topic.

• Plan the research design.
• Conduct a literature review.
• Write the introduction of the proposal.
• Write the objectives of the research project.
• Construct the methodology.
• Calculatethe Sample size.
• Design data analysis plan.
• Design the data collecting tools.
• Write the budget &timeline.
• Use appropriate referencing style.
• Obtain ethical clearance.

30
02 Chapter two

• Finalize the Proposal.

The context
The curriculum consists of three parts: the formal, informal, and
hidden curricula (Shochet et al., 2013).An environment that foster
learning is essential for improving the physicians’ competency (Hoff
et al., 2004).

D
The Formal curriculum: this course is delivered to support the
students in conducting their undergraduate Research Project during

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the fifth year. It is organized by the department of community
medicine at the Faculty of medicine. It is a part of the community
medicine subject(68 credit hours). Passing the subject requires
passing the final exam and conducting a research project. The
H
Research methodology course was preceded by lectures in research
methodology presented by associate professors and lecturers for
the whole class (about 350 students), they were 32 lectures (each
G
one lasted for 1 hour). Then theclass was divided into 11 groups,
and each group was assigned to a tutor. The course will be followed
RI

by the conduction of the research project by the students in the

following year under supervision from the professors.

The informal curriculum,whichincludes the students’ interactions,

PY

accommodates asignificantamount oflearning(Cruess et al., 2008).

According to my observation, previously when I was a fifth year
medical student, the research methodology coursealong withthe
conduction of the research projectboth took place during the fifth
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year, this imposed an extra load on the fifth year students who are
also studying for their clinical exams. Subsequently, large number
of students spent more effort on their clinical subjectsas they have a
summative assessment and devoted less time for the research project
which receivesa formativeassessment.With time, this transmitted
into a culture of research negligence. This culture persisted even
after the formal curriculumhad been changed and loads of clinical
subjects and the research project have been disturbed over a longer
period of time. Throughout the course, I will provide an insight into
the importance of the research and how it would facilitatethe future
career in an attempt to change this culture. I will discuss this withthe
other tutors and encourage them to do the same. I am expecting
students towelcome this idea. As recently there is a trend among
the junior doctors especially from our university to get involved in

31
 Principles of Teaching and Learning 02

the researches and to publish their work, some of them have already
established research groups (Daoud Research Group, 2016)(Soba
Center for Audit and Research, 2016.). And subsequently, I am
expectingthe students to be more motivated toward the course.

At the level of the university, some of the influencing factors on

learning lies outside the level of the formal and informal curricula
“the Hidden Curriculum” (Lempp and Seale, 2004). In our

D
university, the community medicine department annually grants
awards for the top ten research projects. Although the competition
increases motivation and performance (DiMenichi and Tricomi,

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2015). But, the university does not encourage cooperation. As a
matter of fact, it is prohibited for two students or more to submit
a joint research project. According to a study conducted by (Tauer
H
and Harackiewicz, 2004), the combined effect of competition and
cooperation on intrinsic motivation and performance is higher than
each one alone. Sometimes, Cooperation can be harmful because it
G
may lead to reliance of the whole work on part of the group.

Teaching approach
RI

Generally, every tutorial can be divided into three phases:

Introduction, Teaching, and Review.
PY

The introduction will focus mainly on addressing the knowledge

gap and hence motivating the students(Knowles, 1980). Motivation
is anessential part of learning (Taylor, 2013). In the Principles of
Teaching and Learning course, Qudsia Nawazmentioned thatthe
CO

intrinsic motivation is main drive to sustain learning (Personal

communication, 2016).In addition, intrinsic motivation is superior
to extrinsic motivation in providing deeper learning, well-being and
performance improvement (Kusurkar et al., 2011).In the previous
course, I have noticed that with time there was a decline in the number
of the students attending the tutorials. This may be attributed to low
intrinsic motivation. According to the self-determination theory,
to maintain this intrinsic motivation, the following needs must be
addressed: Competency, Autonomy, and belongingness (Ryan and
Deci, 2000). Furthermore, (Kusurkar et al., 2011) suggested that
this could be achieved through “autonomy supportive teaching”.

By realizing that addressing what the students already know is a

cornerstone of their learning (Ausubel, 1968, p. vi). Ascertain the

32
02 Chapter two

gap between what the students already know and what they are
going to learn and what they want to learnwill motivate them toward
learning (Knowles, 1980;Kusurkar et al., 2011). I can achieve this
by reviewing the lectures they had received in research methodology.
And commencingevery session by asking them to demonstrate “how
much they know about the topic?”, and “what they are expecting
to know from the session?”. Theseopen-ended questions encourage
reflection and require more cognitive effort(Tofade et al., 2013).

D
This motivation should be fostered by guiding the learners toward
the “Incremental view of the Intelligence” (Fig. 2) this will lead them

TE
to praise learning more than performance outcomes. This can be
achieved by praising students’ efforts among achieving a task rather
than praising their intelligence (Dweck, 2013).
H
All these methods are meant to facilitate and stimulate the intrinsic
motivation. Still, there are some aspects of the intrinsic motivation
beyond the control of the teacher, as it is implied by its definition, it
G
is the “self-determined genuine interest” toward learning (Kusurkar
et al., 2011; Ryan and Deci, 2000).
RI

Fig. 2– This flowchart demonstrates the two different patterns of

the Self-Theories and their Role in Motivation, Personality, And
Development. (Dweck, 2013)
PY

The next part is the “Teaching” of the tutorial. I think Kolb›s

Experiential Learning Model would be a suitable approach for this
task.Although, I am really interested in problem-based learning
CO

(PBL) as it encourages the self-directed learning (SDL)(Hmelo-

Silver, 2004). It will be very difficult to implement in my context.
First, the PBL approach is not popular in the university. Actually, in
the current curriculum, there is no teaching activity done through
PBL approach. In addition, I didn’t receive a prior training to
facilitate a PBL. It is mandatory to have a prepared faculty and
students in order to have a successful PBL (Azer, 2011).

So, my teaching approach will be in some parts lecture-based

learning, in which I will discuss some concepts. But I will facilitate
the process of learning through experience using Kolb›s Experiential
Learning Model (Fig. 3) (Thorpe et al., 1993). It is possible to
enter the cycle at any point. But it is necessary to have all the four
elements - “Concrete Experience, Reflective Observation, Abstract

33
 Principles of Teaching and Learning 02

Conceptualization, Active Experimentation” - to have the best

learning outcome (Thorpe et al., 1993).

Also, I will encourage the students to actively participatein the

tutorials through dividing them into small buzz groups (Jaques,
2003), this active participation will nurture their intrinsic motivation
(Kusurkar et al., 2011).

D
Fig. 3 – Demonstrates the typical way of delivering the tutorials
according to the Kolb›s Experiential Learning Model. (Thorpe et al.,
1993)

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The final part of the tutorials, I will review the key concepts and
what the students are expected to achieve. I will conclude the session
with some questioning about further aspects of the topic we have
H
discussed, this will encourage the students to take responsibility for
their learning, this will also motivate them (Kusurkar et al., 2011).
G
I would like to conclude this part by giving an example on some of
the negative role modelling. In the previous course, I came late for
sometutorials, because they are preceded by my night shift in the
RI

emergency room. I didn’t pay a lot of attention for this because I had
apologized and compensatedfor the delayat the end of the sessions.
As a teacher I am a role model almost in every situation (Cruess et
PY

al., 2008), this behaviourmayhave a negative effect on the students,

the uncritical adoption of this trait could result in a negative impact
on them. I can overcome the negative role modelling through the
reflection on action by showing the students the full picture and
CO

describe the negative aspects of the process, so they can critically

think about it and decide to adopt the positive attributes.

Structure and timing

The duration of each tutorial will be 2 hours. Each tutorial will be on
Sunday (9-11am). The tutorials will extend over a period of 15 weeks,
including and induction week and one-week vacation (Appendix 1).
The induction weekwill aim at motivating the students toward the
course. The learners will complete all research methodology lectures
before the first tutorial. These tutorials are obligatory to attend and
the attendance rate of each student will count toward his/her final
subject attendance rate. Any students who fail to attend 75% or more
of the whole subject activities will be prohibited from sitting for the
final exams. I will provide the timetable(Appendix 1) to students

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02 Chapter two

in the first week and I will encourage the learners to review lectures
and review some recommended readings before the tutorials. On
weekly basis, I will allocate a general task for all class to prepare an
example of the upcoming week task. Also, I will assign a specific
shifting task for someone to prepare a short presentation for his
work. The students will have one week to prepare for this tasks. This
will encourage them to actively participate in the tutorials and to
be accountable for their learning and hence intrinsically motivated

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(Kusurkar et al., 2011).

Resources

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Some relevant resources for the course:
1- Research Methodology Lectures. (Essential)
2- Books: H
• Designing Clinical Research by Dr. Stephen B Hulley.
(Recommended)
• Health Research Methodology: A Guide for Training in
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Research Methods. Authors: World Health Organization.
(Recommended)
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3- Software:
• IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).
(Essential)
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• Microsoft Office Word. (Essential)

• Referencing Software: Zotero, Mendeley, EndNote.
(Recommended)
4- Online Sources:
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• Logical and Critical Thinking, Online Course provided by The

University of Auckland on Future Learn). (Further reading).
• I have decided to choose these books, which include many
practical examples, and the software aiming to maximize the
practical aspects in this course. Also, I would like the learners
to be a critical thinker the would boost their performance in
the course.
Assessment& Evaluation:
Evaluation is a very crucial part of the program sustainable success.
While assessment tends to focus on the learners’ outcome in term
of acquired knowledge and skills, Evaluation is concerned with how
the whole process have achieved its intended outcome and if any
unintended outcomes have happened. (Wall, 2010)

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 Principles of Teaching and Learning 02

There is no summative assessment for this course. However, by the

end of the fifth year, the students must submit their dissertation,
for which they will not be graded. So, the course assessment will
be formative. In Assessing my work,Miller Pyramid is an excellent
example of how doing (experiment) would be the final intended
learning outcome (Taylor, 2013). I will encourage the students
to focus on the learning process and enjoy doing their research
projects which will lead to them to appreciate learning more than

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performance outcomes (Marks)(Dweck, 2013).

According to the bloom’s taxonomy (Taylor, 2013), the highest

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attribute in the learning process would be the evaluation. The best
approach to evaluation is the “triangulate” approach through using
the students, peers and personal feedbacks (Wall, 2010). In my

online evaluation forms.

H
context, it will not be feasible to do all of them. So, I will use the

The online evaluation form is feasible, cheap, and time-saving.In

G
the previous course, I used theonline evaluation forms to gather
feedback from the students, I will make certain modifications on
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them.First, it is necessary to treat evaluation forms as confidential

as the research questioners(Wall, 2010). So, I will not include any
personal information in the forms. Second, I will use a combination
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of closed rating scales and open-ended questions. Close rating scales

will be particularly useful in assessing associations through the
statistical tests of significance(Wall, 2010).
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When constructing the forms, I will first start by defining the aim
of the course, which as mentioned earlier is to provide the students
with sufficient knowledge and skills that would qualify them to be
the principal investigator in doing the research projects.

The closed-ended questions, which are rated from (1 “Poor” to 5

“Perfect”), are focusing on the following aspects: achievement of the
objective (every single objective will have a separate question),the
importance and relevance of the topic; the logical and understandable
approach of the tutor; the communication and interpersonal skills
of the tutors; tutor commitment to students’ development and
support, the tutor knowledge and time management.

The open-ended questions address the following: three things you

like and three things you dislike about the tutor, the three suggestions

36
02 Chapter two

for improvement, and three things you will remember from the
tutorial.

Reflection
During thewriting of this assignment and throughout the courseof
Principals of Teaching and Learning, I have learned that every
educator has a different approach to teaching that is well respected

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in the context of his/her teaching. Also, every learner has a different
approach to learning that is also respected in his context.

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Further reading:
Ausubel, D.P. 1968. Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View. New York:
Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Azer, S.A., 2011. Introducing a problem-based learning program: 12 tips for
H
success. Med. Teach. 33, 808–813.
Bandura, A., 1986. Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive
G
theory. Prentice-Hall, Inc
Benbassat, J., 2014. Role Modeling in Medical Education: The Importance of a
Reflective Imitation. Acad. Med. 89, 550–554.
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Bovend’Eerdt, T.J., Botell, R.E., Wade, D.T., 2009. Writing SMART

rehabilitation goals and achieving goal attainment scaling: a practical guide.
Clin. Rehabil. 23, 352–361. doi:10.1177/0269215508101741
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Cruess, S.R., Cruess, R.L., Steinert, Y., 2008. Role modelling—making the
most of a powerful teaching strategy. BMJ 336, 718–721.
Daoud Research Group (2016)Meet our team. DRG http://daoudresearchgroup.
webs.com/membersaccessed 22/11/16.
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DiMenichi, B.C., Tricomi, E., 2015. The power of competition: Effects of social
motivation on attention, sustained physical effort, and learning. Front. Psychol.
6.
Dweck, C.S., 2013. Self-theories: their role in motivation, personality, and
development. Taylor and Francis, Hoboken.
Genn, J.M., 2001. AMEE Medical Education Guide No. 23 (Part 1):
Curriculum, environment, climate, quality and change in medical education-a
unifying perspective. Med. Teach. 23, 337–344.
Hmelo-Silver, C.E., 2004. Problem-Based Learning: What and How Do
Students Learn? Educ. Psychol. Rev. 16, 235–266.
Hoff, T.J., Pohl, H., Bartfield, J., 2004. Creating a learning environment to
produce competent residents: the roles of culture and context. Acad. Med. J.
Assoc. Am. Med. Coll. 79, 532–539.
Jaques, D., 2003. Teaching small groups. BMJ 326, 492–494.

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 Principles of Teaching and Learning 02

Knowles M.S. , 1980. The modern practice of adult education: from pedagogy to
andragogy, Revised and updated.. ed. Association Press Follett PubCo, Wilton,
Conn.] : Chicago.
Kolb, D. A., & Fry, R. E. (1974). Toward an applied theory of experiential
learning. MIT Alfred P. Sloan School of Management.
Kusurkar, R.A., Croiset, G., Ten Cate, T.J., 2011. Twelve tips to stimulate intrinsic
motivation in students through autonomy-supportive classroom teaching derived
from self-determination theory. Med. Teach. 33, 978–982.

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Lempp, H., Seale, C., 2004. The hidden curriculum in undergraduate medical
education: qualitative study of medical students’ perceptions of teaching. BMJ

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329, 770–773.
Noddings, N., 2007. Aims, goals, and objectives. Encount. Educ. 8.
Ryan, R.M., Deci, E.L., 2000. Self-determination theory and the facilitation of
intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. Am. Psychol. 55, 68–78.
H
Shochet, R.B., Colbert-Getz, J.M., Levine, R.B., Wright, S.M., 2013. Gauging
events that influence students’ perceptions of the medical school learning
environment: findings from one institution. Acad. Med. J. Assoc. Am. Med. Coll.
G
88, 246–252.
Soba Center for Audit and Research (2016) About us. SCAR http://www.scar-
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online.com/About_us_M.html accessed 22/11/16.

Tauer, J.M., Harackiewicz, J.M., 2004. The effects of cooperation and competition
on intrinsic motivation and performance. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 86, 849–861.
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Taylor, D.C.M.; H., Hossam, 2013. Adult learning theories: Implications for
learning and teaching in medical education: AMEE Guide No. 83. Med. Teach.
2013 Vol3511 Pe1561-E1572 35, e1561–e1572.
Thorpe, M., Edwards, R., Hanson, A.P. (Eds.), 1993. Kolb, D. “The processes of
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experiential learning” (pp. 138-56) Learning through life.

Tofade, T., Elsner, J., Haines, S.T., 2013. Best Practice Strategies for Effective
Use of Questions as a Teaching Tool. Am. J. Pharm. Educ. 77. doi:10.5688/
ajpe777155
Tosteson, D.C., 1979. Learning in Medicine. N. Engl. J. Med. 301, 690–694.
Wall, D., 2010. Evaluation: Improving Practice, Influencing Policy, in: Swanwick,
T. (Ed.), Understanding Medical Education. Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 336–351.
Research Methodology Course time table (16 July 2017 – 29 October 2017).

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02 Chapter two

The Week Date Time Title

Week 1 Sunday 16/7/2017 9.00-11.00 Induction and Motivation

Week 2 Sunday 23/7/2017 9.00-11.00 How to select the research topic

Week 3 Sunday 30/7/2017 9.00-11.00 How to plan research design

Week 4 Sunday 6/8/2017 9.00-11.00 How to write the introduction

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Week 5 Sunday 13/8/2017 9.00-11.00 How to write the objectives

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How to write the literature
Week 6 Sunday 20/8/2017 9.00-11.00
review

Week 7 Sunday 27/8/2017 H 9.00-11.00 How to write the methodology

Week 8 EID Vacation “ 3 Sep. – 10 Sep.”

Week 9 Sunday 17/9/2017 9.00-11.00 How to calculate Sample size

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How to write the data analysis
Week 10 Sunday 24/9/2017 9.00-11.00
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plan?

How to write the budget & time

Week 11 Sunday 1/10/2017 9.00-11.00
line
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Week 12 Sunday 8/10/2017 9.00-11.00 How to write the references

Sunday
Week 13 9.00-11.00 How to write ethical clearance
15/10/2017
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Sunday
Week 14 9.00-11.00 The data collection tools
22/10/2017

Sunday
Week 15 9.00-11.00 Proposal finalization
29/10/2017

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