ELEC4216/9231 ELECTRIC DRIVE SYSTEMS

2. DC Motor characteristics and Representations

2.1 Introduction:
• Direct current motors are extensively used in variable speed drives and position control
systems where good dynamic response and steady-state performance are required.
e.g: robotics, printers, machine tools, rolling mills for steel, paper and textile
industries, etc.
• Control is very straightforward, especially for the separately excited dc motor, since
nonlinearities in the description of the motor are virtually non existent. This is due to the
commutator-brush assembly. Classical control theories are then easily used in designing
the drive system.
• The field and the armature circuits are fully decoupled due to the commutator.
• Top speed and maximum current are limited because of the commutator.
• Maximum current and rate of change of current through the motor are also limited by the
commutator.

• Brush gear needs regular maintenance.

2.2 Recap on dc motor

In a dc motor, the pole flux φ is set up by the field current If. The field flux φ per pole (i.e. the
radial B field times the pole area) is proportional to the field current. For dc excitation

if

if
Rf
Vf
Vf
Lf

φf
Vf = Rf I f

If the magnetic circuit is unsaturated,

φf = Kf I f Wb (2.2.1)
If
For rated field current If0, the field flux per pole is

DC motor characteristics 2.1 F. Rahman/Aug 2002

ELEC4216/9231 ELECTRIC DRIVE SYSTEMS

φf0 = Kf I f0 Wb (2.2.2)

The DC motor is sometimes operated with less than rated field flux, in order to run it above the
base speed, which occurs for the rated armature and field voltages. The field is seldom reduced by
more than 50% because of commutation difficulties.

The stator field distribution along the airgap is nearly a square-wave as indicated below. When the
armature is excited from a dc source, the current in the armature conductors develop a triangular
field (mmf) which is strongest along the interpolar region, as is also indicated in figure below. This
is a desirable consequence of the commutator-brush assembly. Note that the angular displacement
between the two fields is 90 electrical degrees. The armature mmf has a distorting effect on the
stator field. This is reduced by using interpoles, the excitation coils of which carry the armature
current.

Brush or inter-pole axes

Field mmf
Hf or Bf

Ha θ

Armature mmf
90°

Armature field
Slot
Brush Commutator
If

Stator field

Ia
Va

Nm

Current in the armature conductors develops electromagnetic torque Tem based on the Lorentz force
equation ( F = i ( l × B ) ), which is given by

DC motor characteristics 2.2 F. Rahman/Aug 2002

ELEC4216/9231 ELECTRIC DRIVE SYSTEMS

T = Kφ f I a = K T' I f I a Nm for any field flux φf. (2.2.3)

For rated flux per pole, φf0,

Tem = Kt' φ f 0 ia = KT ia Nm (2.2.4)

where KT is the torque constant in Nm/A of the motor for rated flux per pole.

Under the action of the electromagnetic torque in the steady-state, the motor rotates at a steady
speed ωm in mechanical radians/sec. The induced emf (the back-emf) in the armature conductors is
given by (based on the Blv equation)

ea = K 'Eφ f ω m V (2.2.5)

where ωm is the rotational speed of the armature (rotor) in rad/sec.

For rated flux per pole,

ea = K 'Eφ f 0ω m = K E ω m V (2.2.6)

where KE is the voltage constant in V/rad/sec of the motor for rated flux operation.

Note that in the SI unit, the torque and voltage constants of the dc motor are numerically the same.
Note also that for steady-state operation at constant speed and with constant input voltage, the
variables ea and ia and ω may all be representated by their dc values. Unsually, capital letters are
used for dc quantities.
The torque constant KT in (Nm/Amp) is is usually specified in motor data sheet for the rated or 1 pu
excitation of the motor (i.e., full flux). With reducd excitation, the motor draws higher armature
current in order to develop the same torque. This is indicated by the torque-current relationship of
figure below.

φ =1 pu φ =0.5 pu φ =1 pu φ =0.5 pu
+T, Nm +E a, V

φ =0.3 pu φ =0.3 pu

-ω m , rad/sec
- Ia , Amp +Ia , Amp + ω m , rad/sec

-T, Nm -E a , V

Similarly, when operated with reduced field flux, the motor develops smaller back emf per rad/sec
of its speed. This is indicated in figure above.

DC motor characteristics 2.3 F. Rahman/Aug 2002

ELEC4216/9231 ELECTRIC DRIVE SYSTEMS

2.3 Armature and field connections and steady-state characteristics

2.3.1 The series excited dc motor

For a series excited motor, the field winding is placed in series with the armature winding and
hence carries the full armature current. (In some traction applications, the series field winding may
have taps and only part of it may be connected in series with the armature circuit, the so-called field
diversion scheme, so that several machines may share the load according to their ratings). Since the
series field winding carries the armature current, the field winding of a series excited motor have as
low a resistance as practicable. It therefore has only a few turns of thick wiring.

Rf Lf Ra La Ia = If

Va Ea

Assuming unsaturated magnetic circuit, for the armature circuit

Va = ( Ra + R f ) I a + Ea = ( Ra + R f ) I a + K 'E φ f ω m
(2.3.1.1)
= ( Ra + R f ) I a + K 'E K f I aω m

Note that for the series connected dc motor with no diverter, Ia = If so that,

φ f = K f I f = K f Ia Wb (2.3.1.2)

As before,

Tem = Kt' φ f I a = Kt' K f I a2 (2.3.1.3)

Tem
∴ Ia = I f = A (2.3.1.4)
K t' K f

T em

Ia

DC motor characteristics 2.4 F. Rahman/Aug 2002

ELEC4216/9231 ELECTRIC DRIVE SYSTEMS

Tem T
Thus Va = ( Ra + R f ) + K 'E K f ωm
K t' K f K t' K f

Ra + R f Kf
= Tem + K 'E Tem ω m (2.3.1.5)
Kt' K f Kt'

Normally, near rated speed, the first term in the RHS is small compared to the second term.

Kf
∴ Va ≈ K 'E Tem ω m (2.3.1.6)
Kt'

Va
Or, ωm ≈ (2.3.1.7)
A T

Thus, the series excited motor is capable of producing large torque at low speed and low torque at
high speed. The T-ω characteristics for the series connected dc motor for various Va are nearly
hyperbolic, ie, constant-power like (P = ωT = constant), and hence are suitable for many traction
type applications. By choosing such motors for traction applications, the motor size can be kept
smaller than separately excited motors for the same load.
The T-ω characteristics for the series excited motor can be found from equations above, as
indicated in figure below.

ω m, rad/sec
Va increases

− T, Nm
T, Nm

− Va increases
− ω m, rad/sec

DC motor characteristics 2.5 F. Rahman/Aug 2002

ELEC4216/9231 ELECTRIC DRIVE SYSTEMS

2.3.2. The shunt connected dc motor

For this connection, Va = Vf.

Ra
Ia
Rf
La
Va

Lf
Ea

Vf
Va = Ra I a + K 'E K f ωm (2.3.2.1)
Rf

Va − Ra I a Va Ra I a
∴ ωm = = − (2.3.2.2)
K 'E φ f K 'E φ f K 'Eφ f

Va
Now Tem = Kt' φ f I a = Kt' K f I f I a = Kt' K f Ia (2.3.2.3)
Rf
Tem R f
∴ Ia = (2.3.2.4)
Kt' K f Va

Va R f Ra R f Tem R f
ωm = − ×
K 'E K f Va K 'E K f Va K t' K f Va

Rf Ra R 2f
= − × Tem (2.3.2.5)
K 'E K f K 'E Kt' K 2f Va2

ωm

Va
Increases

Tem

DC motor characteristics 2.6 F. Rahman/Aug 2002

ELEC4216/9231 ELECTRIC DRIVE SYSTEMS

2.3.3 The separately excited dc motor

For this motor, the field circuit is supplied separately from the armature, as indicated in the figure
below. The armature circuit is represented by the series circuit comprising the armature resistance
Ra, inductance La and the back emf ea which is due to the rotation of the armature. The armature
current ia, supplied from the armature voltage supply va, develops the torque Tem, which is given by
equation 2.2.3.

Ra La ia if Lf Rf

va vf
ea

The field circuit, comprising of field resistance Rf and inductance Lf, is supplied from the voltage
source Vf. Note that the separately excited dc motor has field coils made with a large number of
turns of thin wire, so that the field circuit has a large resistance and carries a small current so that
the power loss in field circuit is as small as practicable. Note that field circuit is not affected by any
back emf.

In the steady-state, when the supply voltages and speed are constant, the motor currents are dc and
the inductance has no voltage across it. Thus, in terms of the dc or average values,

Va = Ra I a + Ea (2.3.3.1)

= Ra I a + K 'E φ f ω m (2.3.3.2)

Va − I a Ra Va − I a Ra
And ∴ ω m = = (2.3.3.3)
K 'E φ f K 'E K f I f

Tem T
Also Ia = == (2.3.3.4)
Kt' φ f Kt' K f If

For full field, φ f 0 = K f I f 0

Tem
So that, I a = A for full field operation, e.g., for a PM dc motor (2.3.3.5)
KT

ωm =
(
Va − Ra / K t' K f I f × Tem ) (2.3.3.6)
K 'E K f If

DC motor characteristics 2.7 F. Rahman/Aug 2002

ELEC4216/9231 ELECTRIC DRIVE SYSTEMS

From equation 2.3.3.3, the possibilities of speed adjustments are via control of Va or the field
current (If) or both. The field variation is normally limited to 0.5 to 1 pu, because of commutation
requirements. Adjustment of Ra is very inefficient to be effective. Since the armature resistance
voltage is normally small, (about 5% of the rated voltage at full load), the adjustment of Va is the
most efficient and effective way of controlling the speed of a dc motor over the full speed range.
Speed VS armature voltage characteristic passes through zero, if the brush contact drop is
neglected, as indicated in figure below.

Va
ωm
+ ωm,rad/sec

-TL
TL
− Va Va, V

-ωm
− ωm -Va

The speed of the motor drops slightly when the motor is loaded, as indicated in figure below. This
drop is due to the effect of the IaRa drop, which is small. This assumes that armature reaction is
negligible. Note also that motor torque-speed characteristics, as found from the above equations,
exist in all four quadrants of the T - ω plane. For Va = 1 pu, the motor T - ω characteristic intersects
the zero torque axis for a value of torque which is defined as the stall torque of the motor. This can
be as high as 20 pu torque of the motor for rated field.

Note from equation 2.3.3.6 that the motor speed drops more quickly with load torque when the
motor field is weaker, as indicated by the figure below.

ωm, rad/sec

φ = 0.3 pu

φ =0.5 pu

φ = 1 pu

T, Nm

DC motor characteristics 2.8 F. Rahman/Aug 2002

ELEC4216/9231 ELECTRIC DRIVE SYSTEMS

Armature and field control boundaries

wrated
- Varated

Vrated Va
- wrated

wrated
Ifrated

Ifrated If
-wrated

DC motor characteristics 2.9 F. Rahman/Aug 2002

ELEC4216/9231 ELECTRIC DRIVE SYSTEMS

Field
Control
w,
Rad/sec Armature
Voltage
Control

- T, Nm T, Nm

- w,
Rad/sec

w,
Rad/sec Field
Control
Armature
Voltage
Control

- T, Nm T, Nm

- w,
Rad/sec

DC motor characteristics 2.10 F. Rahman/Aug 2002

ELEC4216/9231 ELECTRIC DRIVE SYSTEMS

2.4 DC motor limitations and losses

DC motors have brush-commutators which allow currents in the armature conductors to reverse in
polarity as they pass from under a magnetic pole of one polarity to the next pole of opposite
polarity. This results in the armature producing a magnetic field which is stationary, just as the
stator excited field. The two fields interact to develop the torque. The two fields are 90 electrical
degrees apart so they are decoupled in their action. This is reflected in the torque equations which
show that torque can be independently controlled by the field current or the armature current
without any interaction between them.

The process of current reversal in the armature conductors as they pass under the stator magnetic
poles is called commutation and it is arranged by the carbon brushes riding on the copper
commutator segments, each of which are insulated from each other. Since the reversal has to take
place in a short time under the presence of a magnetic field which would inhibit any change, the top
speed (and hence voltage), and current (and hence torque) of a dc motor is limited. As a result the
power rating is also limited to a few hundred kilowatts. The voltage rating is limited to about
1500V.

The armature current which a dc motor can commutate well, without causing excessive sparking, is
determined by the field and the maximum speed. For these reasons, the field is not reduced beyond
50% of its full value. (From heating considerations, the armature current is also limited to about
two times the rated current of a motor for specified short time durations). The requirement of good
commutation also limits the rate at which the armature current should be allowed to change during
a transient operation ,such as acceleration and braking. This limit is normally about 20 times the
rated current of the motor per second.

The limits mentioned above, ie, voltage, current, rate of change of current, speed, and field flux
should be limited by careful design of limiting networks in the converter and the controller circuits.

3.4.1 Losses
Losses in dc motors occur in various ways:

1. Electrical

• I a2 Ra loss (copper loss) in the armature

• I 2f R f loss (copper loss) in the field
• loss due to commutator-brush contact drop
• loss due to short circuiting current armature current during commutation

2. Mechanical
• commutator-brush friction losses
• windage and other friction

3. Magnetic

• Hysteresis and eddy current losses in various sections of the magnetic circuits.

All losses of mechanical and magnetic nature are supplied from the developed electrical power, EIa.
The rest drives the load.

DC motor characteristics 2.11 F. Rahman/Aug 2002