INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

MECAG 1413

Introduction

I. Engines are an important part of our everyday life.

A. So commonplace that we usually don't think about them until they need fuel
of fail.
B. They have replaced much of the human drudgery of many daily functions.
C. Primary source of power for agriculture

Six sources of power for agriculture

I. Humans
A. Very poor source of power for manual labor.
1. Any society based on human power is usually very poor and lives
on the edge of distort.
2. Well trained athletes are capable of only 1/4 Hp for a sustained
period of time. [TM]
B. Best use of human power is as a control function.
II. Animal
A. The domestication of animals increased the power available.
1. Improved the quality of life because it allowed each human to
produce more goods.
2. Societies based on animal power are more self sufficient than
human power, but they are still more fragile than industrialized
societies.
B. A relative expensive source of power (food, housing, care) but they are
renewable.

III. Wind
A. Very useful and relatively inexpensive source of power.
1. Three major problems limits its use:
a. Portability
b. Variability
c. Storage
B. Early application was for electricity (wind generators) and pumping
water.
C. Modern popularity varies with the cost of fuel.
IV. Water
A. Very inexpensive source of power.
B. Not portable
C. May have problems with consistency
D. Can be stored.
V. Engines
A. Engines solve many of the disadvantages of the other sources of power.
1. A lot of power in a small package
2. Portable
3. Storable fuel
a. For some the fuel is renewable
b. Uses a variety of fuel
4. Not dependent on the weather
5. Very adaptable

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 6. Provided the power for the age of industrialization and
mechanization of agriculture.

Principles of engines

I. The term engine was first used to describe the battering rams, catapults, etc. that
were developed to defeat castles.
A. These engines relied on humans and animals for power.
II. The first engines which used steam as the source of power were called heat
engines.
A. This name was used because heat was used to produce a vapor, which was
used to generate the power.
1. Heat engines are divided into two groups: internal combustion and
external combustion.
a. External combustion engines can use any combustible
material to generate steam which is used to expand the gases
inside a cylinder.
b. Internal combustion engines use a combustible liquid to
cause the rapid expansion of gasses in an enclosed cylinder.
III. External combustion engines
A. Development of steam engines
1. The first steam engines were used as a stationary source of power.
2. The next development was to build smaller ones which could be
placed on carriages and pulled from one location to another by horses.
3. It didn't take long before some one figure out that the output shaft
of the engine could be connected to the axle of the carriage so the
machine could move its self. [Traction machine]
4. Shortly thereafter people realized that with slight modifications
this self propelled machine could be used to pull implements.
[Tractor]
B. Early steam engines were 9 -10% efficient
C. Historical dates
1. 1858 Fawkes steam plowing machine
2. 1873 Parvins steamer, first successful track layer
3. 1920 Steamers have been replaced by internal combustion
tractors for most farm work.
D. Early steam tractors were very powerful but were slow, and required a
large quantity of water and fuel. It usually took at least three people to keep a
steam tractor operating.
IV. Internal combustion engines
A. Development
1. The development of the steam tractor spurred individuals to try to
produce a better tractor. This lead to the development of the internal
gas and diesel engines.
B. Principles of operation
1. When a gas is heated it expands.
2. If an expanding gas is contained in a cylinder the pressure
increases.
3. If the container has one moveable wall (piston), the expansion of
the gas as it is heated and the contracting as it is cooled can be used to
cause the movable wall to reciprocate.
4. Eight separate function must occur for this to be a continuous
process.

Eight requirements for an internal combustion engine.

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I. Air must be drawn into the cylinder to have combustion.
A. As the piston moves away from the head it creates a vacuum in the
cylinder. The difference in air pressure causes the air to flow into the
cylinder.
1. This action is enhanced through the use of turbochargers and super
chargers.
a. Turbochargers have a time lag because they are driven by
the exhaust gasses.
b. Superchargers are directly driven and are more expensive.
B. Engines require a large amount of air. The amount of air used by an engine
can be calculated on a per horsepower or the volumetric method.
C. Horsepower basis:

ft3 33000 x 60
=
hr 30 x E

E = volumetric efficiency (80 %)

1. Example: Determine the amount of air that will be required by a

5.0 horsepower engine if the volumetric efficiency is 80%

ft3 33000 x 60 33000 x 60

= x Hp = x 5.0
hr 30 x E 30 x 0.80

9900000 ft3
= = 82500
24 hr

D. Volumetric basis will be covered later.

II. A quantity of fuel is introduced into the engine
A. For proper operation, the fuel to air ratio must be within a narrow range
of proportion.
B. Four common methods of introducing fuel into an engine.
1. Carburetor
2. Throttle body injection
3. Port injection
4. Direct injection
III. The air and fuel are mixed.
A. The efficiency of the burn is influenced by the quality of the mixing.
B. Two physical processes must occur:
1. Atomization
2. Vaporization
IV. The fuel-air mixture is compressed
A. The greater the compression--the greater the power produced
B. The maximum amount of compression is determined by the physical
strength of the engine components and the quality of the fuel.
1. Pre-ignition: low quality fuel in a high compression engine.
V. The fuel-air mixture is ignited.
A. Spark
B. Heat of compression
VI. Pressure builds up in the cylinder
A. The amount of pressure determines the power produced.
B. Maximum pressure is a function of the quality of the burning.
C. The quality of the burning in influenced by several factors.
1. Fuel quality

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 2. Atomization
3. Vaporization
4. Insufficient air
5. Ignition timing
6. Cylinder temperature
7. Others
D. Fuels are hydrocarbons
1. Hydrogen reaction: 2H2 + O2 = 2H2 + heat
2. Carbon reaction: C + O2 = CO2 + Heat
E. Incomplete burning causes pollutants
1. A shortage of oxygen for the reaction will produce carbon
monoxide.
VII. The linear movement of the piston is converted to rotary motion.
A. Function of the connecting rod and the crankshaft.
B. Rotary motion is more usable.
VIII. The products of combustion are exhausted from the engine.
A. Incomplete removal of burned fuel, reduces the quantity that can be
introduced the next cycle.

Engine cycles

I. Introduction
A. There are two common ways of completing these eight events--4 stroke
cycle and 2 stroke cycle.
B. Movement of the piston in the cylinder is in terms of TDC (piston closest
to the cylinder head) and BDC (piston the greatest distance from the cylinder
head)
C. For every 180o rotation of the crankshaft the piston will move one
stroke.
II. Four-stroke cycle
A. The four-stroke cycle requires four strokes, two revolutions) to complete
the eight events.
B. Four stoke cycle
1. Intake
2. Compression
3. Ignition
4. Power
5. Exhaust

III. Two stroke cycle

A. A Two stroke cycle engine requires one revolution of the crankshaft to
complete all eight events.
B. Two stroke cycle
1. Intake and exhaust
2. Compression
3. Ignition and power

Displacement

I. Introduction
A. The amount of power produced by an engine is a function of the
displacement.
B. Displacement is the volume of space the piston moves through in one
stroke.
C. Equations

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 1. The equation for volume of a cylinder is:

Volume of cylinder = Πr2 x H

2. For engines the diameter is called bore and the height is called
stroke. Also because the diameter is usually known or measured
instead of the radius, the equation is changed to:

Π B2
Displacement = xSxN
4
3. For conversion to liters use:
61.023 in 3 = 1 liter
4. Example:
a. What is the displacement of a 6 cylinder engine if the bore
is 2.40 inches and the stroke is 2.00 inches?
ΠB2
Displacement = xSxN
4

( )
2
3.14 x 2.40 in
= x 2.00 in x 6
4

217.0368
= = 54.2592 or 54.2 in3
4

b. What is the displacement in liters?

1L
L = x 54.2 in3 = 0.888189699 or 0.888 L
3
61.023 in

Compression Ratio

I. Compression ratio is the amount of compression that occurs in the fuel-air

mixture before it is ignited.
A. Compression ratio is the ratio between the displacement of the cylinder
and the total volume of the cylinder.
1. Total volume = displacement + clearance volume
2. Equation:

Displacement + Clearance volume

CR =
Clearance volume

B. When determining compression ratio it is important to use either

cylinder displacement and cylinder clearance volume or engine displacement
and engine clearance volume.

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