CLONING

Cloning is basically the process by which a genetically identical copy of a

particular bacteria, plant or animal is produced by asexual reproduction.

History of Cloning

The term 'clone', was coined by J.B.S. Haldane, an eminent Scottish biologist, in
his speech entitled Biological Possibilities for the Human Species of the Next
Ten-Thousand Years in 1963. The history of cloning can be traced back to
1880s, when many scientists attempted to prove how the genetic material inside
the cells worked. Whilst trying to prove that the genetic material is not lost during
cell division, Hans Dreisch cloned sea urchins by separating two cells and
growing them independently. In 1902, Hans Spemman repeated the same
process with a salamander.

A Brief History of Cloning

Cloning is basically the process by which a genetically identical copy of a

particular bacteria, plant or animal is produced by asexual reproduction. The term
'clone', was coined by J.B.S. Haldane, an eminent Scottish biologist, in his
speech entitled Biological Possibilities for the Human Species of the Next Ten-
Thousand Years in 1963. The history of cloning can be traced back to 1880s,
when many scientists attempted to prove how the genetic material inside the
cells worked. Whilst trying to prove that the genetic material is not lost during cell
division, Hans Dreisch cloned sea urchins by separating two cells and growing
them independently. In 1902, Hans Spemman repeated the same process with a
salamander.
History of Cloning Plants
It is very difficult to trace the timeline of cloning plants, owing to the fact that
such cloning of plants has been practiced by humans, since thousands of years,
and by the nature, for a longer time. Interestingly enough, there have been quite
a few citations about cloning of plants in the cloning history. One such example
being the cloning of a full carrot by F. C. Stewart in 1964.

The History of Animal Cloning

The first successful animal cloning experiment was executed by Robert Briggs
and Thomas J. King, when they cloned northern leopard frogs in 1952. In 1962,
John Gurdon used the nucleus of fully differentiated adult intestinal cells and
cloned South African frogs, thus proving that a cell's genetic potential doesn't
diminish as the cell specializes. In 1963, the Chinese embryologist Tong Dizhou
cloned the first fish, by inserting the DNA from a cell of a male into the egg of a
female. A major breakthrough in the attempts to clone animals came in the form
of cloning of Dolly, the sheep, by Ian Wilmut, Keith Campbell and other scientists
from the Roslin Institute in Scotland. Since then several other animals, ranging
from cat and dog species to camel and Water-buffalo species have been cloned
successfully. In 2009, an extinct animal species - the Pyrenean Ibex was cloned,
however, it only survived for 7 minutes before becoming extinct again. Read
more on animal cloning.

History of Human Cloning

Other then the successful attempt at cloning various animal species, the 20th
century was also marked by some of the major advancements in the field
of genealogy. The successful deciphering of the DNA code in 1968 came as a
major boost for the much aspired human cloning. Around 20 years later, in 1988,
the Human Genome, i.e. the genome of Homosapiens stored in 23 chromosome
pairs, was launched. As things were working fine towards the development of a
human clone, a major setback came in the form of the Human Cloning
Prohibition Act of 2009, which deemed cloning as unlawful, unethical and an
immoral activity. The opposition to cloning of humans came from scientific
community, who were not satisfied with the results of animal cloning, as well as
the religious community, which regarded human cloning to be an activity
interfering with human life and procreation. Read more on human cloning.

This was a brief history of cloning, spanning over a period of around 120 years.
As of 2009, human cloning is considered to be illegal in 23 countries. The
scientific fraternity comprising of pro-cloning scientists and researchers are
hoping that human cloning is legalized soon, after which they can get back to
their labs, and continue experiments related to the same.

Purpose of Cloning

There appear to be a number of purposes for cloning technology:

• The production of babies for those such as infertile couples, single
women,lesbian couples, couples whose children die or to avoid diseases
carried by mitochondria. (For a number of reasons, the possibility of
avoiding mitochondrial disease by cloning technology is dubious.)
• The production of embryos in order to obtain embryonic stem cells for
culturing human tissue. This may be used for various kinds of research
purposes, including the development of tissue for transplant.
• Embryo splitting is used for pre-implantation genetic screening.
• The production of histocompatible organs, which would require growth of
the embryo in utero and abortion of the resultant fetus for organ
harvesting.
• To enhance understanding of basic cell biology, ageing, cancer,
embyology, human genes and for purposes of drug testing, gene therapy,
and so on. In all cases, cloning technology is used to create an embryo,
but in the first case, the intention is for the embryo to be implanted, grow
and be born as a new baby. In the remainder, the embryo is destroyed,
 whether by the removal of embryonic stem cells or organs, or following
experimentation or testing on the whole embryo.

HUMAN CLONING

Human cloning is the creation of a genetically identical copy of a human (not

usually referring to monozygotic multiple births), human cell, or human tissue.
The ethics of cloning is an extremely controversial issue. The term is generally
used to refer to artificial human cloning; human clones in the form of identical
twins are commonplace, with their cloning occurring during the natural process of
reproduction.

Types of Cloning

1. Therapeutic Cloning
-the embryo is destroyed by removal of embryonic stem cells

2. Reproductive Cloning
-purpose is to bring about a live birth (human cloning)

3. Replacement Cloning
-It is a theoretical possibility, and would be a combination of therapeutic
and reproductive cloning. Replacement cloning would entail the
replacement of an extensively damaged, failed, or failing body through
cloning followed by whole or partial brain transplant.

Ethical Concerns

Contravention of Human Dignity

The cloning of human beings, whether to bring about the birth of a baby or to be
suppressed within early embryonic life (such as for the purpose of obtaining
embryonic
stem cells), is an affront to human dignity. UNESCO declared human
reproductive cloning to be contrary to human dignity. Clones are a means to an
end and in being such, are treated with less dignity than other humans. Indeed,
unconditional respect for human dignity, regardless of age, size, intellect or
physical capacity is the cornerstone of civilized society. Human cloning
contravenes this respect and violates the principles of equality and non-
discrimination among human beings. It represents a line we should not
cross.Despite the semantic distinction between “therapeutic” and “reproductive”
cloning, an embryo (or “embryoid”) is created in both cases and therefore should
be treated in identical manner. So-called “embryoids” are clonal human
organisms and to create and manipulate them at will is to treat them as human
guinea pigs, without their consent and without even the protection afforded to
experimental animals. It is unacceptable to render human beings at any stage of
development or degree of disability to the level of mere research tool. The
production of human-animal genetic hybrids of any age, also a proposed area of
research, crosses boundaries of nature that should not be approached. Such
research contravenes the very nature and substance of humanity.

Destruction of human life

Cloning to gain embryonic stem cells for research or tissue transplantation
purposes requires the sacrifice of the clonal embryo in order to obtain these cells.
Creating and then destroying human life in this way is an abuse of power and
control because embryos, even at this early stage of development, are deserving
of special respect as human wholes. As explained in the AHEC Report (2.40-
2.44), it is extremely unlikely that whole organs will be able to be produced in
vitro. Therefore, the generation of histocompatible whole organs would require
that a foetus resulting from cloning technology grow in utero until the organ is
well formed. The foetus would then be aborted in order to harvest the organ(s).
This is, in effect, using one’s twin to grow body parts and is a gross exploitation
of human life. The deliberate production of embryos with abnormally formed
upper parts of the central nervous system as an attempt to overcome the obvious
ethical problems with such a procedure is preposterous. Anencephalic embryos
and foetuses are no less human than cephalic ones despite their extreme
disability. The very idea of creating and using them for “spare part” manufacture
is repugnant. Pre-implantation genetic screening using the technique of embryo
splitting is likewise a violation of the human dignity (and indeed the life) of the
new twin which is created in order to be used for testing. Philosophically, pre-
implantation screening is a modern form of eugenics and is therefore to be
shunned. The above uses of embryos and forced twins are examples of so-called
”therapeutic” cloning. Whilst the goal might be said to be humanitarian, they treat
human life as mere biological material. Our pursuit of new medical treatments
should never sanction the destruction of human life in order to benefit other
humans. This would be the ultimate discrimination. The taking of human life for
research is never justified, even if to save other lives.

The Commercialization of Human Beings

The push for human cloning comes from researchers and the biotechnical
industry which stands to profit from the freedom to carry out human cloning
research. The “industrial production” mentality in which human life is used for its
tissue is dangerous, reducing the tiniest and most vulnerable members of the
human family to mere “products”. Human beings should not become a
commodity, and commercial interest in human cloning should be withstood. If
human cloning is permitted for any purpose, no matter how specific, there will be
pressure on IVF clinics to produce more “spare embryos”, and on women to
donate eggs and to offer their wombs as incubators. There is a serious potential
for coercion. Allowing the cloning of human embryos even in very limited
numbers and in special circumstances would inevitably lead to greater numbers
and wider circumstances becoming accepted for cloning research. If cloning of
human embryos by nuclear transfer or parthenogenesis is permitted for research
purposes, advances will overcome the technological barrier currently preventing
cloning to produce new human babies. It will then be only a short step, done
illegally in Australia or in a country lacking appropriate restrictions, to carry out
such a procedure. It is important, therefore, to concentrate research elsewhere
so that this technology is not perfected.

Moral Aspects
The Roman Catholic Church, under the papacy of Benedict XVI, has condemned
the practice of human cloning, in the magisterial instruction Dignitas Personae,
stating that it represents a "grave offense to the dignity of that person as well as
to the fundamental equality of all people".

Human Cloning is forbidden in Islam. The Islamic Fiqh Academy, in its Tenth
Conference proceedings, which was convened in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia in the
period from June 28, 1997 to July 3, 1997, issued a Fatwa stating that human
cloning isharaam (prohibited by the faith).

Legal Aspects
President Clinton first addressed this issue in December of 1994. He directed
the National Institutes of Health not to fund the creation of human embryo’s for
research purposes. Then, congress extended this prohibition in Fiscal year ’96 &
Fiscal year ’97 appropriation bills (which are simply bills for funds set aside for a
specfic purpose), barring the Dept of Health and Human Services from
supporting certain human embryo research. The President then went on to
address this issue for one last time on March 4th. 1997. After deciding that this
law had too many loopholes, he laid down the law and issued a directive that
banned the use of any federal funds for any cloning of human beings. He stated
the reason for his prohibition in a press conference in the oval officeon March
4th. He believes that it is not just a matter of of scietific inquiry, rather that it is a
matter of morality, as you will understand better as you listen to the other
speakers in my group. He states “each human life is unique, born of a miracle
that reaches beyond lab sciences.” He also states that “I believe we must
respect this profound gift and respect its origin”.

Genetic Pollution
The dispersal of contaminated altered genes from genetically engineered
organisms to natural organisms, esp. by cross-pollination

Example: There is new report on the genetic pollution of corn in Mexico.

“Uncontrolled spread of genetic information (frequently referring to transgenes) into the

genomes of organisms in which such genes are not present in nature”.

Pros and Cons

Pros of Cloning

1. The vital organs of the human body that will be clone; they can serve as
backup systems for human beings. Cloning body parts can serve as a lifesaver.
When a body organ such as a kidney or heart fails to function, it may be possible
to replace it with the cloned body organ.

2. Cloning in human beings can prove to be a solution to infertility. Cloning has

the potential of serving as an option for producing children. Cloning may make it
possible to reproduce a certain trait in human beings. We will be able to produce
people with certain qualities, human beings with particular desirable traits, thus
making human beings a man-made being!

3. Cloning technologies can prove helpful for the researchers in genetics. They
might be able to understand the composition of genes and the effects of genetic
constituents on human traits, in a better manner. They will be able to alter
genetic constituents in cloned human beings, thus simplifying their analysis of
genes. Cloning may also help us combat a wide range of genetic diseases.

4. Cloning can make it possible for us to obtain customized organisms and

harness them for health benefits of society. Cloning can serve as the best means
to replicate animals that can be used for research purposes.

5. Cloning can enable the genetic alteration of plants and animals. If positive
changes can be brought about in living beings with the help of cloning, it will
indeed be a boon to mankind.

Cons of Cloning

1. Cloning created identical genes. It is a process of replicating a genetic

constitution, thus hampering the diversity in genes. While lessening the diversity
in genes, we weaken our ability of adaptation. Cloning is also detrimental to the
beauty that lies in diversity.

2. Cloning allows man to tamper with genetics in human beings; it also makes
deliberate reproduction of undesirable traits, a probability. Cloning of body
organs might invite malpractices in society.

3. Cloning is equal to emulating God.

Risk of Cloning

1. Inefficient Process
Somatic cell nuclear transfer which is one of the two ways to carry out a cloning
process has proved to be unsuccessful in most cases. Various factors that
attribute to this cause include the following:

• To start with, the maternity itself might be a possible failure.

 • There might be no compatibility between the nucleus that has been
transferred and the egg that has been enucleated.
• There might be no proper development of the egg which has the nucleus
that has been newly transferred.
• Also, there are chances of failure when the embryo is being implanted into
the foster mother.

These failure rates are reported to range from 97 percent to even 99.9 percent at
times. Hence, it is obvious that a lot of effort has been put forward for futile
positive results.

2. Unnatural Cistron Patterns

Though the clones look alike, there are uncertainties as to whether the right
cistron (gene) would be expressed at the right time. It is important to note that
while a cloning process is carried out, the nucleus that is being transferred has to
be reprogrammed in such a way so as to make an impression that it belongs to
an early cell. As compared to a naturally created embryo, the nucleus which has
been transferred behaves as programmed by the scientist concerned. Whereas,
in an embryo that has been naturally created, there are distinct programs for
each differentiated cell according to which the DNA expresses the gene. Hence
the programming of the transferred nucleus exclusively lies in the hands of the
scientist and it is up to him to make the transferred nucleus behave like a natural
one.

3. Trouble during Growth

The life span of the cloned animals is found to be comparatively less as
compared to their counterparts, in most cases. Also, it has been reported that
cloned animals often have large organs during their birth. This condition where
the cloned animals are bigger than their counterparts is referred to as the "Large
Offspring Syndrome" by scientists. Clones with such a syndrome not only have
large organs but also those organs are quite abnormal. This can effectively
interrupt the metabolic activities in the clone that could possibly give rise to
various other problems including suffocation. There are also clones which do not
have this LOS, yet, they develop malformations in the brain and in the kidney
which could pose a greater threat in the later stage.

4. Contracting Telomeres
Telomeres are basically sequences of DNA present at the either ends of a
chromosome. It has been scientifically proved that these telomeres contract in
length each time the DNA gets copied. This consequently results in the reduced
length of the chromosomes. It is evident that as the animal gets older and older,
its telomeres shrink further, which becomes a natural phenomenon in ageing.
Hence there arises an issue as to what might happen to the clone whose nucleus
that has been transferred is quite old, and are there any chances that this could
lead to the shortened lifespan of the clone.

However, the experiments carried out provide no accurate results. Surprisingly, a

cloned cow and a mouse proved to have relatively longer telomeres than their
counterparts. The cells of these animals promised to have a widened lifespan.
Whereas in the case of Dolly the sheep, the telomeres seemed to have been
contracted, as a result of which, it aged faster than a normal sheep.

Hence, the cloning technology brings with it quite a considerable number of risks.
Continuous research is being done to eliminate these risks and make it a
productive technology with remote chances of failure.