Excavations at

Baldock 1978-1994
Fieldwork by G R Burleigh

Edited by Keith J Fitzpatrick-Matthews & Gilbert R Burleigh

© 2007
 Excavations at
Baldock 1978-1994
Fieldwork by G R Burleigh

Edited by Keith
J Fitzpatrick-Matthews & Gilbert R Burleigh
With contributions by

Miranda Aldhouse-Green, Denise Allen, Helen Ashworth, Ernest W Black, Noel

Boothroyd, Kate M Clark, Mark Curteis, Garth Denning, C B Denston, Brenda
Dickenson, Maria Fabrizi, Brian Gilmour, Roger Goodburn, Stephen J Greep, Sheila
Hamilton-Dyer, Martin Henig,J D Hill, Catherine Holgate, Mary Iles, Michael
Keith-Lucus, Donald F Mackreth, Richard Macphail, Keith McBarron, Jacqueline I
McKinley, Anita Morrison, Peter Murphy, Peter Northover, Stephen Player, C Jane
Read, Charlotte A Roberts,Guy Seddon, Sasha Smith, Jenny Stevens, Mark D
Stevenson, Francis Thornton and Chris Turner

© 2007
Dedication
Dedicated to our long-suffering partners Tony and Diane, who have had to live with Baldock almost as
long as we have, and to Mr and Mrs Burleigh senior.

[Publication details]
Preface
The excavations over a period of 16 years of the settlement to the east of the modern town of Baldock
have revealed a fascinating picture of life in ancient Britain. The work has proved to be of international
significance, adding much to the understanding of the development of early British culture. The greatest
credit is due to the archaeological team who conducted the exploration of the very large site and
interpreted the findings. North Hertfordshire District Council is proud to have sponsored the whole project
- a vital necessity before planned development of modern housing. This record is of the greatest
importance and a model of what can be achieved by a dedicated team of experts.
F John Smith, Leader, North Hertfordshire District Council

i
Summary
The Romano-British „small town‟ at Baldock, Hertfordshire, was the subject of intensive fieldwork during
the 1980s and 1990s, examining some 6 ha of the site (around 12½% of the town). Combined with earlier
fieldwork and geophysical survey, over half the town has been investigated, making it one of the best
explored of such sites. The work from 1978 to 1994 focused principally on a number of cemeteries,
mostly to the north-east of the settlement. Although burial grounds had been investigated before, these
were the first excavations to systematically examine a number of complete cemeteries, including several
that were previously unknown.
The results of the fieldwork extend the known existence of the settlement from c 100 BC until well into the
sixth century AD, a situation that so far appears to be unique in a Romano-British „small town‟. The
cemeteries span the whole period of the town‟s existence and contain examples of most known types of
Late Iron Age to sub-Roman burial practices.
The report considers the origins and development of the settlement, from an unusually early oppidum in
the first half of the first century BC through its rapid expansion during the late first century BC into the
early first century AD. The peak of its growth seems to have been reached during the second century AD,
followed by a slow decline. Nevertheless, there is both burial and structural evidence from the sub-Roman
period, some datable by ceramic evidence to the middle of the sixth century AD, but with no trace of
Germanic influence.
An overview is provided of the burial evidence, which is the most significant aspect of the results. Around
1800 burials have been excavated since 1925 (most since 1978) and over 1200 have yielded important
contextual, osteological and palaeopathological data. At least twenty-one formal cemeteries have been
identified, a truly exceptional number; of these, ten have been investigated completely or nearly so and all
but one of these since 1978. In addition, there are the usual Romano-British „backland‟ burials of both
infants and adults. Each cemetery is considered in turn, before giving an overview of the
palaeopathological data and the burial rites represented.
A wide range of artefacts has been recovered, especially from the earlier phases of the settlement;
particularly important are the ceramic groups recovered from burials, many of which can be closely dated.
The completed pottery reports were prepared by Helen Ashworth. There is also a good series of early
brooches, although, puzzlingly, there are few late brooches. The human bone reports, however, form the
core of the finds reports, with detailed data contained on a DVD-ROM, which provides a catalogue of
individual burials. Most of the human bone has been reported on by Jacqueline McKinley or Charlotte
Roberts.
The final discussion begins by looking at Baldock as a Romano-British „small town‟ and considers why it
appears anomalous in so many respects. Was it a religious or cult centre? Is understanding hampered by
lack of investigation in the core part of the town, a Scheduled Ancient Monument? Has the recent focus
on cemetery excavation distorted the pattern of evidence? Why does the oppidum develop so early and
the settlement survive so late?
It concludes with an overview of Iron Age to sub-Roman burial practices at Baldock, looking at the range
of rites represented and differences between cemeteries as well as through time. It sets these against
other local sites, such as Skeleton Green (Braughing), King Harry Lane (Verulamium) and Slip End
(Ashwell). Finally, there is an exposition of the considerable research potential of the data set.

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Contents
Preface
Summary
Contents
Figures
Plates
The contributors
Introduction (Keith J Fitzpatrick-Matthews)
The rationale of the current publication
The circumstances of analyses presented by the current publication
1: Topographical and Historical Background (Keith J Fitzpatrick-Matthews & Gilbert R Burleigh)
Introduction
The historical background
2: Fieldwork in Baldock (Gilbert R Burleigh & Keith J Fitzpatrick-Matthews)
Up to 1978: Work by Percival Westell, Ian Stead and others
The Baldock Project 1978-1994
A note on nomenclature
3: The settlement (Gilbert R Burleigh & Keith J Fitzpatrick-Matthews)
Origins
The Roman period
Decline
The „New Town‟ of the 1140s
The character of the Iron Age and Romano-British settlement
4: The cemeteries (Keith J Fitzpatrick-Matthews, Gilbert R Burleigh & Mark D Stevenson)
The human biology
Dating the burials
Iron Age enclosures
California large enclosure
California small enclosure
Icknield Way East enclosure
Downlands Enclosure A
Downlands Enclosure B
Iron Age/Romano-British cemeteries
Wallington Road
The pyre pit
Stane Street
South Road
Mercia Road
Yeomanry Drive North cremation cemetery
Sale Drive East
Clothall Road
Sale Drive doline
Walls Field
Royston Road
The pyre
Icknield Way roadside
Sale Drive West
Yeomanry Drive South
Late Romano-British/sub-Roman cemeteries
Icknield Way East Romano-British mixed-rite cemetery
California Late Romano-British cemetery
The Tene
Isolated and informal burials
Clothall Common (?Upper Walls Common)
BAL-1 solution hollow
BAL-1 North-east of large enclosure
Well shafts
Elsewhere on BAL-1
Upper Walls Common
Isolated burials
Walls Field
The Tene
Iron Age chieftain‟s burial
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 Brewery Field
Ritual deposits
The Orchard
Cemetery location
Cemetery layout
Enclosures
Access
Internal patterning
Structures
Burial rites
Cremation
Inhumations
5: Artefacts
Metalwork
Coins (Mark Curteis)
Celtic coins (Roger Goodburn)
Copper Alloy
Brooches (D F Mackreth)
The brooches from BAL-15 and BAL-48 (D F Mackreth)
Analysis of the metal from the California pyre débris pit (M D Stevenson)
Analysis and metallography of melted bronze from the pyre débris pit, F95 BAL-1 (Peter
Northover)
Iron
Iron mail (Mark D Stevenson)
Fragments of a mail garment (Brian Gilmour)
Iron nails (Keith J Fitzpatrick-Matthews and Mark D Stevenson)
Intaglios (M Henig)
Glass
Glass from Wallington Road (Denise Allen)
Glass from BAL-15 1994 (Catherine Holgate)
Pottery
Coarse Wares (Helen Ashworth)
Samian
The samian from Wallington Road (Brenda Dickenson)
Graffiti on samian pottery from the Roman cemeteries at Baldock, Herts. (E W Black)
Building materials
Mortar and plaster (Anita Morrison)
Pipeclay (Keith J Fitzpatrick-Matthews)
Objects of bone and antler (S J Greep)
6: Human remains
Inhumations
The Inhumations from Wallington Road (Charlotte Roberts)
The inhumations from BAL-1 (Charlotte Roberts)
The inhumations from Brewery Field (C B Denston †)
The inhumations from BAL-31 (C B Denston †)
Inhumations from The Tene cemetery, Icknield Way East cemetery and scattered burials (BAL-10,
BAL-28 and BAL-32) (Jacqueline I McKinley)
The inhumations from BAL-15 (1986-89 seasons) (Jacqueline I McKinley)
BAL-15 1994 inhumation assessment (Jacqueline I McKinley)
Cremated bone (Jacqueline I McKinley)
Cremated bone from Icknield Way East Enclosure (Jacqueline I McKinley)
Cremated bone from Icknield Way East cemetery (Jacqueline I McKinley)
BAL-15: Royston Road and Yeomanry Drive North cemeteries (Jacqueline I McKinley)
BAL-15 1994 cremation assessment (Jacqueline I McKinley)
Dental disease in a Romano-British skeletal population (Francis Thornton)
7: Ecofacts
Animal remains (S Hamilton-Dyer)
Animal bone from BAL-15 1994 (K M Clark and M Iles)
Environmental Remains
Land molluscs, carbonised cereals and crop weeks, charcoal, avian eggshell and coprolites from
prehistoric and Roman contexts (Peter Murphy)
Molluscan analysis from solution hollow feature, BAL-15 1994 (Peter Murphy)
Micromorphological samples from solution hollow feature, BAL-15 1994, Area 10 (Richard Macphail)
Charcoal identification
Pyre debris pit (Michael Keith-Lucus)
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8: Industrial residues
An analysis of metal-working débris from BAL-2 F123 (Jenny Stevens)
Iron slag from Roman Baldock (Noel Boothroyd & Sasha Monk)
9: Discussion (Keith J Fitzpatrick-Matthews & Gilbert R Burleigh)
The place of Baldock in Iron Age and Roman Britain
Temples and Shrines in Iron Age and Romano-British Baldock and its territorium
Overview of Iron Age and Romano-British burial practice
Iron Age burial practice
Romano-British burial practice
Assessment
Factual data
Statement of potential
Storage and curation
Data-collection
Research potential of the data set
Appendices
The North Hertfordshire Museums Pottery Fabric Series (Helen M Ashworth)
Storage and curation of the archive (Keith J Fitzpatrick-Matthews)
Introduction to the catalogue (Keith J Fitzpatrick-Matthews)
Bibliography

Figures
Figure 1: Baldock location
Figure 2: Areas excavated, 1925-1994
Figure 3: Soils
Figure 4: Late Iron Age sites around Baldock
Figure 5: Iron Age occupation at Wymondley Bypass
Figure 6: The environs of Baldock in the Roman period
Figure 7: Wymondley Bypass „cottage house‟
Figure 8: The bath house of Purwell villa (after Ransom 1887)
Figure 9: The hypothesised Roman holding at Great Wymondley (after Seebohm 1883)
Figure 10: Slip End, Ashwell
Figure 11: The cemetery at Site J, Slip End
Figure 12: Brewery Field excavations 1968 (after Stevenson 1983; the numbered features are
inhumations)
Figure 13: Areas investigated 1925-1977
Figure 14: Applebaum‟s reconstruction of Romano-British Baldock
Figure 15: Applebaum‟s reconstruction of a late Romano-British house at Grosvenor Road
Figure 16: The BAL-1 enclosures
Figure 17: The Mercia Road cursiform enclosure
Figure 18: The BAL-15 cemeteries
Figure 19: Excavation areas 1978-94
Figure 20: The Baldock oppidum
Figure 21: Iron Age Baldock
Figure 22: The Late Iron Age burial zone
Figure 23: Romano-British Baldock
Figure 24: Wynn Close temple enclosure
Figure 25: Sub-Roman features on BAL-1, including contemporary graves in the California cemetery
Figure 26: California Large Enclosure
Figure 27: Copper-alloy bound wooden bucket
Figure 28: California small enclosure
Figure 29: Icknield Way East enclosure
Figure 30: Downlands Enclosure A
Figure 31: Downlands Enclosure B
Figure 32: The Wallington Road cemetery
Figure 33: Pyre pit TH/B
Figure 34: Location of the pyre pit in relation to the Wallington Road cemetery
Figure 35: Stane Street cemetery
Figure 36: South Road cemetery
Figure 37: Mercia Road shrine and burials
Figure 38: The postulated shrine at Mercia Road
Figure 39: Yeomanry Drive North cemetery
Figure 40: Sale Drive East cemetery
Figure 41: Clothall Road cemetery (after Stead & Rigby 1986, fig 26)

v
Figure 42: Sale Drive doline cemetery
Figure 43: Walls Field cemetery
Figure 44: Royston Road cemetery
Figure 45: Icknield Way roadside burials
Figure 46: Sale Drive West cemetery
Figure 47: Yeomanry Drive South cemetery
Figure 48: Icknield Way East late Roman cemetery
Figure 49: California Late Roman cemetery
Figure 50: The Tene Late Roman cemetery
Figure 51: The California doline burials
Figure 52: North-east of California large enclosure
Figure 53: Burials outside cemeteries
Figure 54: The Tene Welwyn-type burial (after Stead & Rigby 1986, fig 21)
Figure 55: The Orchard
Figure 56: The „lamp pit‟
Figure 57: Coin loss histogram
Figure 58: Plan of Baldock site BAL-1, showing position of coin finds.
Figure 59: Late La Tène Part I brooches, 1 (actual size)
Figure 60: Late La Tène Part I brooches, 2 (actual size)
Figure 61: Late La Tène Part I brooches, 3; Rosettes, 1 (actual size)
Figure 62: Rosette brooches, 2; Langton Down brooches, 1 (actual size)
Figure 63: Langton Down brooches, 2 (actual size)
Figure 64: Colchester brooches (actual size)
Figure 65: Colchester derivative brooches; unclassified brooches, 1 (actual size)
Figure 66: Aucissa brooches and variant (actual size)
Figure 67: Hod Hill brooches, 1 (actual size)
Figure 68: Hod Hill brooches, 2 (actual size)
Figure 69: Plate brooches (actual size)
Figure 70: Penannular brooches (actual size)
Figure 71: Fragments (actual size)
Figure 72: Miscellaneous objects (actual size)
Figure 73: Brooches from BAL-15 and BAL-45, 1 (actual size)
Figure 74: Brooches from BAL-15 and BAL-48, 2 (actual size)
Figure 75: Metalwork from pyre débris pit F96, 1 (actual size)
Figure 76: Metalwork from pyre débris pit F96, 2 (actual size)
Figure 77: Metalwork from pyre débris pit F96, 2 (actual size)
Figure 78: Reconstruction of the chainmail from pyre débris pit F96
Figure 79: Nail typology
Figure 80: Shank lengths at Wallington Road, with a moving average (period=5)
Figure 81: Distribution of nail lengths, Wallington Road, California and Lankhills (Winchester)
Figure 82: Graffiti on samian from Wallington Road cemetery
Figure 83: Graffiti on samian from Walls Field cemetery
Figure 84: Graffiti on pottery from BAL-1
Figure 85: Opus signinum and mortars residue weight percentages, samples 1 to 6
Figure 86: Opus signinum and mortars residue weight percentages, samples 7 to 11
Figure 87: Pipeclay pigeon (actual size)
Figure 88: The Dea Nutrix figurine
Figure 89: Objects of bone and antler
Figure 90: Burial 4219(4110) (scale 1:10)
Figure 91: Percentage of individuals v Age group
Figure 92: Location of carious teeth by age group (laterality not considered)
Figure 93: Weight of materials
Figure 94: Pit containing metalworking débris, BAL-13 Sq 46
Figure 95: The “front page” of the DVD-ROM

Plates
Plate 1: The „Baldock Curse‟, RIB 221
Plate 2: The marble head from Radwell
Plate 3: Excavating at Walls Field, 12 May 1925
Plate 4: The Walls Field rubbish pit
Plate 5: Applebaum‟s trench alongside the Walls Field cemetery, 1932
Plate 6: Baldock Telephone Exchange site, 1968 (Stead & Rigby 1986, Site C)
Plate 7: Bakers Close from the air, 1995
Plate 8: The pit alignment at BAL-5 under excavation in 1981

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Plate 9: The Wynn Close temple under excavation, 1971
Plate 10: F106 under excavation
Plate 11: Salvage archaeology at Wallington Road, 1982
Plate 12: Burial SR1
Plate 13: Applebaum‟s Site B, Burial 1
Plate 14: Applebaum‟s Site B, Burial 2 radiogram, side view
Plate 15: Applebaum‟s Site B, Burial 2 radiogram, view from below
Plate 16: Applebaum‟s Site B, Burial 2
Plate 17: Burial 324
Plate 18: Burial 402
Plate 19: The „lamp pit‟ under excavation
Plate 20: Iron Age coins
Plate 21: Metallographic examination of melted Bronze from the pyre debris pit F95
Plate 22: Metallographic examination of melted Bronze from the pyre debris pit F95
Plate 23:
Plate 24: Projection radiography of a fragment of mail
Plate 25: Wormian bones in the skull of B1
Plate 26: Dental caries
Plate 27: Maxillary dental abscess
Plate 28: Impacted mandibular third molar in B174
Plate 29: Fused cervical vertebrae in B131
Plate 30: Osteochondritis dessicans in navicular of B131
Plate 31: Traumatic lesion in fibula of B2
Plate 32: Traumatic lesion in fibula of B2
Plate 33: Vastus notches in both patellae of skeleton F637 L3
Plate 34: Periodontal disease in jaws of skeleton F475 L2 <4443>
Plate 35: Calculus on the lingual surfaces of molar teeth from skeleton F466 <4173>
Plate 36: Dental enamel hypoplasia on the mandibular canine tooth of skeleton F475 Ls <4443>
Plate 37: Carious lesion on 3rd mandibular molar from skeleton F632 80:100
Plate 38: Supernumerary tooth in anterior mandible of skeleton (1446)
Plate 39: Impacted lateral incisor in skeleton F610 L1 <4647>
Plate 40: Cribra orbitalia in orbits of skeleton F557 L2 <5871>
Plate 41: Healed rib shaft fractures in skeleton F544 <4673>
Plate 42: Healed distal radius fracture from skeleton F187 L2 Group 2
Plate 43: Healed fractures to both tibiae and fibulae of skeleton F446 <4173>
Plate 44: Osteomyelitic sinus posterior to right tibial fracture of F466 <4173>
Plate 45: Healed fracture to tibia of skeleton F488 <4507>
Plate 46: Fusion of left tibia and fibula due to soft tissue damage and ossification in skeleton F516 L1
<4369>
Plate 47: Compression of vertebral body in skeleton 1141(1136) due to osteoporosis
Plate 48: Clay shoveller‟s fracture in skeleton 1175(1203)
Plate 49: Periostitis on visceral surfaces of ribs from skeleton 1141(1124)
Plate 50: Spinal osteophytes in skeleton F92
Plate 51: Joint disease in the hips of skeleton F92
Plate 52: DISH in the spine of 1018(1020)
Plate 53: Hyperostosis frontalis interna on the frontal bone of skeleton 1196(1190)
Plate 54: Flattened and atrophied mandibular condyles of skeleton 1066(1077)
Plate 55: Decapitated inhumation 5674(5675)
Plate 56: Cuts on the axis of 5674(5675)
Plate 57: Fractured tibia and fibula of (5180)
Plate 58: Fractured nasal bone of (5960)
Plate 59: Fractured femur of (5960)
Plate 60: Fractured radius and ulna of (7241)
Plate 61: Femur of 6995), showing periostitis and osteomyelitis resulting from compound fractures
Plate 62: Misaligned fractures in fifth metacarpal and proximal phalanx of (7993)
Plate 63: Opening in the anterior parietals of (5779)
Plate 64: Opening in the anterior parietals of (5779) (detail)
Plate 65: Opening in the anterior parietals of (5779) (detail)
Plate 66: Humeri, radii and ulnae of (7715)
Plate 67: Destructive lesions in vertebra of (7498)
Plate 68: Calcified stone from (6921)
Plate 69: Possible gall stones from (6995)
Plate 70: Fusion of calcanea and naviculars in (4827)
Plate 71: Lesions in thoracic and lumbar vertebrae of (5180)
Plate 72: Lesions in thoracic and lumbar vertebrae of (5180)
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Plate 73: Foetal remains ((7648), (7683) and (7688)) associated with (7649)
Plate 74: Partially cremated body (4110) in situ
Plate 75: Plan view of mandible, showing carious lesions
Plate 76: Loss of tooth crown from caries
Plate 77: Caries located between first and second molars
Plate 78: Gross caries in right second maxillary molar and canine
Plate 79: Severe mesial attack to right 3rd molar
Plate 80: Gross destruction of tooth crown, leaving only roots.
Plate 81: Apical abscess on second incisor
Plate 82: Apical abscess on second molar
Plate 83: Calculus on anterior mandibular teeth
Plate 84: Calculus on posterior mandibular teeth
Plate 85: Periodontal disease
Plate 86: Periodontal disease
Plate 87: Dental enamel hypoplasia to maxillary central incisors
Plate 88: Loose upper second incisor with enamel hypoplasia
Plate 89: Abnormal attrition to buccal surface from overbite
Plate 90: Wear to occlusal surface
Plate 91: abnormal wear resulting from impacted supernumerary left canine
Plate 92: Malocclusion of second maxillary incisors.
Plate 93: Crowding of anterior mandibular teeth with malocclusion of incisors

Tables
Table 1: Site codes for archaeological work in Baldock
Table 2: Cemeteries in Baldock
Table 3: Cemetery types by date
Table 4: Notional generations devised for dating burials
Table 5: California large enclosure summary of burials
Table 6: California small enclosure summary of burials
Table 7: Icknield Way East enclosure summary of burials
Table 8: Downlands Enclosure B summary of burials
Table 9: Wallington Road summary of burials
Table 10: Stane Street summary of burials
Table 11: South Road summary of burials
Table 12: Mercia Road summary of burials
Table 13: Yeomanry Drive North summary of burials
Table 14: Sale Drive East summary of burials
Table 15: Clothall Road summary of burials
Table 16: Sale Drive doline summary of burials
Table 17: Walls Field summary of burials
Table 18: Royston Road summary of burials
Table 19: Icknield Way roadside summary of burials
Table 20: Sale Drive West summary of burials
Table 21: Yeomanry Drive South summary of burials
Table 22: Icknield Way East Late Roman cemetery summary of burials
Table 23: California Late Roman cemetery summary of burials
Table 24: The Tene Late Roman cemetery summary of burials
Table 25: Human bone from the California doline
Table 26: BAL-1 north-east of large enclosure summary of burials
Table 27: Other non-cemetery burials at BAL-1
Table 28: Burials in wells
Table 29: Isolated burials on Upper Walls Common
Table 30: Isolated burials on Walls Field
Table 31: Burials at Orchard Road
Table 32: The Tene Welwyn-type burial
Table 33: Burials at Brewery Field
Table 34: Deposits at The Orchard
Table 35: Weights of metallic débris by functional category
Table 36: Proportions of metallic débris by functional category
Table 37: Analysis of copper droplet from the pyre débris pit
Table 38: Comparison of Iron Age chainmail
Table 39: Nail frequency by type, Wallington Road cemetery
Table 40: Possible sources of nails form burials at Wallington Road
Table 41: Nail lengths, California Late Roman cemetery

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Table 42: Stud and nail lengths, Wallington Road cremations
Table 43: Comparison of nail lengths, Wallington Road, California and Lankhills (Winchester)
Table 44: Metalwork by category
Table 45: Nauheim derivative brooches
Table 46: Aucissa brooches
Table 47: Thealby type brooches
Table 48: Hod Hill type brooches
Table 49: Unidentified brooches
Table 50: Finger-rings
Table 51: Miscellaneous jewellery
Table 52: Toilet instruments
Table 53: Tacks, nails and studs
Table 54: Pins
Table 55: Buttons
Table 56: Miscellaneous non-ferrous metal objects
Table 57: Lead objects
Table 58: Glass beads from BAL-15 1994
Table 59: Glass vessels from BAL-15 1994
Table 60: Glass gaming pieces from BAL-15 1994
Table 61: Miscellaneous glass objects from BAL-15 1994
Table 62: Frequency of graffiti types on burial pottery, Baldock and Ospringe
Table 63: Assemblage breakdown by period
Table 64: Assemblage breakdown by fabric group
Table 65: Ceramic Small Finds, BAL-15 1994
Table 66: Tile, percentage of total fragments by Area
Table 67: Daub, percentage of the total fragments by area
Table 68: Samples 1-11
Table 69: Weights of the mortar and opus signinum samples (*= estimated first weight), and aggregate
and lime soluble percentages of the mortar and opus signinum samples (16 mm- 2.8 mm =
medium to fine gravel; 2.0 mm-0.15 = sand; less than 0.15 = fine sand, silts, and clays)
Table 70: Plaster samples
Table 71: Weights of the painted plaster/mortar samples, and aggregate and lime soluble percentages
Table 72: Results of the Calcite Gas Test (* = two calibration samples)
Table 73: Minimum number of individuals, BAL-11
Table 74: Sex distribution, BAL-11
Table 75: Age distribution, BAL-11
Table 76: Stature, BAL-11
Table 77: Non-metric traits recorded on skulls, BAL-11
Table 78: Non-metric cranial traits recorded, BAL-11 (? = part not present to observe)
Table 79: Measurements and indices, BAL-11
Table 80: Tooth numbers (laterality not considered), BAL-11
Table 81: Alveolar sites present (laterality not considered), BAL-11
Table 82: Ante mortem tooth loss (laterality not considered), BAL-11
Table 83: Dental disease, BAL-11
Table 84: Periodontal disease, BAL-11
Table 85: Caries, BAL-11
Table 86: Dental enamel hypoplasia, BAL-11
Table 87: Calculus, BAL-11
Table 88: Vertebral degenerative joint disease, BAL-11
Table 89: Minimum number of individuals, BAL-1
Table 90: Sex distribution, BAL-1
Table 91: Age distribution, BAL-1
Table 92: Stature, BAL-1
Table 93: Cranial metrics (mm), BAL-1
Table 94: Post-cranial metrics (mm), BAL-1
Table 95: Indices, BAL-1
Table 96: Platymeric indices
Table 97: Platycnemic indices
Table 98: Cranial non-metric traits (numbers denote presence), BAL-1
Table 99: Post-cranial non-metric traits, BAL-1
Table 100: Tooth numbers (laterality not considered), BAL-1 (includes all in situ teeth (including roots)
recovered from excavation (i.e. all contexts associated with the burials))
Table 101: Tooth loss: site frequency (laterality not considered)
Table 102: Periodontal disease (number of half jaws, grading based on Brothwell 1981), BAL-1
Table 103: Calculus: age and sex distribution (numbers of individuals affected), BAL-1
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Table 104: Calculus: teeth affected (laterality not considered), BAL-1
Table 105: Calculus: position on the tooth (laterality not considered), BAL-1
Table 106: Dental hypoplasia: teeth affected, BAL-1
Table 107: Dental caries: age and sex distribution, BAL-1
Table 108: Dental caries: teeth affected (laterality not considered), BAL-1
Table 109: Dental caries: site frequency (laterality not considered), BAL-1
Table 110: Dental abscess: teeth affected, BAL-1
Table 111: Dental disease (individuals affected), BAL-1
Table 112: Incidence of cribra orbitalia by sex and age
Table 113: Number of adult vertebrae observable, BAL-1
Table 114: Spinal preservation and occurrence of disease (discrete individuals only and all adult
skeletons), BAL-1
Table 115: Age and sex distribution of joint disease of the spine
Table 116: Spinal joint disease (body and/or processes): vertebrae affected (minus additional contexts),
BAL-1
Table 117: Schmorl‟s Nodes distribution, BAL-1
Table 118: Individuals with joint disease of the spine, BAL-1
Table 119: Diarthrodial joint disease: skeletons affected (* denotes porosity and/or eburnation in addition
to osteophytes)
Table 120: Age and sex distributions, BAL-30, BAL-31, BAL-45 and BAL-48
Table 121: Number of mandibles and maxillae identified, BAL-30, BAL-31, BAL-45 and BAL-48
Table 122: Teeth in situ, loose and empty tooth positions (including ante and post mortem tooth loss, and
congenital absence), BAL-30, BAL-31, BAL-45 and BAL-48
Table 123: Distribution of ante mortem tooth loss and congenital absence.
Table 124: Types of morphological variations and frequency of occurrence showing burial number, BAL-
30, BAL-31, BAL-45 and BAL-48
Table 125: Summary of results, BAL-15
Table 126: Number of individuals in each age category identified from the inhumation burials in BAL-15
Table 127: Cranial index, BAL-15
Table 128: Platymeric index: distribution, BAL-15
Table 129: Platycnemic index: distribution, BAL-15
Table 130: Numbers of maxillae and mandibles, BAL-15
Table 131: Distribution of ante mortem tooth loss in BAL-15
Table 132: Distribution of dental caries in BAL-15
Table 133: Distribution of dental abscesses in BAL-15
Table 134: Distribution of fractures from BAL-15
Table 135: Distribution of osteophytes on vertebral body surface margins, BAL-15
Table 136: Number of vertebrae observed, BAL-15
Table 137: Distribution of extra spinal osteophytes, BAL-15 ((-) shows number affected bi-laterally)
Table 138: Showing number of joints/joint groups affected by loan osteophytes, BAL-15
Table 139: Distribution of degenerative disc disease, BAL-15
Table 140: Distribution of Schmorl's nodes, BAL-15
Table 141: Distribution of spinal osteoarthritis (articular surfaces of articular processes only) , BAL-15
Table 142: Distribution of extra spinal osteoarthritis, BAL-15 ((-) show number affected bi-laterally)
Table 143: Number of joints/joint groups affected by osteoarthritis
Table 144: Provisional age of death, BAL-15 1994
Table 145: Position of body, BAL-15 1994
Table 146: Cremation weights, BAL-11
Table 147: Identified cremated bone, BAL-11
Table 148: The death rate as represented by cremated remains, Wallington Road
Table 149: The sex/age ratio represented by cremated remains, Wallington Road
Table 150: Cremations with iron staining and fuel ash slag, Wallington Road
Table 151: Total weight, percentage of bone in fragment size groups and maximum fragment size,
Icknield Way East Enclosure
Table 152: Identifiable bone as percentage of total weight and amount in each skeletal area as
percentage of the total identifiable bone (Icknield Way East Enclosure)
Table 153: Total weight, percentage of bone in fragment size groups and maximum fragment size,
Icknield Way East cemetery
Table 154: Identifiable bone as percentage of total weight and amount in each skeletal area as
percentage of the total identifiable bone, Icknield Way East cemetery (* complete, undisturbed
cremation)
Table 155: Cremations, BAL-15
Table 156: Age group frequency, BAL-15 cremations
Table 157: Recording criteria
Table 158: Age at death
x
Table 159: Burial and dental statistics, BAL-1
Table 160: Number of skulls with carious teeth as a percentage of the total number of skulls for each age
group
Table 161: Distribution of carious teeth compared with age groups
Table 162: Minimum number of animal individuals by species (after Chaplin & McCormick 1986)
Table 163: Pyre débris pit F96, species distribution (LAR = large ungulate; SAR = small artiodactyl)
Table 164: Summary of animal bone associated with inhumations and cremation burials.
Table 165: Selection of measurements and estimated withers heights (Harcourt 1974)
Table 166: Pit alignment species distribution
Table 167: Pit alignment, distribution over the body: summary of selected species
Table 168: Ditches: species distribution
Table 169: Ditches: Sheep/goat tooth eruption and wear stages
Table 170: Wells, species distribution
Table 171: Domestic fowl measurements
Table 172: Major pits, species distribution
Table 173: Cattle withers heights (Fock‟s intermediate factors for cattle)
Table 174: Horse withers heights calculated using Kieswalter‟s factors
Table 175: Sheep withers heights (Teichert‟s factors for pre- and proto-historic sheep)
Table 176: Animal bone, BAL-15 1994
Table 177: Bone condition and identifiability, BAL-15 1994
Table 178: Identifiability within feature groups by period, BAL-15 1994
Table 179: Species representation, Phase 2 BAL-15 1994
Table 180: Species representation, Phase 3 BAL-15 1994
Table 181: Proportions of cattle, sheep/goat and pig by feature type, BAL-15 1994
Table 182: Species representation, Phases 3-5 BAL-15 1994
Table 183: Species representation, Phases 2-4 BAL-15 1994
Table 184: Species representation, Phases 2-5 BAL-15 1994
Table 185: Macrofossils from [7402]
Table 186: Macrofossils from F90
Table 187: Macrofossils from pits in the pit alignment
Table 188: Mollusca and other macrofossils from the southern solution hollow at BAL-15
Table 189: Carbonised plant remains from F95 and F13/14
Table 190: Plant remains from Late Iron Age contexts in BAL-1 and BAL-2
Table 191: Plant remains from Roman wells and pits
Table 192: Charcoals
Table 193: Dimensions of avian eggshell
Table 194: Coprolites and faecal concretions
Table 195: Solution hollow stratigraphy, BAL-15 1994
Table 196: Soil micromorphology of the solution hollow, BAL-15 1994
Table 197: Catalogue of residues from F123
Table 198: Residue type and weight
Table 199: Quantification of iron-working slag; weights in grammes
Table 200: Quantities of materials (finds by box, records by file), excluding Stead‟s archive

The contributors
Miranda J Aldhouse-Green, Head of the Research Centre for the Study of Culture, Archaeology,
Religions and Biogeography (SCARAB), University of Wales College, Newport, Gwent NP18 3YG
m.aldhouse-green@newport.ac.uk
Denise Allen
Helen Ashworth, The Heritage Network, 11 Furmston Court, Icknield Way, Letchworth Garden City, Herts
SG6 1 UJ HMA@heritagenetwork.co.uk
Ernest W Black
Noel Boothroyd
Gilbert R Burleigh, Archaeological Consultant, 10 Cromwell Way, Pirton, Hitchin, Herts. SG5 3RD
gilburleigh@aol.com
Kate M Clark
Mark Curteis
Garth Denning
C B Denston

xi
Brenda Dickenson
Maria Fabrizi
Brian Gilmour, University of Oxford. brian.gilmour@rlaha.ox.ac.uk
Roger Goodburn
Stephen J Greep
Sheila Hamilton-Dyer
Martin Henig
Catherine Holgate
M Iles
Michael Keith-Lucus
Donald F Mackreth
Richard Macphail
Keith J Fitzpatrick-Matthews, Archaeology Officer, North Hertfordshire District Council, Museums
Resource Centre, Burymead Road, Hitchin, Herts SG5 1RT keith.matthews@north-herts.gov.uk
Keith McBarron
Jacqueline I McKinley
Anita Morrison
Peter Murphy
Peter Northover, Materials Science-Based Archaeology Group, Department of Materials, University of
Oxford. peter.northover@materials.ox.ac.uk
Stephen Player
C Jane Read
Charlotte A Roberts, Department of Archaeology, Durham University, DURHAM DH1 3LE
Sasha Smith
Jenny Stevens
Mark D Stevenson
Francis Thornton

Acknowledgements
The editors would like to show their debt of gratitude to those who worked on the Baldock Project
between 1978 and 1994, namely:
Catherine Addison, Judith Agar, Helen Aitken, Adrian Aldridge, Gill Andrews, Steven Ardron, Portia
Askew, Helen Ashworth, Kate Atherton, Mark Atkinson, Liz Austin, Marcus Austin, Joanna Bailey, Kirsty
Bain, Nina Bain, Neil Baker, Murray Ballard, Richard Balley, Isabelle Banks, Miranda Banks, Michael
Bardill, Rosemarie Barrett, Mark Barton, Peter Baverstock, Jackie Bavin, Neil Beadle, Sandra Bicknell,
Mark Birley, Judith Body, Hugh Borrill, Sharon Boulton, Robert Braybrook, James Brigers, Mark
Broderick, Neil Bugler, Diane Burleigh, Gil Burleigh, Debbie Burstow, Doreen Cadwallader, Duncan
Campbell, Jean Campbell, Paul Carne, David Carroll, James Carroll, Natalie Clark, Barry Clarke, Rob
Cleary, Sandra Douglas-Cluley, Wayne Cocroft, Stephen Cole, Christine Colley, Simon Collins, Dene
Conway, Martin Cook, Michael Copper, Joe Cousins, David Cox, Simon Crompton, Peter Cromwell,
Harvey Cross, Carole Crouch, Lawrence Crowther, Geoff Curtis, Katherine Curtis, Ian Dart, John Davies,
Liz Davies, Gareth Davis, Imogen Davis, John Davis, Owen Davis, Brian Dickinson, John Donaldson,
Jonathan Drake, Alison Drewery, Robert Driver, J Duggan, Andi Dutton, Patrick Dye, Charlotte Easton,
Glynis Edwards, Roger Elliott, Rona Elliott, Nicholas Elsden, Mark Ely, Siobhan Emery, Damian English,
John Esling, Dawn Everett, Anna Fairchild, Paul Falcini, Tom Farley, Penny Fenton, Peter Field, Alison
Fisher, Dierdre Fletcher, Roslynn de Frayne, Ian Gardner, Peter Garlick, Adam Garwood, Robert Gaskin,
Frances Gates, Mandy Gee, Daria Ghisletta, Kate Gillies, Laurie Girling, Richard Goodwin, Trevor
Goodwin, Nigel Gore, Pippa Graham, Debbie Gray, Alastair Green, Sue Green, Christopher Hall, Clive
Hall, Jon Hall, Arthur Hallworth, Caroline Hargrave, Steven Harle, Karen Harrison, Malvin Harrison,
Andrew Hetherington, Richard Hey, Alex Hickstep, Peter Higgs, Don Hill, David Hillelson, Tim Hills, Philip
Hislop, Alex Holliday, Jane Holliday, Iris Homewood, Louise Homewood, Guy Hopkinson, Morgan

xii
Hopkinson, Audrey Howell, Les Hoyle, Lyn Hubbard, Stephen Hulbert, Liz Hunter, Deborah Hurdley, Ann
Hurst, Catherine Hutchinson, Hilda Ibrahim, Marcus Inskip, Linda Jenkins, Pauline Jenkins, David
Johnson, Frank Jones, Gareth Jones, Helen Jones, Helenka Jurgielewicz, John Kay, Michael Keep,
Michael Kelly, Sandra Kelly, John Kempster, Philip Kiberd, Richard Kilham, Bob King, Lesley Kirk, Mark
Kitchener, Jenny Knight, Richard Kolek, Mark Laing, Sylvie Lamandé, Bob Lancaster, Audrey Lander,
Graham Langford, Mary Lawrynowicz, John Lawson, David Lewis, Tony Lockyer, Vicki Lockyer, David
Lomer, George Luke, Felicity Lynch, Karen Mansell, John Marjoram, Jackie Marshall, Derryanna Marson,
Moira Marton, Nicholas Marvell, Richard Mason, Peter Masters, Dave Mather, Audrey Matthews, Colin
Matthews, Keith Fitzpatrick-Matthews, Les Maunders, Pam Maunders, Chris May, Simon Mays, Sylvia
Mays, Keith McBarron, Paula McCarroll, Christine McGee, Bridget McGill, Pamela Mead, Sara-Jane
Mead, Peter Meldrum, Dominique Menot, Carla Michelagnoli, Maria Michelagnoli, Helen Mikolaiczyk, Ian
Miller, Paul Moffat, Hazel Moore, Hugh Morris, Michael Morris, Margot Mottershead, Trevor Mottershead,
Andrew Mudd, Gillian Murley, Franc Murphy, Tim Neighbour, J New, Christian Nicholson, David Nicol,
Linda Noble, Rod de Normann, , Bryan Nunnington, Bob Odell, Tony Offord, Arthur Oliver, Stephen Olley,
Richard Ozanne, Karen Paine, Paul Palmer, Neil Passant, John Patmore, Gaby Paton, Hamish Paton,
John Pavey, Keith Payne, Louise Payne, Mark Peach, Christine Pepper, Margaret Pepper, John Percival,
Andrew Perfitt, Chris Pickard, Czeslew Pienkowski, Andy Platell, Stephen Player, Diana Pollard, Robin
Pope, Jo Prentice, Jackie Preston, James Quinn, Jane Read, Anthony Reid, Chris Renshaw, Caroline
Richards, Julie Richards, Chris Richardson, Andy Richmond, Peter Roberts, Mary Robinson, Ian Rogers,
Mary Rohan, Helen Rolles, Leslie Rolles, Jenny Rooze, Michael Roussel, Gordon Rugg, Liz Ruse, Brian
Rushton, Mike Salisbury, Rosie Salisbury, Brigit Sanderson, Peter Sanderson, Linda Sandford, Samantha
Scaplehorn, Heidi Schramli, Sarah Scott, Carola Scupham, Joy Settle, John Sharman, Clare Simmons,
Angela Slader, Angus Smith, Geoff Smith, Geraldine Smith, Judith Smith, Melanie Smith, R Smith, Harriet
Snape, Belinda Stanley, Elizabeth Stanley, Ruth Steeby, Mark Stephens, Karen Stevens, Mark
Stevenson, Myfanwy Stewart, Katrina Stewart, Fiona Stimpson, Lyndsay Stimpson, Tony Stitchcombe,
Brian Sullivan, Jean Sullivan, David Summerell, Adrian Swingler, Diana Sykes, Helen Syms, Jeremy
Taylor, Kenton Taylor, Keith Thompson, Nick Thorpe, Rebecca Thornton, Cheryl Thorogood, David
Torregrand, Jonathan Towell, Robert Townsend, Louise Trought, David Tucker, Faith Vardy, Nichola
Vaughan, Rachel de Vere, Anne Walker, Iaan Walker, Marion Wallace, Siobhan Wallace, Ian Walls, K
Walsh, Angela Walton, David Ward, Alice Wand, Tom Wand, Chris Ware, Tina Watkins, Susan Webb,
Roy Welch, Tim Welch, Christine Went, Dave Went, Alison Wenz, Kit Westaway, Neil Williams, Adele
Wilmott, Mrs Wilmott, Graeme Wilson, Shirley Wilson, Julie Wolf, Harold Woodbridge, Bob Woodward,
Ian Wright, Pam Wright and Elizabeth Young

xiii
Introduction
Keith J Fitzpatrick-Matthews
Baldock is one of the most highly researched Romano-British “small towns” in England, even though its
existence was not even suspected before the 1920s. W Percival Westell, the first curator of Letchworth
Museum, was the first person to understand the importance of the site because of excavations he carried
out in the 1920s. His work on Walls Field revealed an extensive mixed-rite cemetery, dating from the late
first to fourth centuries AD. Elsewhere on the field, he found abundant settlement activity, which, owing to
the size of the cemetery, he quickly realised must have been urban. His discoveries prompted further
interest in the town, with some work by Erik Shimon Applebaum in the 1930s, but it was not until the late
1960s and 70s that large scale excavations took place under the direction of Ian Stead for the Ministry of
Public Building and Works. These have been fully published (Stead & Rigby 1986). Between 1978 and
1994, North Hertfordshire District Council Museums Service, supported by the North Hertfordshire
Archaeological Society, excavated extensively in the town, mostly in advance of house construction for a
large new estate on Upper Walls Common, now known as Clothall Common. The work was directed by
the then Keeper of Field Archaeology, Gil Burleigh, whose work forms the principal focus of this report.

Figure 1: Baldock location

The combination of the different investigations has produced what is perhaps the most detailed picture
available of the evolution and nature of a Romano-British small town in Britain. By the end of 1992,
almost 27 ha of the settlement and its cemeteries had been investigated, either through controlled
excavation or geophysical survey (Burleigh 1995a, 75), a figure that has since increased by almost three
hectares, largely as a result of the large-scale excavations carried out by The Heritage Network at the
northern end of Clothall Common (referred to by the site code BAL-15) in 1994. Given that the site seems
to have occupied around 48 ha at its maximum extent at the end of the second century AD, this means
that almost 60% has been investigated, over a third of which has been through excavation.
Unfortunately, the site remains little known. Although Westell‟s cemetery publication is frequently cited as
the source of several well-known objects (especially the so-called “Baldock curse”, RIB 221, still the only
known Romano-British example from a grave (Kiernan 2004, 132)) and Stead & Rigby‟s (1986) catalogue
of pottery and small finds is an important contribution to the corpus of Late Iron Age and Romano-British
artefacts, the town has received little attention from researchers. In part, this has been an effect of the
lack of detailed publication of the fieldwork carried out since 1978. This volume cannot claim to remedy
that situation; it is intended to bring some of the results to a wider audience and to highlight the potential
of the data for further detailed investigation and analysis.

xiv
Figure 2: Areas excavated, 1925-1994

The rationale of the current publication

The publication of the results of fieldwork at Baldock between 1978 and 1994 has been delayed for
numerous reasons. The original intention was to produce a series of five or more volumes that would deal
with the various cemeteries investigated, together with an overview and analysis of Iron Age and
Romano-British burial practices, and a final volume dealing with the settlement evidence. Several of these
volumes were to have been divided between fascicules. Volume 1 was to contain an account of the
salvage excavation of a previously unknown cemetery at Wallington Road, on the eastern periphery of
the settlement, in 1982. This would have been a stand-alone text, dealing with a single site and was
virtually ready for publication in 1991. A revised and final version for publication was submitted to English
Heritage in March 2001. Volume 2 was to have contained descriptions and a brief analysis of Iron Age
burial rites from a number of sites, including the discovery of a high status burial within an enclosure, as
well as scattered pre-conquest burials. The descriptive elements of this volume were virtually complete by
1993, but the discussion was less well advanced. Volume 3 was similarly to have dealt with a number of
Romano-British burial grounds (several of which also had Iron Age antecedents and one of which (The
Tene cemetery) had been partly investigated in the 1960s and subsequently published (Stead & Rigby
1986). Again, the descriptive elements were almost complete and the discussion sketched out by 1993.
Volume 4 was to have contained an account of the largest of the sites to be investigated in the 1980s, at
Royston Road, which contained cemeteries in use from the Late Iron Age through to the late or sub-
Roman period. The descriptive element would have occupied the first fascicule and it was intended that
the final discussions of the evidence of the burials would be presented in a second. For this volume, the
descriptions of burials were completed by 1999, but little analytical work had been done beyond the
analysis of the human remains and Fascicule ii had not been started. Volume 5, which was intended to
deal with non-burial evidence, had barely been started, although a number of specialists had contributed
texts.

xv
Plate 1: The „Baldock Curse‟, RIB 221
Most significantly, as well as the written texts, a substantial number of illustrations was completed to
publication standard. There are plans for all the burials excavated up to 1989, overall site plans and
phase plans for those sites covered by the first three volumes. All the illustratable pottery from burials and
numerous small finds have been drawn, including those destined for Volume 5. Additionally, interpretive
plans of the settlement – including sites where geophysical survey has taken place – were also produced.
The project was ambitious and relatively well advanced when Gil Burleigh, who was responsible for the
production of these texts, took early retirement in 2002. Most of the drawings for the first four volumes
had been completed, the text of Volume 1 was complete and Volumes 2 and 3 virtually complete, while
the draft of the first fascicule of Volume 4 was at an advanced stage. Sadly, and largely for cost reasons,
English Heritage and North Hertfordshire District Council decided in 2003 that it was no longer possible to
produce the reports in the traditional academic format in which all the pertinent data – descriptions of
individual contexts, drawings of all significant finds and so on – as well as the detailed analysis would be
presented.
Since 2002, the project has been overseen by a Steering Group, which includes representatives of most
of the organisations with a stake in it, including English Heritage, Hertfordshire County Council and North
Hertfordshire District Council. The rôle of the group has been to suggest ways forward with the
publication given the lack of financial resources to commission new work.
Following the failure of further funding to secure the publication of the five volumes originally intended, a
proposal to publish the data on CD-ROM was put forward in 2003 by Neil Rushton, Gil Burleigh‟s
successor at North Hertfordshire District Council‟s Archaeological Service. This was to contain tabulated
digital data that could be incorporated into a Geographical Information System, reducing the need to
publish detailed cemetery plans. Most of the data – the written catalogues, the feature plans, finds
drawings and photographs – were to be included on the CD-ROM, with only brief summaries to be
published in an accompanying printed volume. When Keith Fitzpatrick-Matthews took over the project in
early 2004, it quickly became evident that the volume of information was too great to be accommodated
on a single CD-ROM. Moreover, many of the specialists‟ texts would need to be set in context, including
their contributions to the catalogues.
Owing to the long delay between the production of reports – particularly those by specialists – and the
publication of this volume, a number of the contributions are quasi-historical in nature. Nevertheless, it
has been felt important that they be included, with a recognition that they do not necessarily reflect the
most current research. All the authors have been given the opportunity to revise their contributions, which
has enabled bibliographies to be updated and new information included. However, lack of funds means

xvi
that it has not been possible to commission completely new reports. The patience and co-operation of the
numerous specialists is hereby gratefully acknowledged and it is to be hoped that the long wait (over
twenty years in some cases!) has been worth it.
The images – largely by Helen Ashworth, Garth Denning, Keith McBarron, Stephen Player and (most
importantly) Jane Read – have been digitised for inclusion on the DVD-ROM, enabling all finds drawings
and feature plans originally intended for paper publication to be made available. Scanning was done by
the editor and volunteers and subsequent digital cleaning, amendment and re-lettering was the editor‟s
responsibility. The images were scanned and stored as TIFF (Tagged Image Format) files at 600 dpi,
which is adequate for printing at high resolution.
The contents of the report were dictated largely by the decision to produce what is in effect an extended
Assessment Report, as defined by English Heritage‟s The Management of Archaeological Projects
version 2. Nevertheless, it has been possible to include elements such as complete specialist reports and
a more extended overview of the site than would usually be necessary in this type of report. Editing the
texts fell principally to Keith Fitzpatrick-Matthews, working closely with Gil Burleigh. All the specialists
were given the opportunity to revise their texts and confirm their acceptance (or otherwise) of editorial
changes.

xvii
1: Topographical and Historical Background
Keith J Fitzpatrick-Matthews & Gilbert R Burleigh

Introduction
The ancient and modern settlements at Baldock occupy a shallow bowl in the northern scarp of the chalk
ridge of North Hertfordshire, a north-eastern extension of the Chilterns that have been thought to be the
inspiration for John Bunyan‟s „Delectable Mountains‟ (Munby 1977, 26). To the east, the hills merge with
the East Anglian Heights. The settlements lie at the point of intersection of a number of important
prehistoric routes and the source of the River Ivel, a tributary of the Bedfordshire Ouse. The same factors
determined the location of the medieval new town of Baldoce in the twelfth century (Gover et al. 1938,
120), although, probably significantly, it was established to the west of the earlier site. Occupation in the
hollow has been almost continuous since the third millennium BC, and the first nucleated settlement grew
up on the site during the first century BC (Stead & Rigby 1986, 84). It continued to flourish for six or seven
centuries and was finally abandoned before the area was incorporated into the Mercian kingdom, perhaps
during the seventh century (Rutherford Davis 1982a, 63). Although there have been suggestions that
occupation continued at Baldock between the Roman period and the arrival of the Knights Templar (e.g.
Rutherford Davis 1982b, 20), it is noteworthy that no archaeological evidence for early medieval
habitation after the early seventh century has ever been found, either on the site of the ancient settlement
or beneath the medieval town.
The town is dominated to the south by the Weston Hills, used as a quarry for lime until recent times; the
road south-south-west to Verulamium, which was later followed for a few kilometres by the Great North
Road, runs along the foot of the hills, gradually climbing the slope away from Baldock. Unpublished
excavations in 1988-9 at Jack‟s Hill, Graveley, demonstrated that the track was already in existence at
that location by the Early Iron Age. A gap in the hills to the south-east of the town carries the road to
Braughing and Camulodunum, and although there is no direct dating evidence for it, it is likely that this,
too, originated as a prehistoric trackway traversing the hillier ground (Fox 1923, 170). This road continues
north-north-west from Baldock towards the Romano-British small town at Sandy and the major road
junction at Duroviguto (Godmanchester), crossing gently undulating land before falling into the
Bedfordshire plain. Again, although this is clearly an engineered Roman road, its origins are perhaps also
to be sought in the pre-Roman period.
All these roads meet at a point just to the south of the Romanised line of Icknield Way, generally regarded
as a major routeway from early prehistoric times up to the present day, although its status as a principal
long-distance track has recently been called into question (Harrison 2003, 15). The route runs along the
northern scarp of the Chilterns, where a broad band of land on the northern slopes of the hills provides
good going for travellers between the spring line at the foot of the scarp and the boulder clays that top it.
To the east of the town, the present A 505 approximately follows this route, and Baldock remained an
important road junction, the heavy traffic clogging the town centre almost permanently until a bypass,
planned since the 1930s, opened in 2006. Although the exact date of the Icknield Way is impossible to
determine, dates ranging back as far as 8000 BC have been proposed (Taylor 1977, 4); it is clear that it
was in existence by the later third millennium BC in the vicinity of Baldock.
The chalk soils of the region are easily cultivated and it was perhaps this more than any other advantage
that made the area attractive to the first permanent settlers, farmers during the later Neolithic. Substantial
traces of their activity have been found at Blackhorse Road in Letchworth (Moss-Eccardt 1988, 44ff) and,
in more recent years, at Baldock, where a habitation site has been identified on Upper Walls Common (at
area BAL-15). A complex of Neolithic monuments has now been identified in the area, including a Class I
henge, a possible cursus and at least four oval barrows (short long mounds).

Geology, Soils and Land Use Potential

Solid geology
Baldock lies on the Upper Cretaceous deposits of the Middle Chalk, a rock that consists mainly of white
chalk, with no distinctive units other than Melbourn Rock, which occurs at its base (Catt 1978a, 28-9;
Hopson et al. 1996, 43). It is around 67 m thick locally, outcropping in a band 4 to 8 km wide between
Hitchin and Royston, where it forms the higher slopes of the north-west facing hills and the floors of the
valleys. Beginning about 60 million years ago, the chalk underwent uplift, producing an eastward regional
trend of about one degree, raising it above sea level and resulting in a period of erosion in the early
Tertiary. A marine transgression during the Eocene then levelled out the surface of the chalk and a
subsequent Late Eocene transgression laid down the London Beds, a thick dark grey clay up to 90 m
thick. These were then largely removed during a further period of erosion, which once again exposed the

1
chalk surface throughout most of North Hertfordshire, leaving only isolated pockets and bands of clay on
the southern and eastern slopes of the Chilterns.
To the south-east of Baldock, towards Clothall, the chalk has been cut by a buried channel of Anglian
date draining into the River Beane (part of the Thames catchment) and containing glaciofluvial deposits,
but these do not extend to Baldock (Hopson et al. 1996, 89). The northern end of the channel contains
the source of the River Ivel and its associated alluvial deposits; this watercourse drains into the Great
Ouse.
The chalk is a major aquifer containing generally potable – albeit extremely hard – water with dissolved
calcium bicarbonate (Hopson et al. 1996, 129). It varies seasonally, with a maximum around March and is
extremely susceptible to periods of drought, with a variation of up to eight metres recorded at Kimpton
between 1964 and 1989. It is also a source of flint, particularly in its upper layers, which occurs locally
both as nodules and as tabular flint.
Chalk is a poor building stone, with only chalk rock being exploited, although it continued to be used until
the early nineteenth century. The most widely used stone came from Totternhoe, to the west of
Dunstable, Beds (Clifton-Taylor 1977, 56). Its use was generally restricted to infill between more durable
materials. Lower quality chalk was formerly used to make a material known as clunch by puddling chalk
slurry with straw and clay to produce building blocks that were not strong, and whose durability was
limited and depended on keeping the material dry by plastering and roofing. Use of clunch ceased in the
nineteenth century as brick became more widely available. A similar material, cob, was also produced in
the Middle Ages and early post-medieval period, using clays mixed with chalk and straw (Pevsner 1977,
417); it is likely that a similar material was used at Baldock during the Roman period. This suffers from the
same limitations as clunch. Flint was also used as a building material in churches during the Middle Ages,
although it is not now exploited.
Chalk has also been used in the production of cement, plaster and mortar, especially the marly deposits
from the Lower Chalk, as they are highly silicaceous and contain alumina, requiring only minimal
additions of clay. Uses of the lime produced from roasting chalk have included building materials, as
fertiliser and in the tanning process (Wilmore et al. 1925, 13).

Superficial geology, soils and land use potential

The earliest surviving glacial deposit is the Chalky Boulder Clay, which overlies the Middle Chalk, from
which it derives its principal erratic; it is also a source of flint (Catt 1978a, 32). The subarctic periglacial
conditions of much of the later Pleistocene caused considerable heaving of the chalk, with seasonal
flushes of meltwater creating solution features, such as the numerous dolines found throughout Upper
Walls Common. These solution features can range from a few millimetres across to fifty metres in
diameter (Hopson et al. 1996, 124). Solifluction resulted in the redistribution of slope deposits and was
perhaps the source of some of the gravel fans in the Baldock area. There is also a little löss (loess),
sometimes incorporated into solifluction deposits, but also occasionally overlying the chalky boulder clay
(Catt 1978a, 34).
These basic deposits formed the source of the soils that formed in the late and post-glacial periods Figure
3). Changes in the climate and natural vegetation together with human induced alterations have led to
constant development of the soils. Most of those based on from the Middle Chalk belong to the rendzina
(or rendsina) and pelosol types, although there are also pockets of leached argillic brown earths and
alluvial soils.
Rendzinas occur in an irregular band between Letchworth to the west and Royston to the east. They are
mostly shallow (less than 0.25 m in depth) and tend to occur directly above the Middle Chalk (Davis et al.
1992); their high pH value is a result of calcium saturation from dissolved chalk (Catt 1978b, 36). One –
Mull rendzina – has developed from the vegetation that first colonised the exposed chalk, whereby the
decay of organic material is comminuted by soil fauna and stabilises into a light, crumbly dark brown or
black soil (Cornwall 1958, 92). The second type developed over thin deposits of löss and is characterised
by a silty texture and a more greyish-brown colour. The pre-cultivation vegetation of these soils would
perhaps have been beech woodland in areas where they were relatively deep and moist, and lime
tolerant shrub and grass species in drier areas. Such soils may have been attractive to early farmers
because of their ease of cultivation and high initial fertility; indeed, those of the first type can only be
shallow ploughed, as deep ploughing incorporates shattered chalk bedrock. However, they are easily
depleted of potassium, a number of other trace elements and organic content, and they are rapidly
parched in drought conditions. This can lead to a loss of soil structure, deflation and erosion by wind or
water. Limbrey (1975, 180) has suggested that the present thinness of rendzinas is in part a result of
over-exploitation by early farmers.
Calcareous pelosols occur in pockets around Baldock and are the principal soil type to the south of the
rendzina types of north-eastern Hertfordshire, where they formed on the chalky boulder clay glacial tills.
Locally, they occur as a calcareous brown forest soil (or brown calcareous earth) characterised by a
2
heavy clay to clay loam texture (Cornwall 1958, 105). Their high pH content is derived from the frequent
chalk erratics in the till (Catt 1978b, 36). These soils are generally deeper than the rendzinas and their
clay content ensures a better retention of moisture and nutrients. Because of this, they are more suitable
than the rendzinas for long-term cultivation, and are the most favoured soil type for arable (Davis et al.
1992, 41). However, they are harder to work than rendzinas, as a greater input of labour is necessary to
prepare them for first cultivation and to maintain their fertility. In areas where drainage is poor, though,
they can have a tendency to wetness.

Figure 3: Soils
Argillic brown earths (sols lessivés) also occur in pockets around Baldock, particularly to the east, but are
more restricted in their distribution than the pelosols. They tend to be well drained and have developed
from glacial tills that were poorer in chalk content than those that produced the pelosols. Because of this,
they are often leached of carbonate content to a depth of a metre or so; this reduction in pH level results
in acidification, which can make cultivation difficult unless liming is performed (Limbrey 1975, 135). Ridge-
and-furrow is particularly associated with this soil type, perhaps through the need to improve surface
drainage (Davis et al. 1992, 41).

3
Like many areas of early agriculture, the Baldock area has easily worked soils, mostly suitable for long-
term exploitation. There is certainly no difficulty in producing surpluses of basic crops using prehistoric
type techniques on these soil types and the surrounding hills are ideal for sheep and other pastoral
farming. It is no coincidence that Domesday Book (Morris 1976) shows this area to have been densely
settled and wealthy in 1086.
Since the end of the Roman period, there has been considerable disturbance to the A Horizon of the
soils, mainly through medieval and later cultivation. This was exacerbated with the advent of deep
ploughing during the twentieth century. As a result, few, if any, features from the ancient settlements
survive as surface features. Nevertheless, this disturbance does not appear to have altered the depths of
the soils to any great extent. In Walls Field, there is evidence for considerable post-Roman hillwash, as
many of the cremations discovered there in the 1920s were buried to a depth of over four feet (1.2 m),
while on Upper Walls Common, at the top of the slope, there was rarely more than 0.3 m of soil above the
surface of the chalk and often rather less. Only in the dolines did any depth of stratified deposits survive,
often ranging in date from the Late Neolithic to the sub-Roman or later periods, albeit in discontinuous
sequences.

Topography
Baldock lies on the north-western edge of an upland area capped with boulder clay that forms the plateau
of north-eastern Hertfordshire. To the west is the Hitchin gap, an ancient drainage channel that separates
the north-eastern plateau from the Chilterns sensu stricto (Munby 1977, 30). Although most of the
drainage of Hertfordshire is southwards to the Thames, Baldock lies in a small group of parishes where
the drainage is northwards to the Great Ouse and Cam (Wilmore et al. 1925, 38).
The underlying geology affected the formation of the landscape during the Pleistocene glaciations, with
harder rocks (such as the Melbourn rock at the base of the Middle Chalk) creating shelves in the
escarpment (Doubleday 1951, 16). Above these shelves, the scarp tends to be concave, whilst the
plateau, on the Upper Chalk, has given rise to a rolling character on the gentle dip slope. Successive
glaciations rounded off the valleys and these were followed by renewed down-cutting; the clay capping of
the plateau creates a run-off for ground water, with the effect that almost every valley in north-eastern
Hertfordshire contains a stream.
Baldock lies at the northern end of a buried channel of Anglian date, north of the watershed between the
Thames and Great Ouse drainage basins. To the south-east, the conical Bird Hill is a prominent landmark
on the edge of the uplands, which form a low, rolling plateau landscape beyond. The ancient settlement
partly occupies the slope of a low ridge marking the eastern edge of the palaeochannel, the bulk of it lying
on the level ground below. The land drops slowly toward the north-east, forming the upper valley of the
River Ivel, while the Roman road to Sandy follows a ridge of higher ground to the east, continuing the
edge of the palaeochannel on a more northerly alignment. West of the town, the land rises gently to a low
plateau occupied now by Letchworth Garden City, while to the south-south-west, the ridge of the Weston
Hills, running west-south-west to east-north-east, dominates the landscape.

The historical background

Baldock lay in a territory that was administered after the Roman conquest as part of the Civitas
Catuvellaunorum (Branigan 1985). This has been taken as an indication that it was part of the territory of
a tribal group calling itself Catuvellauni (more correctly, *Cătŭwellaunoi in Brittonic) at the time of the
Roman conquest in the early 40s AD. We are faced with the problem, though, that there is no record of
the name earlier than the Geography of Claudius Ptolemaeus, written in the middle of the second century
(Rivet & Smith 1979, 114), where it is mis-spelled καησεστλανοί (Catyeuchlani: Geography II.3, 11). It is
found in only two other ancient texts: as καηοσελλανοί (Catuellani) in the early third-century „Ιζηωρία
„Ρωμαιών (History of the Romans) by Cassius Dio (LX.20, 20) and as CIVITATE CATVVELLAVNORVM on an
inscription from Hadrian‟s Wall (Collingwood & Wright 1965, 602 RIB 1962), probably dating from AD 369.
Much ink has been wasted trying to write a political history of the Catuvellauni before the Roman
conquest, using information provided by Julius Caesar (who does not even mention them) and by
analysing the coins minted by the rulers of the region. It has to be said that these accounts are
contradictory and not particularly successful (Branigan 1985, 2; Creighton 2000, 75).
By contrast, the archaeological evidence is plentiful and rich throughout the period when Baldock
flourished, c 100 BC – AD c 600. In part, this is thanks to the abundance of finds and the ease of
recognising sites from aerial photography. Only one extended overview of the complete region has been
undertaken – Keith Branigan‟s (1985) The Catuvellauni – and this is now over twenty years old, while Ros
Niblett‟s (1995b) Roman Hertfordshire is both restricted geographically and aimed at a popular audience.
During the years since the publication of The Catuvellauni, new discoveries have transformed our
understanding of this period, in both the region and elsewhere. In particular, many archaeologists no
longer accept the view that supposed immigrant „Celtic warriors‟ were the leaders of society, which for so
long dominated out understanding of the Iron Age (James 1999, 41; Collis 2003, 211-14). Instead, there
4
has been a shift in emphasis toward those features that make each region – even each settlement –
unique. Whilst the questioning of the „Celtic warrior model‟ has been positive, there has not yet been an
adequate synthesis of alternative views and, as will be seen, the archaeological evidence clearly links
with aspects of „barbarian‟ society, such as feasting and drinking, that are commented on by classical
writers.

The Late Iron Age landscape

For many years, the Late Pre-Roman Iron Age of the region was characterised as „Belgic‟. The changes
in the material culture of the Iron Age were thought to be a result of large-scale invasions from Europe by
different groups of „Celts‟: the Gaels (or Goidels), the Britons (or Brythons) and the Belgae. Although this
view is still popular among the general public and is unfortunately still repeated in popularising texts (e.g.
Berresford Ellis 2003, 13), by the mid-1960s, it was coming under attack by academics, as the
archaeological evidence failed to support it (Clark 1966, 187; Bradley 1978, 126). It is now believed that
trading contacts in the Bronze Age and gradual cultural assimilation, working in both directions brought
about the development of „Celtic‟ culture in Britain, a process that has been termed „Cumulative Celticity‟
(Hawkes 1973; Snyder 2003, 17). Recent scholarship stresses the long-term continuity of settlement and
population throughout much of British prehistory.
This has sometimes created a misleading impression that nothing much happened for the thousands of
years of British prehistory. Most damaging of all was the development of a view that the prehistoric past
was a time of peace. This view is beginning to look naïve, as there are plentiful examples of skeletons
with injuries showing them to have been victims of violent assault, including at least one from Baldock
itself (McKinley 1992a, 340). It is clear that warfare, even if more often than not only small-scale raiding,
was endemic in a society dominated by an élite that valued weaponry.
By the end of the Middle Iron Age, c 100 BC, the local landscape was covered by small settlements.
Some were villages and hamlets while others were single farmsteads. Some sites were enclosed, but
most were not and aerial photography has shown often extensive patterns of fields and trackways
associated with them. By this time, the local landscape was largely cleared of woodland and was being
farmed extensively. The economy was dominated by mixed farming, although some more specialised
sites are also known. Wild plants and animals do not seem to have made a significant contribution to the
diet.
As overseas trade revived after c 120 BC, new sea routes were opened up, focused initially on the south
coast (Cunliffe 2005, 476). An eastern route developed during the first half of the first century BC,
focusing on the Thames Estuary. It brought in the luxury goods that helped the developing élite to show
off its wealth and cosmopolitan tastes. Most of these goods are associated with food and drink:
amphorae, used in the transport of wine, olive oil and garum (fish essence), Gallo-Belgic platters, cups
and beakers, and metal vessels, including silver cups, bronze flagons, bowls and strainers are all found.
The „chieftain‟s burial‟ from The Tene (Stead & Rigby 1986, 67) is an early example of the fruits of this
trade, its Dressel 1 amphora dating to around 100 BC. By the later first century BC, the Catuvellauni had
a virtual monopoly on trade between Britain and the new Roman province of Gaul.
During this period, a new settlement type began to develop in the south-east, in precisely the area where
the imported goods were arriving, generally known as oppida and consisting of large areas surrounded by
a complex of dykes (Collis 1984, 6; Williamson 2000, 36). A variety of activities took place inside the
dykes, including different crafts and industries, ritual activities (including burial) and habitation. Pottery
made using the new technology of the potter‟s wheel is associated with these sites, whilst they also
appear to have been centres for the production of coins. Baldock has only been recognised as such a site
during the past decade and it is one of the earliest known so far, if not the earliest (Burleigh 1995b).
Burials were uncommon during the earlier part of the Iron Age, although human bone is found in other
contexts, with apparently disused pits often containing both pieces of bone and complete skeletons. On
Clothall Common, a natural hollow was used for the disposal of human remains during the Middle Iron
Age; there is evidence that earlier burials in the same graves were disinterred, while associated buildings
may have been used to expose bodies.
After 100 BC, burials became more widespread in the zone around the Thames Estuary. The most richly
furnished graves belong to „Welwyn-type‟ burials, named after the first discovery in 1906 (Smith 1912, 3;
Dunnett 1975, 9). The earliest of the type is the example from Baldock, discovered in 1967, which may be
as early as the late second century BC (Stead & Rigby 1986, 60). Some of these burials were covered by
barrows and many were situated within square enclosures that may have been the quarries for the
barrow material. On a completely different scale, the burial from Folly Lane at St Albans, with its wooden
chamber, was perhaps the burial of the last indigenous ruler of the area, who seems to have died a
decade or so after the conquest (Niblett 1995a, 101).
The majority of burials fall into the Aylesford-Swarling tradition of cremations (Cunliffe 2005, 559-61).
They are found throughout the area with Welwyn-type burials as well as in Gaul and consist of small pits
5
in which the cremated remains of the deceased were placed. The bone was sometimes placed in a
container, frequently a wheel-thrown vessel and often with other vessels and grave goods. The richer
examples contain wooden buckets with bronze strapping used as the container for the remains, with other
drinking equipment in the grave pit. At Clothall Common in Baldock, a burial of this type contained a rare
and early example of chain mail.
It is at this period that the earliest clearly religious structures are to be found in the region. Both circular
temples, such as that at Kelvedon, Essex, and rectangular temples, such as that at Heathrow, Middlesex,
are known. At Hayling Island, Hants, coins, horse trappings, imported pottery, jewellery and Italian mirrors
were found at a circular temple site (Darvill 1987, 172). A similar circular building at Hartsfield School,
Baldock, was associated with an unusually large number of Late Iron Age coins and brooches, and may
well be such a site.

Major settlements
A number of major settlements developed in the region in the century or so before the Roman conquest in
AD 43. Baldock was perhaps the earliest of these, but it was soon eclipsed by others, particularly
Verlamion, which became the dominant settlement of the region (Branigan 1985, 6). The status of
Verlamion is shown by the use of the placename as a mint mark, for instance on coins of Cunobelinus.
The date when it began to grow up is unclear and the immediate hinterland lacks rich Welwyn type
burials. In contrast to the Baldock region, the Verlamion region was part of a different tradition, which was
not minting the indigenous bronze coinage found farther north-east until the end of the first century BC
(Haselgrove 1987, 186). By the closing decades of the first century BC, it had become the focal point of a
complex of enclosed sites linked by tracks and defined by a complex of dykes. They are difficult to date
and may not all be contemporary, but most appear to belong to the first half of the first century AD. Little
evidence has been found for structures, largely because of subsequent erosion, although at Gorhambury
there was clear evidence for high-status occupation (Bryant & Niblett 1997, 273-4; Haselgrove & Millett
1997; Niblett 1999, 404-8; Niblett 2001, 33-52).
In the first century BC, a major settlement also began to develop on Wickham Hill, Braughing (Figure 4,
2). Before AD c 10, there was little, if any, imported pottery, but it became common during the early first
century. This shift in the pattern of consumption has been thought to indicate that the town developed as
a trading centre during the second decade of the first century, although it now appears more likely that
the imported goods were used inside the town, not traded out into the surrounding area. In other words, it
was a place where élites consumed goods (Potter & Trow 1988, 158; Bryant & Niblett 1997, 276).
The enclosed site at Wheathampstead, investigated by the Wheelers in the 1930s (Wheeler & Wheeler
1936), consists of a massive ditch with banks on both sides, occupying a narrow ridge between the valley
of the River Lea to the north and a dry valley to the south. It appears to have been associated with a
group of dykes including The Slad, Moat and Devil‟s Dyke. However, it is poorly dated and it is difficult to
see it as the stronghold of Cassivellaunus, as originally proposed by the Wheelers. Its character is rather
different from the sites already described and it is not clear that it should be classed as an oppidum
(Wheeler & Wheeler 1936, 9; Bryant & Niblett 1997, 274; Niblett 2001, 48).
A further site at Northchurch, often referred to as Cow Roast, is mainly known from surface finds, which
form a sequence starting in the Iron Age. There is an extensive complex of earthworks associated with
the occupation. Little appears to be known about the character of the settlement, though (Smith 1987,
235; Bryant & Niblett 1997, 271-3; Niblett 2001, 31). A further town-like settlement grew up at Harlow
alongside a shrine serving a major cult centre from the later first century BC, but it also remains poorly
known (France & Gobel 1985; Burnham & Wacher 1990, 183).
By the time of the Roman conquest in AD 43, then, the region had numerous developing large
settlements. Some of them, at least, had town-like characteristics and it might be suggested that a
peculiarly British form of urban growth was under way. The landscape had been substantially cleared and
a profitable agricultural régime, coupled with specialised production of secondary goods including
ceramics, was increasing wealth at most levels of society except, perhaps, the poorest.

Rural settlement
A variety rural settlement patterns can be recognised in the region, suggesting that there were highly
localised settlement patterns, perhaps reflecting different types of land ownership, political organisation,
tenurial systems and so on. In north and east Hertfordshire, the settlement pattern is varied, with mainly
open settlements clustering around the developing oppida at Baldock and Braughing, although a few
enclosures are also known (for instance, at Millfield Wood (Ashworth & Turner forthcoming). In mid
Hertfordshire, though, enclosed sites of middling economic status dominate the pattern, while open
settlements are rare, perhaps even absent. This may suggest that the existence of central placed defined
by the oppida prevented or discouraged the construction of private fortifications.

6
Figure 4: Late Iron Age sites around Baldock (1: Baldock; 2: Arbury Banks; 3: Braughing; 4:
Jack‟s Hill; 5: Wilbury; 6: Blackhorse Road; 7: Hawthorn Hill; 8: Highfield; 9: Great Wymondley;
10: Wymondley Bypass)
Few open sites in the immediate hinterland of Baldock have been excavated. The large prehistoric
complex excavated between 1957 and 1974 at Blackhorse Road in Letchworth Garden City (Figure 4, 6)
continued in use during the late Iron Age, with a shift towards unenclosed settlement at the eastern end of
the area investigated, continuing into the Roman period (Moss-Eccardt 1988, 73). Also in Letchworth
Garden City, in 1930, Percival Westell excavated what he interpreted as „pit dwellings‟ at Hawthorn Hill, to
the rear of 115-117 Wilbury Road (Westell 1936, 1; Figure 4, 7). Further investigations by John Moss-
Eccardt when the site was developed for housing in 1957 revealed that occupation began in the Mid- to
Late Iron Age and that the pits were ordinary domestic rubbish pits. This site remains unpublished. At a
third site in Letchworth, in the Highfield/Sollershott West/High Avenue area (Figure 4, 8), pits and ditches
were recorded during construction works in 1955, while evaluation and excavation by the Hertfordshire
Archaeological Trust in 1999-2000 (anon 2000) revealed that the settlement grew to a considerable size
and, by the Roman period, may perhaps be more properly regarded as a village than a farmstead.
At Great Wymondley, Westell also excavated the remains of an oval or circular structure some 8´ (1.83
m) in diameter he believed to be Late Iron Age (Westell 1938, 14; Figure 4, 9); this lies in an area where a
Romano-British rectangular enclosure has been thought to survive incorporated into the bailey of an
earthwork castle (Seebohm 1883, 432). Nearby, excavations on the line of the A602 Wymondley bypass
in 1991 yielded a large quantity of Late Iron Age pottery but few associated features, all of which were
ditches (Went & Burleigh 1992, 11; Figure 4, 10); the site grew into a prosperous romanised farmstead
during the first century AD.

7
Figure 5: Iron Age occupation at Wymondley Bypass
At least one of the enclosures at Blackhorse Road – the D-shaped Enclosure 2 (Moss-Eccardt 1988, 71-
3) – was of Late Iron Age date. The ditch of this enclosure contained the collar and rim of a cauldron very
similar to that from a Welwyn-type burial excavated at Baldock in 1968 (Stead & Rigby 1986, 55); pottery
suggests that its use preceded the evidence for open settlement already mentioned.
None of the enclosures in mid Hertfordshire has been fully excavated, although a number have been
sampled, particularly as a result of the growth of Welwyn Garden City during the 1950s and 1960s
(Hughes 1939; Arnold 1954; Rook 1968a; Rook 1968b; Rook 1970a; Rook 1970b; Burleigh et al. 1990).
They were clearly domestic sites, although the forms of the buildings within them are not known. The
pottery and animal bones appear to derive from household waste, while daub and tile at Hollard‟s Farm
(Burleigh et al. 1990, 24) suggests that rectangular buildings of substantial construction were present.
The ditches of these enclosures are substantial, and it must be assumed that similarly substantial banks
once existed; all have now disappeared. The ditches at Hollard‟s Farm were deliberately filled in, much of
the material deriving from the banks (Burleigh et al. 1990: 19). At both Hollard‟s Farm and Brickwall Hill,
complete but crushed pottery vessels were found in the backfill of the ditches, which suggests that the
abandonment was rapid and deliberate rather than a phenomenon of structured deposition (Burleigh et al.
1990, 24; Rook 1970a, 25). Imported pottery was found at Hollard‟s Farm, and the possible association of
the Grub‟s Barn enclosure with the Welwyn Garden City „chieftain‟s burial‟ (Rook 1970b, 31) evokes the
nature of the occupation.

The Romano-British landscape

The Roman conquest of Britain effected a thorough transformation of the landscape (Dark & Dark 1997,
17). It can still be debated whether the shift towards urbanisation would have occurred, albeit more
slowly, had the island remained outside the Empire. However, there is little doubt that the incorporation of
much of it into a social network extending from the Atlantic to the Arabian Desert opened its population up
to influences that would previously have been unavailable to all but the most wealthy and powerful.

Major settlements
The main town of the region, Verulamium, developed from the earlier settlement at Verlamion. It is
mentioned by the Roman historian Tacitus as an important town at the time of Boudica‟s revolt in AD 60
(Annales XIV.33). The old site was completely swept away and a town of Mediterranean style was
created, with a grid pattern of streets, a forum that overlay what may have been the earlier king‟s
residence, Roman style buildings and, eventually, a town wall (Branigan 1985, 67-82; Niblett 1995b, 34-
51). It was evidently the principal town of the Catuvellauni and could even be referred to as a city. Within
less than twenty years, it had been granted an Imperial charter, giving its citizens various legal rights,
most importantly a number of tax concessions. The royal burial at Folly Lane, made shortly after the
Roman conquest, became an important cult centre; by the fourth century, a rival cult centre had
developed around a grave said to be that of Alban, allegedly Britain‟s first Christian martyr (Niblett 1995b,
8
106). This cult eventually eclipsed that at Folly Lane as Verulamium developed into St Albans. Urban life
certainly continued after the end of Roman rule, well into the fifth century (Niblett 1995b, 117).

Figure 6: the environs of Baldock in the Roman period (1: Baldock; 2: Braughing; 3: Purwell villa;
4: Radwell villa; 6: Wallington villa; 7: Weston villa; 8: Ashwell End; 9: Slip End; 10: Boxfield Farm,
Chells; 11: Wymondley Bypass)
Other walled towns developed in the civitas. At Duroliponte (Cambridge), a settlement that originated in
the first century BC was succeeded without break by an early Romano-British official presence – either
military or administrative – in the middle of the first century AD. In the middle of the fourth century, the
town was provided with a limestone wall and ditch (Branigan 1985, 93; Smith 1987, 168; Burnham &
Wacher 1990, 246). At Great Chesterford, there was a Roman fort, probably occupied during the late 40s
and 50s. In the early to mid fourth century, the settlement that had grown up to its south was enclosed by
a wall and ditch (Dunnett 1975, 87; Smith 1987, 164; Burnham & Wacher 1990, 138). At Duroviguto
(Godmanchester), another early fort had an extramural settlement that was apparently destroyed during
the Boudican revolt, following which the site was divided into planned enclosures, some time in the late
60s. At the same time, the fort was realigned and apparently enlarged, possibly to become a fortress.
Around 120, a mansio (part of the imperial post system) was built and to its west, a temple was built at
around the same time. By the middle of the second century, it had been given walls and a ditch. In the
early third century, Ermine Street, the main road through the town, was widened to form a market place.
At the north end of this area, a basilica was built; it was evidently a public building relating to local
government. The town ditch was enlarged in the fourth century and fan-shaped bastions added to the wall
(Branigan 1985, 85; Smith 1987, 182; Burnham & Wacher 1990, 122).

9
More common than the walled settlements were so-called „small towns‟, places that were very different in
character from the planned cities and towns. Many of them, particularly in the south and east, developed
from Late Iron Age settlements (Burnham & Wacher 1990, 8). At Braughing (Figure 6, 2), for instance, the
main north-south road, Ermine Street, was lined with workshops on the street frontage from the mid-first
century to the late fourth. An L-shaped building built in the late first century remained in use until the
middle of the fourth century; it may have been a temple or a macellum (market hall) (Branigan 1985, 87;
Smith 1987, 179; Burnham & Wacher 1990, 103). Welwyn is a more difficult site to characterise, with no
evidence for an Iron Age settlement, although this area was clearly more densely occupied than the
surrounding countryside. The Romano-British town is also very poorly known, but appears to have lain
largely in the valley of the River Mimram, where pits and corn-dryers have been found (Smith 1987, 232).
At Ware, the Romano-British settlement lies on the edge of an area of Iron Age settlement (Smith 1987,
178). Another small town at Cheshunt is very poorly known, although Romano-British finds have been
made along Ermine Street, extending for at least 1.2 km (Smith 1987, 177). Sandy seems to have
developed at the time of the Roman conquest and there is evidence for zoning within the settlement, as
blacksmithing appears to have remained restricted to one place throughout the existence of the town
(Branigan 1985, 96; Smith 1987, 213; Dawson 1995, 171).
Intriguingly, none of these small towns ever expanded to the size of Baldock, which at its greatest extent
covered an area of about 48 hectares (120 acres). None has been investigated as intensively, either: well
over half of Baldock is known through excavation and geophysical survey, giving us an exceptionally
good idea about its history and layout.

Figure 7: Wymondley Bypass „cottage house‟

Rural settlement
Rural settlement appears to have been based largely around the farmstead, as in the pre-conquest
period, and many of the existing sites continued to flourish. The Blackhorse Road site, for instance, has
been thought to be connected with the supply of cattle and horses to Baldock (Moss-Eccardt 1988, 74),
while the Highfield/Sollershott West/High Avenue settlement expanded to its greatest extent (anon 2000).
Several sites have been excavated in whole or in part, most notably at Boxfield Farm, Chells (Stevenage)
and Little Wymondley (Figure 6, 10 & 11). At the former site, an Iron Age farmstead of unknown character
was completely redeveloped, with a substantial rectangular house constructed early in the second
century AD (Went & Burleigh 1992, 12). It belongs to Collingwood & Richmond‟s (1969, 134)
unsatisfactory „cottage house‟ class (see also Hingley 1989, 37-9), and although Dave Went (Went &
Burleigh 1992, 12) suggested it was of Pat Morris‟s (1979, 60) Group B type, it lacks aisles. In form, it
resembles the early phases of villa structures at Park Street and Welwyn and Ernest Black (1987, 2)
would accept a building of this character as a villa since it contains more than three rooms planned as a
unity. To the north and east lay cobbled yards, beyond which to the east lay a possible weaving or drying
shed. In the later second or early third century, two T-shaped kilns were constructed north-east of the
10
house (Went & Burleigh 1992, 14). The main house seems to have been altered in the later third century;
although its foundations were not removed at the western end, there is little evidence that it remained
standing (Went & Burleigh 1992, 18). Although assessed as „lower status‟ (Went & Burleigh 1992, 25), it
is evident that this settlement was at least more prosperous than many others discussed here, if not
actually of higher status.
Occupation at Boxfield Farm was rather different from that at Little Wymondley. There was little evidence
for pre-Roman origins, although two coins of Cunobelinus were found, and the first ditched enclosure
seems to date from the mid first century AD, with an extension early in the second (Going & Hunn 1999,
35). A third-century „corn-drier‟ set within two arcs of a circular gully (probably the drip-gully of a
roundhouse, although this is not stated in the report) is the only definite structural evidence (ibid., 25),
although it is likely that the uninterpreted „penannular gullies‟
(ibid., 19) were also parts of circular buildings. Overall, the
character of this site seems of much lower status than that of
Little Wymondley.
The most unusual rural site was discovered at Dane‟s Field,
Pirton, during the construction of an oil pipeline by Petrofina
from Humberside to Buncefield (Herts) in 1990 (Went &
Burleigh 1990a, 12). Originating during the Late Iron Age, the
settlement grew, like most of the others in this area, during the
second century, spreading uphill from what seems to have
been an increasing problem with periodic flooding, protected by
a bank. A road was built in the late second century, close to
which there seems to have been a kiln or oven (Went &
Burleigh 1990b, 7); an almost complete amphora and other
vessels recorded as having been found in Dane‟s Field during
the nineteenth century (Ransom 1887, 40) probably derive from
this settlement, attesting to a degree of wealth. Occupation
continued throughout the fourth century and unstratified pottery
from the topsoil suggests that it continued into the sixth (Went &
Burleigh 1990b, 8), which raises interesting questions about its
relationship to the probably pagan Saxon cemetery discovered
nearby c 1840 (fancifully conjectured by William Ransom (1887,
40) to have been graves of Danish soldiers killed in battle).
Although a number of villas are known near Baldock, none has
been extensively excavated. Nevertheless, it is clear that some
of them were substantial and belong to the higher ranks of such
sites (Stevenson & Read 1999, 44). The plans of a number of
them, often including substantial elements of surrounding
enclosures and associated buildings, have been revealed by
aerial photography and it is evident that Baldock was a focus
for members of a villa-owning elite, despite its apparent lack of
romanised amenities.
Figure 8: the bath house of Purwell villa (after Ransom 1887)
The first villa discovered in the area was the Purwell villa (sometimes referred to as the Wymondley or
Ninesprings villa; Figure 6, 3), discovered by William Ransom (1887, 43) during excavations in 1884.
Nine rooms were identified, including at least three belonging to a heated bath suite at the southern end,
linked to a room with an apsidal west end. Beyond this lay a room with a floor composed of red and white
tesserae arranged in parallel lines with a gridiron pattern at the centre. Percival Westell excavated more
of the site in 1921-22, somewhat to the north of Ransom‟s discoveries (Westell 1927a, 281; 1938, 12),
but did not publish his results. Pottery included samian with stamps of Doeccus and Romulus (both of
Lezoux?). The coin series, including surface and metal detector finds, runs from Antoninus Pius (AD 138-
61) to Valentinian II (375-92). Animal bones included horse, cattle, pig, sheep, goat, red deer and birds.
On the opposite side of the parish of Great Wymondley from Purwell villa lies a square enclosure,
identified by Frederick Seebohm (1883, 431) as a holding of 25 iugera (or an eighth of a centuria), in the
centre of which, Westell (1938, 12f) found clear traces of Romano-British occupation. Seebohm
conjectured that the open fields of the medieval village of Great Wymondley stood in the same relation to
the village as the fields associated with this holding had done in the Roman period. Unpublished research
by the late Don Smith of Purwell Mill, Hitchin, has taken Seebohm‟s guess a stage further, identifying the
medieval open field known as Purwell Meadow, of which part lies in Great Wymondley and part in Hitchin,
with the holding of Purwell villa. In his view, the Great Wymondley settlement was a community of
peasants dependent on (and probably employees or slaves of) the villa owner. A similar argument has
been used to explain the placename Walsworth, on the east-north-eastern side of Hitchin, within Purwell

11
Meadow. Originally recorded in the late thirteenth century as Waltonesford, it means „ford of Walton (i.e.,
enclosed farm of the Britons)‟ (Gover et al. 1938, 11), which has again been seen as evidence for the
hamlet originating as a community of native Britons working the villa estate.

Figure 9: the hypothesised Roman holding at Great Wymondley (after Seebohm 1883)

12
Aerial photography in 1962 by J K St Joseph revealed a double villa set within an enclosure measuring
around 250 × 200 m on the right bank of the River Ivel (Wilson 1974, 260), although the site was already
known from a scatter of Roman material discovered in 1955. Associated with the houses were two
apparent barns, of which at least one was aisled. Fieldwalking the site has produced potsherds, tile,
tesserae and a probable quern-stone, now in
Stevenage Museum. The most intriguing aspect
of the site is its probable association with a finely
sculpted Carrara marble head discovered during
the clearance of a shed in Radwell and now
owned by North Hertfordshire Museum Service
(Plate 2; Burleigh & Stevenson 2000, 53). It has
been dated AD 60-80 on art historical grounds
and is of first-class workmanship. Although
dismissed by some as a curio brought back from
a Grand Tour, there is no evidence to support
this hypothesis and its previous owner had
farmed the field in which the villa stands during
the 1930s. He had used the head to clean
paintbrushes, which analysis of the paint
residues showed must have occurred before
1940. Sculpture of this quality has been found at
other Roman villa sites, such as Fishbourne
(Sussex) and Lullingstone (Kent), so its
attribution to the Radwell villa should be counted
as likely but not proven.
Another large villa site close to Baldock was
discovered by a local resident, Dan Pinnock, in
1958, when he found Roman pottery and tile;
following the first deep ploughing of the site in
1993, he found more of the same type of
material. Fieldwalking in November of that year
found a concentration of opus signinum and
tesserae, indicating that the deep ploughing had
badly damaged the building. Further fieldwalking
in December 1993 and trial pits in 1998 located
quern fragments, plaster, mortar and stone. Over 22 kg of pottery have been recovered from the site,
mostly dating from the late third to early fifth century (Helen Ashworth in Stevenson & Read 1999, 22);
this dating is confirmed by the small coin series, which begins with losses of the Gallic Empire (Curteis in
Stevenson & Read, 24). A plot of the different classes of find from the site, particularly the building
material, has been used to suggest that the villa was C-shaped, with a courtyard extending away to the
north-west (Stevenson & Read 1999, 41), a reversal of the usual arrangement. It is more likely that the

13
villa faced south-east.
Plate 2: the marble head from Radwell
Figure 10: Slip End, Ashwell

Cemeteries
Numerous Late Pre-Roman Iron Age and Romano-British cemeteries have been excavated fully or in part
throughout south-eastern England, although many were investigated at a time when archaeological
techniques were in their infancy. Nevertheless, they provide parallels for many of the features of the
cemeteries at Baldock. In Hertfordshire and neighbouring parts of Bedfordshire and Cambridgeshire, a
number of Iron Age and Romano-British cemeteries are known from excavation, notably those associated
with urban centres at Verulamium (Stead & Rigby 1989; Antony 1968), Braughing (Partridge 1977; 1979;
1981) and Welwyn (Rook 1973), but also at Guilden Morden, Litlington, Hitchin and Slip End (Figure 10).

Figure 11: the cemetery at Site J, Slip End

A large number of rural cemeteries were excavated in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries with
various levels of recording, if any. In the vicinity of Baldock, there are Romano-British burials from Great
Wymondley, excavated by William Ransom in the nineteenth century and again by Westell in the 1920s
(Ransom 1887, 40; Westell 1938). An enclosed Romano-British cemetery was excavated at Litlington in
south Cambridgeshire in 1821 (Kempe 1836), of which the pottery was recorded in situ in many cases
and all the pottery illustrated by watercolour, so that today it is possible to reconstruct the burial groups.
Another nearby cemetery at Guilden Morden, Cambridgeshire (Lewis 1879; Fox & Lethbridge 1926;
Lethbridge 1936), produced evidence for rites such as decapitation and partial burning of the body in situ,
for which parallels can be adduced at Baldock. A cemetery at Slip End, Ashwell, beside the Icknield Way
was first discovered during a trial excavation in 1975, when it was mistakenly identified as Pagan Saxon
(Burleigh 1976, 18). Subsequent work in 1999, during the construction of a pipeline from Norton to
Morden Grange, revealed a separate cemetery containing 53 cremation burials and eleven inhumation
burials, all stratified beneath the cremation burials and dating from the Late Iron Age to early Roman
14
period (Figures 10 & 11; Burleigh & Stevenson 2000, 25). An Iron Age cemetery from Foxholes, near
Hitchin, Hertfordshire, was partially excavated in the nineteenth century with little recording (Westell
1931b).
The Iron Age cemetery at King Harry Lane, Verulamium, has formed the subject of an important
monograph (Stead & Rigby 1989) and must consequently be regarded as the type site for such burials in
the region. The publication of the cemetery at Skeleton Green, Braughing (Partridge 1981), is the most
recent extended account of Romano-British burials from the county, which must again be regarded as a
type-site, although Percival Westell‟s (1931a) account of the cremation burial groups from Walls Field,
Baldock was a significant early description of a large Romano-British cemetery.

Baldock
Baldock was ideally placed to develop into an important market centre, located on the border of two
distinct terrains with different agricultural régimes and products. It grew to cover an area of about 80 ha at
its greatest extent in the second century AD, its nucleus remaining in Walls Field and Bakers Close, to the
east of the medieval town. There was also ribbon development principally to the south-west along the
road towards Verulamium. The character of the settlement was predominantly rural, with few major public
buildings. Two, possibly three religious sites have been identified but to date no evident administrative
structures, with the exception of a possible mansio, are known. The settlement appears to have been
rather dispersed, with houses standing in large enclosures surrounded by paddocks, although less than
6% of the core of the Roman settlement has been examined scientifically. Geophysical survey, though,
suggests that this impression is largely correct.
The settlement was never walled or, so far as can be ascertained, enclosed in any way, nor was there
any apparent military presence at Baldock during the Roman invasion period. This is not unusual, as few
invasion period forts have been identified in south-eastern Britain, despite the over-confident assertions of
earlier writers. Nevertheless, it rapidly became integrated into the developing network of settlements in
the region; indeed, its apparent failure to grow as rapidly after c 20 BC is probably a reflection of the
competition posed by the nearby developing oppida at Verlamion and Braughing. Baldock perhaps
belonged to an older power network and lost out as the south-eastern kingdom became more centralised
under Roman influence (Creighton 2006, passim).
A network of roads developed piecemeal as the oppidum and succeeding „small town‟ grew, with no
overall designed plan; the cemeteries identified have mostly been found to conform to a standard pattern
of being located at the junction of two or more of the roads, although this is not always the case. Even so,
there are hints of a rudimentary street grid following two separate alignments.
The Icknield Way, running east to west, defines the northern limit of the settlement. A series of minor
roads ran from it in a south-westerly direction, coalescing in the southern part of the town to become the
Verulamium road to the south-west. A number of routes running parallel to the Braughing to Sandy road
crossed these, forming a rough grid pattern. West of the Braughing to Sandy road, the detail is less clear,
but it is apparent that there were no such parallel roads. Because there is no formal or predictable grid
and the results of geophysical and aerial survey suggest that elements of the road pattern changed over
time, it has not been possible (or desirable) to identify and number insulae in the town.
As well as the burials in formal cemeteries, various isolated burials have been discovered. In some
places, such as at Brewery Field, there may have been late and poorly defined cemeteries, unlike those
of earlier periods. Isolated infant burials have been found in domestic contexts, a common phenomenon
on Romano-British sites (Philpott 1991, 97). They have been found in a variety of settlement locations, in
pits, in foundation trenches or simply buried in a grave in an otherwise domestic enclosure. It is clear that
a significant number of neonates and infants were never buried in cemeteries, although at Stane Street
(BAL-15), it is intriguing to note that the number of infants identified in the Late Iron Age inhumation
cemetery (17/86, 20%) is roughly what would be expected if all this group‟s infants had been buried there.
It is probable, therefore, that practice was variable both through time and between social groups.
Houses continued to be built in the roundhouse tradition up to the early third century, creating a very
provincial and under developed impression of the community. Indeed, Ian Stead has remarked that
Baldock rather resembled an overgrown Little Woodbury (Stead 1975, 128), a not altogether
inappropriate comparison. Nevertheless, rectangular structures were present from the first century BC
and by the later Roman period were the only types.
In contrast to apparently low status of the settlement, a remarkable series of high status burials has been
excavated. A number of wealthy Late Iron Age burials have been identified, as well as burial enclosures
resembling those from the King Harry Lane site in St Albans (Stead & Rigby 1989). One is 33 m square
internally, the largest yet identified in south-eastern England (Burleigh 1982). These rich burials can be
paralleled by a few later Romano-British burials, such as Stead‟s „Lamp Pit‟ (Stead & Rigby 1986, burial
50), or an infant grave excavated in 1988 that produced a complete Dea Nutrix figurine and traces of a
substantial wooden superstructure (Burleigh et al. 2006).
15
The resolution of this apparent anomaly may be connected with the definition of the „burial zone‟ to the
north-east of the town by the prehistoric post alignment and the provision of temples as the sole public
buildings. Baldock may have been a major regional cult centre in the Late Iron Age, either drawing in
aristocrats from outside for burial or attracting aristocrats to reside locally, rather than an emporium or an
administrative centre; if this continued to be the case throughout the Roman period, then the apparent
paucity of high status dwellings and lack of public buildings could be explained. On the other hand, the
local concentrations of coins of Andoco… suggests that the oppidum formed his power base.
Baldock appears to have suffered from the general third and fourth century population decline in Britain,
with the area of settlement becoming much reduced from its earlier extent. However, a substantial
number of burials dating to the fifth and sixth centuries have been excavated since 1980 on Upper Walls
Common, particularly in the late cemetery at California (BAL-1), pointing to continued occupation of the
site. There is also structural evidence datable to the sub-Roman period showing a great deal of continuity
with Roman traditions (Selkirk & Selkirk eds 1983, 74). Indeed, the repairing of road surfaces into the late
fifth or even sixth century at Royston Road (BAL-15) reinforces suggestions that a sub-Roman state
based on Verulamium survived for some time in the north-eastern Chilterns, maintaining a recognisably
Romano-British – albeit materially impoverished – culture (Rutherford Davis 1982a; Dark 1994, 86). By
the seventh century, though, when Saxon artefacts begin to be found in North Hertfordshire, Baldock had
shrunk nothing more than a few isolated farmsteads. In its place, a new centre with Late Roman origins
began to develop at Hitchin, 8 km to the south-west.
In the 1140s, the Knights Templar laid out a new town at Baldock (Salmon 1728, 178; Gover et al. 1938,
120; Beresford 1967, 452-3; Page 1912, 66; Chauncy 1700, 376 implies a date c 1139, but he does not
cite an authority for this). They purchased a small part of the manor of Weston, close to the junction of a
number of roads, from its Lord, Gilbert, Earl of Pembroke, and established a new manor (Chancy 1700,
382). Largely avoiding the site of the Romano-British settlement, the main road was diverted via an L-
shaped double market place, and it is perhaps no coincidence that the backs of the eastern medieval
burgage plots coincided with the western edge of the Late Roman settlement, now fossilised by a winding
footpath, The Twitchell.

16
2: Fieldwork in Baldock
Gilbert R Burleigh & Keith J Fitzpatrick-Matthews
Most of the excavations carried out at Baldock have been on areas peripheral to the core of the
settlement. Ian Stead (1975, 128) recognised the importance of the continuity of occupation from the Late
Iron Age to the Romano-British town but was unclear about how representative of the site as a whole his
three principal excavation areas might have been. Gil Burleigh‟s excavations similarly focused on areas
outside the core, although geophysical surveys of Baker‟s Close in 1985 and of Wall‟s Field in 1990 have
added significantly to knowledge of the layout of the core.
As the pattern of fieldwork has tended to be led by the development of the modern town, this has
coincidentally concentrated on the cemetery areas on the periphery of the Iron Age and Roman town.
Most of the more recent development was on green field sites at Clothall Common (formerly Upper Walls
Common, formerly in Clothall parish), to the east of Baldock, but there has also been some infill,
particularly in the development of The Tene and Brewery Field. These two latter areas seem to have lain
in more densely occupied parts of the settlement, contrasting with the excavated parts of Walls Field and
Upper Walls Common, which proved to have been less densely occupied and to have been largely
abandoned for domestic use by the late fourth century.

Up to 1978: Work by Percival Westell, Ian Stead and others

Areas investigated
Until the 1920s, almost nothing was known about ancient Baldock, the sole recorded find being an iron
lamp holder or hipposandal, found near the Icknield Way before 1865 (Taylor 1914, 149). More and more
coins were reported from the town, particularly from Walls Field, during the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries (Seebohm 1883, 434; Westell & Applebaum 1933, 238), but it was not until the spring
of 1925 that the significance of the site was finally appreciated. On Easter Tuesday that year, William
Percival Westell, curator of the recently-established Letchworth Museum, began excavating a cemetery in
Walls Field (Plate 3; Westell 1931a; 1932a). It had been brought to his attention by William Hart, who
farmed the field and who had discovered large pieces of ancient pottery after steam ploughing for the first
time. Over the next five years, Westell not only continued with the excavation of the cemetery, but also set
about investigating other parts of Walls Field, where he found a rubbish pit, a ditch, cobbled surfaces,
foundations and a well (Plate 4). He correctly recognised the importance of these discoveries and
suggested that Walls Field was the site of a Roman town (Westell & Applebaum 1933, 238). The
discovery received considerable national publicity at the time, with Westell making frequent reports to
newspapers such as The Times.
According to one of Westell‟s excavation team, J Peat Young, “Several weeks after the discovery we
explored a small portion of the land which we knew to be a Roman cemetery… Some days we got
nothing, at other times we uncovered many beautiful examples of Roman pottery, and handed them out of
the trench so quickly that those who were making the records had scarcely time to write down the
necessary particulars" (unpublished typescript, North Hertfordshire Museums: DVD-ROM Documents). By
21 May, they had recovered over two hundred vessels belonging to at least 23 separate cremation burials
and a number of skeletons. By 1930, around 350 burials had been excavated.
Born in St Albans in 1874, Percival Westell was a pioneer settler at Letchworth Garden City, moving there
in 1907 as Natural Science editor for J M Dent & Sons. In 1908, he helped to found the Letchworth and
District Naturalists‟ Society and in the following year was awarded a bronze medal by the Société
Nationale d‟Acclimatisation de France for his work as a naturalist. In 1920, he was made Honorary Curator
of Letchworth Museum; during his time there, he wrote 84 books and gave 145 radio talks, working as
Uncle Tadpole on the BBC‟s Children‟s Hour for three years.
After the opening of Letchworth Museum in 1915, the Naturalists‟ Society began to take a wider interest in
the heritage of the area. Having started out to display material illustrating the natural history of North
Hertfordshire and South Bedfordshire, the museum gradually acquired archaeological material. Finds from
the Purwell Roman villa in Great Wymondley formed the core of the early collection. The Society‟s
members began to broaden their interests, too: as well as countryside rambles, they went on a trip to
Colchester in 1924 to see the remains of the Roman town. In the same year, they conducted an
exploratory excavation on Norton Common in Letchworth. All the time, Percival Westell was becoming
increasingly interested in archaeology, so when Dr Gordon Watson told him about the farmer‟s discoveries
in Walls Field early in 1925, he set about organising the excavation. Over the years, Westell was in
contact with many of the prominent archaeologists of his day, including R E Mortimer Wheeler and
Christopher Hawkes, who were a source of much needed expertise in helping to interpret the finds.

17
Plate 3: Excavating at Walls Field, 12 May Plate 4: The Walls Field rubbish pit
1925; left to right, Mrs Westell, Mrs Miles,
W Percival Westell and Tom Banks
By the early 1930s, Percival Westell seems to have allowed others to take over the running of
excavations in the town, as he investigated new sites elsewhere. One of them was a young local man,
Erik Shimon Applebaum, who excavated a series of trenches in what was then known as Newbery‟s
Meadow, now the Grosvenor Road area, as well as next to the Walls Field cemetery, where he found
further inhumations (Plate 5). At the former site, he found a burial (the „Baldock Giant‟, a man over 6 feet
tall in life) as well as the remains of houses, the latest built in the fifth century AD, at the very end of
Roman rule in Britain (Applebaum 1932, 251). His suggestion that the settlement at Baldock continued to
flourish until as late as the sixth century (Applebaum 1932, 251; Westell & Applebaum 1933, 268) has
been overlooked – or treated as fanciful – until recently. After this, Applebaum turned his attention to the
Iron Age site at Wilbury Hill in Letchworth and never again worked in Baldock. He eventually went on to
become Professor of Archaeology at the University of Tel Aviv.
Plate 5: Applebaum‟s trench alongside the Walls
Field cemetery, 1932
Walls Field was Scheduled as an Ancient
Monument (Hertfordshire 50) in 1946, by which time
many acres at the north-western end of the field, the
former grassland of Newbery‟s Meadow, had been
developed for housing. Occasional discoveries
continued to be made, including a second well in
Walls Field in 1934 and a road surface in 1936. The
Second World War disrupted all archaeological work
in the town and after Westell died in 1947, his
successor at Letchworth Museum, Albert T Clarke
(curator 1944-1968), carried out some rescue
excavation work. He discovered a skeleton in
Pinnock‟s Lane (probably an outlier of The Tene
cemetery) and domestic remains on the former
Kayser Bondor factory site (now Tesco), but his
main interests seem to have lain elsewhere and the
sole records of his discoveries were inadequate
reports in the local press. His assistant, John Moss-
Eccardt, began excavations at Blackhorse Road in
Letchworth in 1959, and it was not until the 1960s
that Baldock again became the focus of attention.
In early December 1967, workers discovered what they thought was a lump of scrap metal while
bulldozing a new section of road at The Tene. A second object seemed more interesting and they
recovered it undamaged, selling it for £5. The new owner showed it to Leslie Matthews of the Manshead
Archaeological Society in Dunstable, who immediately recognised it as an Iron Age firedog. He contacted
John Moss-Eccardt at Letchworth Museum, who in turn informed the Inspectorate of Ancient Monuments,
which sent an emergency team under the direction of Ian Stead to begin excavation on 1 January 1968.
The same team also investigated footings for new houses in The Tene, where they discovered a
cemetery that was probably the source of the burial excavated by Albert Clarke (BAL-30); the team also
excavated a series of trenches along the north side of Clothall Road before it was widened later in the
year. Here, another cemetery (BAL-36) was discovered.

18
Figure 12: Brewery Field excavations 1968 (after Stevenson 1983; the numbered features are
inhumations)

Plate 6: Baldock Telephone Exchange site, 1968 (Stead & Rigby 1986, Site C)
Following the unexpected discovery of the „chieftain‟s‟ burial, the Ministry of Public Building and Works
made funds available to John Moss-Eccardt to excavate in advance of building work at Brewery Field
(Figure 12). In the following year, Ian Stead, who had led the team at The Tene and Clothall Road,
returned to look at the site of the proposed new Telephone Exchange in Walls Field (BAL-34, Plate 6;
19
Stead & Rigby 1986, Site C). He also dug a series of 135 trial trenches by bulldozer on Upper Walls
Common (now the Clothall Common estate), revealing the extent of the settlement to the north-east. In
1970 and 1971, he worked on a large area on the south-western edge of the common and in 1972,
moved to Walls Field, to investigate an area proposed for a new school (that was eventually built on a
different site to the north-east, now Hartsfield School).

Figure 13: Areas investigated 1925-1977

The two major areas excavated by Ian Stead (Stead & Rigby 1986, Sites A and B; BAL-23 and BAL-24),
were within a part of the settlement occupied from the middle of the first century BC, if not before, to the
fourth century AD, if not later. The excavation of the settlement was fraught with difficulties, not least
being the shortage of identifiable buildings, partly the result of post-Roman ploughing and partly due to
the local construction methods using cob or wattle-and-daub on sill-beam structures or directly onto the
chalk bedrock. Some of the roads in this part of the settlement were laid out by the beginning of the first
century AD, and these continued in use throughout the next four centuries. There are hints of a loose
rectilinear arrangement of roads and enclosures, although not as rigid as in the later Romano-British
planned towns such as Verulamium. Stead believed that the settlement had entered an irreversible
decline by the fourth century, the burial of adults in the top of disused wells suggesting to him that the
“well defined cemeteries with offerings and appropriate ritual” had ceased to exist and that this marked
“the end of civilisation” (Stead & Rigby 1986, 87).

20
Circumstances of fieldwork carried out
The early work by Westell was effectively research excavation; the Walls Field cemetery was not under
direct threat of destruction and Westell seems to have regarded it principally as a useful source of
exhibits for the archaeology gallery at Letchworth Museum. Indeed, most of the grave groups ended up
on display, while the human remains were disposed of. Cremated material seems mostly to have been
tipped out of the urns during excavation and some of the skulls from the inhumations are known to have
been sent to The Royal College of Surgeons, where they were part of the large collection destroyed in an
air raid during the Second World War. Although engaging in research type work, Westell‟s records were
poor, even by the standards of the day, and his approach barely went beyond mere antiquarianism.
Nevertheless, he was prompt at publishing his discoveries and did much popularising work.
By contrast, the young Applebaum‟s research was of an altogether more scientific character. He drew
plans of all his features, recorded the sections of his trenches and planned the layout of each trench in
meticulous detail. Finds were recorded by layer and every sherd was catalogued. His records are so clear
and detailed that it is possible to reconstruct his stratigraphic sequences and to date them. As well as
recording his own work to admirable standards, Applebaum made the first attempt to synthesise the
disparate data from stray finds and from otherwise unrecorded digging, such as that by a Mr Widger in
Newbery‟s Meadow, the finds from which are in the collections of North Hertfordshire Museums. He
characterised the settlement at a town of „native‟ character, a distinction that Westell seems not to have
appreciated in his early work, and his (previously unpublished) reconstructions (Figures 14 & 15) are little
different from what is understood more than seventy years later.

Figure 14: Applebaum‟s reconstruction of Romano-British Baldock

The work undertaken between the mid 1930s and 1967 was small scale and consisted only of the
recording of discoveries, often without photographs, plans or even accurate locations. Such publications
as there were tended to be summary reports in local newspapers; no research papers were published at
all during this period. It is apparent that the main impetus of the earlier work was due to the energies of
Percival Westell and Shimon Applebaum: once they were no longer involved, interest in the archaeology
of Baldock virtually ceased.
Ian Stead‟s work was prompted by the salvage recording of the „chieftain‟s‟ burial in The Tene and the
subsequent evaluative work in the area and alongside Clothall Road. Following this work, the Ministry of
Works funded what were, in effect, large research excavations. One of these, on Upper Walls Common,
was accompanied by a huge evaluation scheme in an area designated for housing development. The two
other main excavation areas were on parts of the Scheduled Ancient Monument that were to be
descheduled to allow development. All the work was performed to the highest professional standards of

21
the day, producing large quantities of paper records and several tonnes of finds, now curated by North
Hertfordshire District Council‟s Museums Service.

Figure 15: Applebaum‟s reconstruction of a late Romano-British house at Grosvenor Road

John Moss-Eccardt‟s rescue excavation at Brewery Field was very poorly recorded and the results never
analysed or published. It formed the subject of an undergraduate dissertation for the University of
Reading in 1983 by Mark Stevenson, who found it necessary to reconstruct an overall site plan, as none
had ever been produced. Indeed, Stevenson noted with some exasperation that in fifteen years, all that
had been done was to produce an incomplete list of Roman coins, a human skeletal report and analyse
some of the Gallo-Belgic pottery, the stamped or decorated samian and a sherd of lead-glazed ware
(Stevenson 1983, ix). Some of the more important objects were eventually published by Ian Stead and
Valery Rigby (1986), but none of the stratigraphic sequence has yet been placed in the public domain; the
plan reproduced here (Figure 12) is the first to be published.

The Baldock Project 1978-1994

Areas investigated
Between 1972 and 1978, watching-briefs were maintained in the town, largely by the late Kit Westaway, a
dedicated local amateur, which led to the discovery and partial recording of a previously unknown
cemetery at South Road (Goodburn et al. 1976, 338). This site remains poorly explored and, despite
subsequent evaluations and watching briefs on nearby sites, its extent is unclear. In 1978, an area to the
south of The Tene cemetery was examined by Gil Burleigh, Keeper of Field Archaeology for the North
Hertfordshire District Council‟s Museums Service (Burleigh 1980). Further burials were identified,
confirming the status of the late Roman cemetery, with all the burials aligned west to east and laid out in
orderly rows.
By the late 1970s, it was widely believed that as much was known about Roman Baldock as could ever
be learned and in 1979, the Department of the Environment declined to fund further excavations when
development north-east of Walls Field on Upper Walls Common (now known as the Clothall Common
estate) was due to start in 1980 (memorandum from John Marjoram to Gil Burleigh, 7 August 1979:
NHDC Museums Service archives). However, the Ancient Monuments Laboratory did carry out a large-
scale magnetometer survey of the common in the spring of 1979 in advance of the development of the
site. The survey revealed the presence of buried ditches and pits stretching across the common, showing
the locations of roads, enclosures and the probable sites of houses over an area of about thirty acres.
Ironically, it was this very evidence that informed the Department of the Environment‟s decision not to
fund further work, as there were no evident urban defences, traces of a military presence or public
22
buildings. This meant that when construction work on the new estate began in 1980, the forces of the
North Hertfordshire Archaeological Society needed to be mobilised quickly. This new work was again
directed by Gil Burleigh.

Figure 16: The BAL-1 enclosures

Contractors had already begun to lay sewers and main drains as well as the foundations for a new spine
road, Yeomanry Drive, and their holes had revealed many buried features that needed recording. The first
area to be investigated was a section of Yeomanry Drive, the new estate spine road, BAL-17, revealing
metalled roads, enclosure ditches, buildings, pits and further burials. An area towards the north-western
edge of Upper Walls Common was selected for the first investigations in May 1980, as it had been
intended to develop this end of the estate first. Attention was focused on the site of a large square
enclosure known from aerial photographs and the geophysical survey at the south-western end of
California, BAL-1 (Figure 16; Grew et al. 1981, 345). The area was investigated over six seasons from
1980 to 1985, initially with volunteer labour, mostly from the North Hertfordshire Archaeological Society
and with subsistence student labour, and then with workers participating in the government-sponsored
Community Programme, drawn from the local unemployed population. The scheme was at first
administered by NACRO but later directly by North Hertfordshire District Council. The large square
enclosure proved to be a Late Iron Age burial enclosure with a grave pit at its centre containing a
decorated bronze-bound wooden bucket, a pottery urn and pig carcasses. A second pit nearby contained
the buried remains of the funeral pyre, including cremated human bone, burnt wood, melted bronze,
pottery and fragments of iron mail and armour. More cremations were found to surround the central burial
in two concentric rings. Close by was a doline (a periglacial hollow in the chalk), which was a focus for
ritual activities, including burial (Burleigh 1982, 10; Rankov et al. 1982, 369; Frere et al. 1983, 304;
Burnham & Wacher 1990, 282; Burleigh 1995b, 105).

23
In 1981, an area to the south-east that was known to be the location a broad parallel-ditched enclosure
with open ends was investigated, BAL-2 (Figure 17). This proved to be a monument of Late Iron Age date
that has been compared with cursus and Viereckschanzen types, although this monument has significant
differences from both. A small circular building and burials were found at its north-eastern end, apparently
a shrine (Frere et al. 1984, 304). Half way along, the enclosure cut across a pit alignment, found to run for
at least 1½ kilometres to the north-east of present day Baldock. A stretch of the alignment was also
investigated in 1981 (BAL-5).

Figure 17: The Mercia Road cursiform enclosure

Contractors cutting house footings at the south-eastern end of the new Clothall Common housing
development discovered a cemetery in February 1982, now known as the Wallington Road cemetery,
BAL-11 (Selkirk & Selkirk 1983, 73; Frere et al. 1984, 304; Burnham & Wacher 1990, 286). The 1972 trial
trenches had missed the site quite by chance, although a pyre base had been located. In the same year,
a large area at the north-western end of the Scheduled Ancient Monument of Walls Field was developed
as Hartsfield School (BAL-12); this lay within the core of the settlement. It is curious that Scheduled
Monument Consent was given without any condition for prior archaeological investigation when Stead‟s
Area B, 75 m to the south-east, had already been excavated for precisely this purpose (Selkirk & Selkirk
1983, 73). The only previous investigation of this site had been a geophysical survey in 1970. Salvage
excavation was carried out by the Museum Service and the North Hertfordshire Archaeological Society,
restricted to the footprint of the new building. A small area crossed by the pit alignment was investigated
archaeologically, where the pits were found to have contained massive timber uprights, and a double
24
ring-ditch (representing two phases of a single building) was excavated. A large area landscaped for the
playground was subject to a metal detector survey and limited salvage (BAL-13), with the loss of much
information. Evidence recovered included an overall plan of the major features, limited dating material
from selected features (including structures such as a T-shaped corn drier and a large pit containing iron
slag). The metal detector survey recovered several hundred Roman coins, including a small hoard, many
Celtic coins and numerous other metal objects dating from the Late Iron Age through to the medieval
period. Work also took place on the school site in 1987, 1991 and 1994, before extensions to the building
were constructed, examining the Iron Age pit alignment, a road worn into a hollow way and a variety of
domestic features.
Also in 1982, investigation began of a small Romano-British cemetery immediately to the north-west of
the Late Iron Age burial enclosure on BAL-1 (Frere et al. 1986, 401; Burleigh 1993, 46). The cemetery –
known as the California Cemetery – was notable for its variety of burial rites. Some burials had been
made in wooden nailed or dowelled coffins, but one contained a skeleton that had been decapitated, the
head placed at the feet and a smashed beaker placed where the head ought to have been; on the lid of
this coffin, the bones of an apparently earlier occupant of the grave had been placed at one end. Another
burial contained the decapitated body of a male, his skull placed over his lower right leg, but a female
skull arranged carefully on his neck. South of the cemetery, the large doline was investigated. A
sequence of occupation débris was covered with a cobbled surface, around AD 200. Late Roman activity
was followed by a period of colluvium development. On top of this, a substantial post-built structure
measuring 10 × 4 m was built; its appears to be a hall of „Dark Age‟ type and might be evidence for the
continuing occupation of at least part of the site until the sixth or seventh century.
In 1983, an area next to the large area excavated by Ian Stead in 1970-71 was investigated (BAL-8 and
BAL-10). This produced more evidence for the settlement, including a road and a sequence of structures,
as well as a cess pit rich in artefacts and ecofacts. Two wells were excavated; one contained numerous
large flint nodules, which were thought to be the remains of a demolished building. The second well
yielded a fine collection of iron tools. A third well was excavated inside the enclosure examined by Ian
Stead that is now thought to contain a temple; a bronze model antler and a possible iron sword grip to
complement the spear-heads from the earlier excavation came from this area (Stead & Rigby 1986, 149).
On the nearby site (BAL-18), developed by the Startrite self-build housing group, the foundations of a
substantial fourth-century building, with thick mortared flint footings and a red tiled floor on poor quality
opus signinum was found; the walls had painted wall plaster, some of which survived amongst collapsed
débris on the floor of the building (Goodwin 1983).
In the following year, further work took place on the late Roman cemetery at California (BAL-1), revealing
yet more decapitated burials and a double burial of a young female and newborn baby. Many of the
graves were found to have been used more than once, occasionally without putting the bones of the
original occupant back inside. About 20% of the burials were found to have grave-goods, usually
consisting of a long-necked beaker, but also including hobnailed footwear and jewellery. Around 15% of
the burials had been decapitated. In 1984, it was discovered that this late Roman cemetery overlay a
second, smaller Late Iron Age square burial enclosure, measuring about 8 × 9 m, with only two or three
cremations inside it. Another area was investigated between BAL-1, Stead‟s Area A and Walls Field,
locating a substantial ditched enclosure containing pits, wells and structures. An attempt was also made
to locate a possible cemetery at the north-eastern end of the new estate. Two burials had been
discovered in this area during the trial trenching of 1969, but the area proved completely blank, so the
burials must have been isolated.
In 1985, a small excavation and major salvage recording took place during the redevelopment of the
former 1920s film processing laboratory and subsequent Kayser Bondor hosiery factory as a Tesco
superstore (BAL-28; Frere et al. 1986, 401). They revealed a dense concentration of over sixty pits and
evidence for light industrial activity, but owing to the nature of the work, only a minimum of recording
could take place before the site was levelled. Excavation ended on the California cemetery in this year,
with the discovery of a burial in the silted-up boundary ditch that had been opened shortly after interment
to remove the head. Geophysical survey took place on Baker‟s Close (Plate 7), following Gil Burleigh‟s
identification in 1982 of a Romano-Celtic temple shown on an aerial photograph taken in the dry summer
of 1976. The survey confirmed its presence, together with a winged house and a road, and revealed
previously unknown features, including a series of enclosures.

25
Plate 7: Bakers Close from the air, 1995
In 1986, a major excavation began on a cemetery beside the Royston Road (BAL-15) that had originally
been discovered by the trial trenching in 1969 (Stead & Rigby 1986, 75; Frere et al. 1987, 327; Frere et
al. 1989, 298); work on the site continued intermittently until 1989. Subsequently, the remainder of the
site was excavated in 1994. This was initially staffed by members of the Community Programme team
and again directed by Gil Burleigh. However, from 1988, the developer (Barratt (Luton) Ltd) funded the
remainder of the first excavation, with a team of professional field archaeologists. The final season in
1994 was undertaken by The Heritage Network. Seven cemeteries were discovered; one was a
somewhat scattered Iron Age cremation cemetery (referred to in this report as Yeomanry Drive North),
another a more compact and well defined mixed rite cemetery of early Roman to Sub-Roman date
(referred to as Royston Road), the third an Iron Age and early Roman inhumation cemetery (Stane
Street), the fourth a mixed-rite Romano-British cemetery a short distance to the south-west (Sale Drive
East), a fifth mixed-rite cemetery further west (Sale Drive West), a sixth mixed-rite mid-Roman cemetery
(Yeomanry Drive South) and a small mixed-rite cemetery (Sale Drive Doline). A number of other smaller
foci for burial were also recognised, particularly in the roadside ditch of Icknield Way, which was used for
inhumations from the Late Iron Age to the third century AD.
In 1987, a second excavation took place at Hartsfield School (BAL-12) in advance of an extension to the
south-east. On this occasion, Scheduled Monument Consent was conditional on a formal archaeological
excavation. The line of a major road through the settlement was excavated where it had been worn into a
deep hollow way as it climbed the low ridge; evidence from the silts together with documentary evidence
26
suggested that the road was in use through to the Middle Ages. It cut through the earlier pit alignment and
several pits were examined. There were also insubstantial traces of Late Iron Age rectangular buildings.

Figure 18: The BAL-15 cemeteries

In 1988, a new cemetery was discovered in Icknield Way East (BAL-45; Frere et al. 1989, 298). The first
burials were found in foundation trenches for two new houses, so much of the work was of a salvage
nature and only small areas were available for excavation. Even so, several high status Late Iron Age
cremations in an enclosure and large numbers of Late Roman inhumations were found. They included an
infant burial with a Dea Nutrix figurine and grave superstructure (Burleigh et al. 2006). Work also took
place at 65 High Street (BAL-48; Frere et al. 1989, 300), where trial trenching and salvage excavation in
advance of redevelopment exposed the line of a road, pits, ditches and timber buildings. There were also
two outlying burials that must have been on the north-western edge of The Tene cemetery (BAL-30). In
1990, observation of another part of the same cemetery, BAL-31, failed to locate any further burials and
may have been in a blank zone. At 15 Westell Close, two additional Late Pre-Roman Iron Age
inhumations belonging to the Wallington Road cemetery (BAL-11) were revealed during the construction
of a house extension.
Between 1990 and 1993, a several relatively small excavations were carried out in various parts of the
modern town, away from the new development at Clothall Common. In 1990, an unusually dry summer
enabled parchmarks to be recorded on Baker‟s Close (BAL-50), where geophysical survey had taken
place in 1985. Recording on the parchmarks revealed the lines of buried walls, including a large
trapezoidal enclosure.
During 1991, excavations took place in the garden of the former Stationmaster‟s House (BAL-46), where
a few small pits and ditches, together with a substantial quarry, dating from the third to fourth centuries
AD, were found. In the same year, a further extension to Hartsfield School was proposed and a major
excavation re-opened part of the 1987 trench and extended it to the south-east (BAL-12). Part of the Iron
Age pit alignment was investigated, as was the road climbing the hill and crossing it. Structural remains,
including a roundhouse and a building with a small sub-rectangular cellar and associated sill-beams were
also found. In the same year, a magnetometer survey was undertaken by Geophysical Surveys
(Bradford) of the area to the west of the Royston Road cemetery investigated in 1986-9; the south-
eastern part of Walls Field was also surveyed, this time by the Archaeometry Branch of the English
Heritage Ancient Monuments Laboratory. A small excavation at the rear of 39 High Street (BAL-53)
uncovered a number of pits (Burleigh et al. 1998).

27
In 1992, trial trenching to the rear of The Engine public house (BAL-54) uncovered a Romano-British land
surface and structural remains close to the junction of the roads to Braughing and Sandy with the Icknield
Way. It appeared to be part of a ribbon development along the road to Sandy, north of the core of the
settlement. Subsequent larger-scale excavation in the winter confirmed these results. Further south,
alongside the same Roman road, towards the core of the settlement, a small site (BAL-56) produced a
concentration of Roman and Iron Age pits. To the rear of Wynne‟s Almshouses on the west side of the
High Street, one or two apparently isolated Roman features were recorded (BAL-55).
Trial excavations in 1993 and 1994 to the south of the main settlement, at Providence Way (BAL-57)
located a buried Roman ploughsoil, confirming that this area lay outside the main settlement. Further
excavations to the rear of 39 High Street (BAL-53) in the same year produced a number of Iron Age and
Romano-British pits and ditches (Burleigh et al. 1998). The final excavation undertaken by North
Hertfordshire Museums‟ Field Archaeology Section was at Blackhorse Farm (BAL-58), a kilometre north
of the town. The work formed part of the preliminary evaluation of a proposed route for the Baldock
bypass, which was eventually built during 2003-5 on a different route. This intriguing site, known from
aerial photographs, was assumed to be a purely Romano-British farmstead, but a grübenhaus was
identified in one of the evaluation trenches (Fenton 1994, 18). The relationship between this fifth- or sixth-
century Anglo-Saxon community and the contemporary sub-Roman community at Baldock is an important
area for future research.
Since 1994, North Hertfordshire District Council has no longer run excavations as it decided to wind up its
field unit. Instead, all archaeological work in Baldock is now undertaken by contracting units. As a result
of the PPG16 requirement to minimise the damage to buried remains, much of the work is small scale
and, being carried out by commercial archaeological companies that may not have a research interest in
the area, it can be difficult to fit these results into the bigger picture. Nevertheless, large-scale excavation
of the area to the west of the Royston Road cemetery was carried out in 1994 by The Heritage Network,
using the same site code as previous investigations (BAL-15). Further burials were discovered, including
a group of Late Pre-Roman Iron Age cremations in a square enclosure and a mixed-rite cemetery to the
south of the Icknield Way. Further parching of Baker‟s Close in the summer of 1995 enabled additional
features to be planned, whilst the use of a cherry picker to take elevated photographs revealed subtle
details that could not be seen at ground level. Altogether, more than sixty anomalies were plotted, most of
which have probable archaeological significance.
In 1996 the Museum‟s team excavated a single Late Iron Age ritual pit at the rear of 37-9 The Twitchell
(BAL-65). It contained seven near complete vessels, deposited about AD 20-40 (Burleigh & Stevenson.
1999).
In 2002, the Council decided to press ahead with the delayed publication of the excavations carried out
by Gil Burleigh from 1978 to 1994. Unfortunately, changes to English Heritage funding for backlog
publications shortly after this decision meant that a new solution had to be found. Accordingly, the present
publication combines a formal MAP2 Assessment of the work from 1978 to 1994 with a summary of
present knowledge and understanding of the settlement and, especially, of its cemeteries. This volume
therefore cannot be regarded as a definitive statement of the results either of Gil Burleigh‟s excavations
or of the archaeology of Iron Age and Romano-British Baldock.

Circumstances of fieldwork carried out

Lack of further funding after 1972 made the situation for rescue archaeology more difficult, despite the
appointment of a Field Archaeologist by the newly formed North Hertfordshire District Council in 1974,
continuing the established practice at Letchworth Museum. Development in Baldock was by now mostly
away from the medieval centre, which meant that almost all construction work to the east uncovered parts
of the Roman town. Much of the recording between 1972 and 1978 was carried out by the late Kit
Westaway, a well-known local figure who had been the town‟s first traffic warden. She was responsible
for retrieving material from a cemetery beneath the convent on South Road. Later, she processed most of
the finds from excavations in the town and it would be no exaggeration to say that almost everything
discovered between 1972 and 1994 passed through her hands.
Virtually all of the fieldwork carried out between 1978 and 1994 was of a rescue nature, generally in
advance of housing or other development. For the most part, the work was scheduled for the summer,
although circumstances occasionally meant that work took place in less than ideal conditions during the
winter. Only one excavation – the excavation of the Wallington Road cemetery – was of a completely
salvage nature, whilst the excavation of the cemeteries at BAL-1 (California) and BAL-15 (Royston Road,
Stane Street and Yeomanry Drive North) took place under less pressured circumstances between 1980
and 1989.

28
Figure 19: Excavation areas 1978-94

How the results modify results of earlier fieldwork

Despite the scepticism expressed by the Department of the Environment in 1979 that further fieldwork
could reveal anything new about the Romano-British settlement, it is clear that the opposite was the case.
The number and size of the town‟s cemeteries is so far without parallel among „small towns‟, at least one
apparently unique monument type – the linear enclosure at BAL-2 – has been examined and the
exceptionally late survival of the settlement suspected by Applebaum has been conclusively
demonstrated. The site has produced the largest corpus of Iron Age and Roman burials from Britain, if not
Western Europe.
The recognition of at least three shrine and temple sites, combined with the large numbers of cemeteries
has led to the recognition that the town may have been an important religious centre, perhaps the home
to one or more cults that attracted devotees who wished to bury their relatives there. The height of this
activity seems to have occurred during the second century AD, when more burials were deposited than
over the rest of the settlement‟s history. The numbers excavated so far seem to represent a living
population far in excess of what the town could have supported.

A note on nomenclature
A number of incompatible schemes have been used for naming the different sites in Baldock both in print
and in the archive. In an attempt to rationalise the system, Gil Burleigh and Jonathan Drake devised a
format in the early 1980s that gave each known investigation a code number, beginning BAL (for
29
Baldock). Initially, the numbers were used to refer to the areas investigated since 1980, so that the first
area of Upper Walls Common to be excavated became BAL-1, the second BAL-2 and so on. The system
was extended later by Mark Stevenson to include earlier fieldwork by Ian Stead, Percival Westell, Erik
Applebaum and John Moss-Eccardt. However, a number of specialists had begun to write their reports
using terms that had been supplied before the numbering system was established. Thus the terms
„Wallington Road‟, „Barratt Site‟ and „BAL-11‟ all refer to the same cemetery, called Wallington Road in
this volume. The use of the numbering system then led to confusion when a single number was assigned
to large areas; in the excavation area BAL-1, at least three separate burial grounds can be recognised,
while in area BAL-15, at least seven separate cemeteries can be defined.
After the numbering scheme was devised, Ian Stead published the final report of his excavations from
1968 to 1972, in which a lettering scheme was employed (Stead & Rigby 1986, 30-2). This scheme
corresponds neither to the Burleigh/Drake system of the early 1980s nor to the scheme used by Stead
during his campaigns. This was adapted for The „Small Towns‟ of Roman Britain (Burnham & Wacher
1990, 284) and has thereby gained some currency. However, the letters are less memorable than site
names and limited in their application (allowing a maximum of twenty-six sites). Other publications have
compounded the confusion further by adapting different schemes to suit their purposes and the matter is
not helped when specialists refer to “the” Romano-British cemetery at Baldock (e.g. McKinley 1993b).
It is therefore proposed here to establish a terminology for the different burial grounds identified in Iron
Age and Romano-British Baldock that it is hoped will avoid the confusions caused by earlier publications.
No scheme can be perfect, but this may help to resolve some of the issues arising from the different
terminologies used by different writers.
Stead & Rigby
Burleigh/Drake code and site Cemetery name used
1986; Burnham & Other names
name here
Wacher 1990
BAL-1 Upper Walls Common,
V Site 33 (Applebaum 1932) California
north-western corner by California
BAL-2 Upper Walls Common,
Mercia Road
south-western edge
BAL-3 Upper Walls Common,
south-western edge
BAL-4 Upper Walls Common,
south-western edge
BAL-5 Upper Walls Common,
Pit alignment
south-western edge
BAL-6 Upper Walls Common,
south-eastern end
BAL-7 Upper Walls Common,
A
centre
BAL-8 Upper Walls Common,
A
centre
BAL-9 Upper Walls Common,
A
centre
BAL-10 Upper Walls Common,
A
north-west corner
BAL-11 Upper Walls Common, Upper Walls Common;
S Wallington Road
south-eastern end Barratt Site
Walls Field, School Site;
BAL-12 Hartsfield School
Site 13 (Applebaum 1932)
Walls Field; School Playing
BAL-13 Hartsfield School
Field
BAL-14 Upper Walls Common,
northern edge
Royston Road; Stane
Street; Yeomanry Drive
TB, TH, TK (Stead North; Icknield Way
BAL-15 Royston Road E, X
Archive) roadside; Sale Drive East;
Sale Drive West; Sale
Drive Dolines
BAL-16 Upper Walls Common,
south-eastern end
BAL-17 Yeomanry Drive Estate Road
BAL-18 Upper Walls Common, Wallington Rise Estate Plot
south-western centre edge C; Startrite self-build
BAL-19 Upper Walls Common,
south-eastern end
BAL-20 Upper Walls Common,
northern edge
30
BAL-21 California
BAL-22 Walls Field, south-eastern
end
BAL-23 Upper Walls Common
BAL-24 Walls Field
BAL-25 Walls Field, south-eastern
end
BAL-26 Walls Field, south-south-
western edge
BAL-27 Grosvenor Road
BAL-28 South Road
BAL-29 Mansfield Road
BAL-30 The Tene
BAL-31 The Tene
BAL-32 The Tene
BAL-33 Brewery Field
BAL-34 Telephone Exchange
BAL-35 Clothall Road widening,
west
BAL-36 Clothall Road widening,
east
BAL-37 Prospect Terrace
BAL-38 Wallington Road allotments
BAL-39 Baulk path sewer
BAL-40 The Tene
BAL-41 Clothall Common
BAL-42 Clothall Common
BAL-43 Cambrai Farm
BAL-44 The Twitchell
BAL-45 Icknield Way East
BAL-46 Stationmaster‟s House
BAL-47 The Convent Cemetery
BAL-48 65 High Street
BAL-49 2 Clothall Road
BAL-50 Baker‟s Close
BAL-51 The Maltings
BAL-52 Walnut Avenue
BAL-53 39b High Street
BAL-54 The Engine pub
BAL-55 Pepper Alley
BAL-56 4 Clothall Road
BAL-57 Providence Way
BAL-58 Blackhorse Farm
BAL-59 7 Sun Street
BAL-60 18 Pinnocks Lane
BAL-61 25 Clothall Road
BAL-62 High Street
BAL-63 26-8 Orchard Road
BAL-64 Knight‟s Templar School
BAL-65 37-9 The Twitchell
BAL-66 Icknield Way East
BAL-67 North Yeomanry Drive
Site A (Applebaum 1932)
TC, TG, TJ, TM, TO, TR,
TT, TU, TV, TX, TY, TZ Downlands Enclosure A;
A
(Stead Archive); Site 27/28 Downlands Enclosure B
(Applebaum 1932)
JA, JB, JC, JD, JE, JF
B (Stead Archive); Site 10
(Applebaum 1932)
Site 2, Site 11, Site 12
P Walls Field
(Applebaum 1932)
Rubbish pit; Site 5, Site 6
(Applebaum 1932)
Newbery‟s Meadow; Site
N B, Site C , Site 22, Site 29,
Site 30 (Applebaum 1932)
London Road Convent;
Site 8, Site 15 (Applebaum
R 1932); Kayser Bondor; South Road
Tesco; Convent of
Providence
Site 16 (Applebaum 1932)
Chieftain‟s Burial; TE, TN
F, J The Tene
(Stead Archive)
J Clinic site The Tene
K TB (A), TQ (Stead Archive) The Tene
L Site 26 (Applebaum 1932) Brewery Field
Clothall Road; TD (Stead
C Archive); Site 7
(Applebaum 1932)
TA, TL, TW (Stead
D
Archive)
TF, TS (Stead Archive);
D Walls Field (Stead & Rigby Clothall Road
1986, 61-75)
Site 21 (Applebaum 1932)
Site 32 (Applebaum 1932)
TP (Stead Archive); Site
J The Tene
18 (Applebaum 1932)
Area F
Area G
Site 25 (Applebaum 1932)
N, W Site 14 (Applebaum 1932) Icknield Way East
Site 1 (Applebaum 1932)
London Road; Catholic
T South Road
Church
J The Tene
M
Rear of Drapers Court
Rear of Wynne‟s
almshouses
Former Astoria Cinema
Turnpike
31
BAL-68 2-21 Orchard Road
BAL-69 Old White Horse pub Station Road
BAL-70 43 Clothall Road
BAL-71 Former Maltings, Royston
Road
BAL-72 Hitchin Street Butterfield House
BAL-73 24 High Street
BAL-74 Park Street Roe‟s Maltings
BAL-75 27 Park Street
BAL-76 33 Hitchin Street
BAL-77 3a California
BAL-78 26 Orchard Road Butler‟s Yard
BAL-79 Park Street Maltings
BAL-80 14 Westell Close Wallington Road
BAL-81 Icknield Way Eagle Court
BAL-82 33 Whitehorse Street
BAL-83 Simpson Drive
BAL-84 St Mary‟s churchyard
BAL-85 19 Clothall Road
Table 1: Site codes for archaeological work in Baldock

32
3: The settlement
Gilbert R Burleigh & Keith J Fitzpatrick-Matthews

Origins
The earliest evidence for settlement at Baldock dates from the Late Neolithic, although it appears to have
been relatively small scale and scattered in comparison with nearby occupation at Blackhorse Road,
Letchworth (Moss-Eccardt 1988). Large quantities of flint-work, both tools and waste, and of pottery in the
Grooved Ware and Peterborough-type Ware traditions, much found in situ in Late Neolithic contexts,
nevertheless attest to a lengthy occupation. Flint forms also continue well into the Bronze Age transition
period (c 2700-2000 BC). Artefacts of Middle to Late Bronze Age date are uncommon at Baldock,
although it may be that the focus of settlement shifted away from Upper Walls Common where much of
the fieldwork from 1978 to 1994 took place, to a site as yet unknown. The springs of the River Ivel, to the
north-west, may have assumed a greater importance at this time.
It is not until the Middle Iron Age (c 400-100 BC) that there are signs of more substantial occupation. The
large doline at California was used for the disposal of human bodies, perhaps by exposure. One of the
residual bones yielded a radiocarbon date of 2380 ± 130 bp (HAR-5965, 508 ± 396 Cal BC at 2ζ), placing
this activity within the Middle Iron Age. So far, only this burial evidence has been identified and the
location of contemporary settlement remains unknown, although Middle Iron Age pottery was found in
residual contexts in a nearby doline to the north, where the Yeomanry Drive North cemetery would later

be located.
Figure 20: The Baldock oppidum
Evidence for a settlement of considerable importance becomes unequivocal during the early first century
BC. Late Iron Age Baldock developed as a large open settlement that grew to some 13 ha extent. 3.5 km
to the north-east, and originating earlier, during the Middle Iron Age, was Arbury Banks, an enclosed
settlement of moderate proportions, usually regarded as a hillfort. Five kilometres to the west lay Wilbury
Hill, a larger enclosure than Arbury Banks and of Early Iron Age origin (Applebaum 1949). Again, its
character is of hillfort type, although most of its area occupies a south-facing scarp below the plateau.
Ravensburgh Castle, a further ten kilometres away, was a more typical hillfort. It seems to have been built
in the fourth century BC and to have remained occupied until the Roman conquest (Dyer 1976, 158).
Excavations by James Dyer in the 1960s and 70s have not yet been published, but concentrated on
examining the sequence of construction of its single bank and ditch. Both Arbury Banks and Wilbury have
also produced quantities of Romano-British material (Cussans 1870 II, 5; Westell 1926a; Westell 1927a),
suggesting continuity of occupation into the Roman period contemporary with the growth of Baldock.
33
A number of parallel ditch systems and pit alignments have long been known in the Baldock area. Some
cross the Icknield Way at right angles and were long thought to be tribal boundaries (Dyer 1961, 39-43),
but it has become clear that in the Baldock area, at least, they define areas of settlement activities, as in
typical oppida (Burleigh 1995b, 10). Rather than defining boundaries and impeding movement along the
Icknield Way as James Dyer suggested, they appear to have been intended to focus and control
movement and activities, a subtle difference. Indeed, it is evident that they defined an area of more
intensive activity – for habitation, industry and burial – and incorporated the settlement enclosures at
Arbury Banks and Wilbury towards the edge of the zone. The form of these ditches and pit alignments is
rather different from those of a typical oppidum, as there are several instances of multiple parallel
features, which has been taken to suggest that the Baldock oppidum developed rather earlier than the
more familiar oppida at Verlamion, Camulodunon and so on (Burleigh 1995b, 112).
Perhaps the earliest feature in this landscape was a pit alignment running for at least 1.5 km from the
medieval town towards Wallington. The alignment appears to begin at the springs that form the source of
the River Ivel, although it has not yet been traced north-west of Hartsfield School. It continues to the
south-east for about a kilometre towards a subrectangular enclosure at Cambrai Farm, where at least two
other almost parallel pit alignments have been identified from aerial photographs. Inside the enclosure,
the main alignment turns through about 140° to continue in a more east north-easterly direction towards
Wallington, although its exact destination is unknown. When first dug, probably in the second century BC,
the pits were left open, the chalk in their bases probably shining brightly. The chalk removed from them
seems to have been piled up on one side – the north – to make a bank, and would have been highly
visible. The pits remained open for long enough for silting to occur, but in some cases they were
deliberately backfilled, and were little more than slight depressions in the ground, when massive timber
posts were inserted into at least some of them, perhaps around 100 BC.

Plate 8: The pit alignment at BAL-5 under excavation in 1981

The alignment seems to have survived as a landscape feature over a long period. There is evidence for
silting in many of the pits, followed by an episode of deliberate backfilling, after which some had
substantial timber uprights inserted into them, and at least one of these was subsequently replaced. By
the later first century BC, some pits (or the posts they now contained) had been obliterated by later
features, but the alignment continued to be respected for the most part as a boundary throughout the
Roman period. Like other pit alignments, its exact function is unclear (Thomas 2003, 84). However, it is
evident that, as an alignment of posts, it marked the boundary between an area used for settlement and
an area used for burial during the later first century BC and the early first century AD, suggesting that it
divided the oppidum into two symbolic zones, one for the living and another for the dead.
Around the time the pit alignment was converted to an alignment of posts, the first formal burials were
made. They include the Welwyn-type burial discovered in The Tene in 1968, the earliest of its type so far
found in Britain (Stead & Rigby 1986, 60-61). It remains the only very early burial from the western side of
the town, as Upper Walls Common became the focus for further burials over the next century or so. The
34
burials form a diverse group: in addition to the burial enclosures at Icknield Way East (BAL-45), the two at
California (BAL-1) and a site excavated in 1970-1 (Stead & Rigby 1986, 61), there was an area of
scattered inhumations to the south-east at Wallington Road (BAL-11), a cremation cemetery and an
inhumation cemetery separated by a road at Yeomanry Drive North and Stane Street (BAL-15). There
were also two graves in the solution hollow at California (BAL-1) whose decayed occupants were
removed several times to be replaced with new bodies.
While this was happening, settlement was becoming more formalised to the south-west, with enclosures
laid out around a developing network of roads on Walls Field. Each enclosure seems to have been a
single domestic property. The old pit alignment formed the boundary between the inhabited area and the
zone apparently reserved for burials. The sole point at which the alignment was broken was the cursiform
monument at Mercia Road (BAL-2), to the south-east, at the north-eastern end of which stood a circular
building that may have been a temple or mortuary house (Burleigh 1982, 14). This may have functioned
as a processional way approaching the world of the dead and seems to have been located on the very
edge of the settlement.
The only excavated evidence for early settlement came from the trenches dug alongside Clothall Road in
1968, suggesting that the original settlement area lay towards the south-western edge of Walls Field.
Little is known of its character, as this is an area that has hardly been explored since the Scheduling of
the field in 1945, but a series of parallel ditches towards the south-east have been thought to define its
limit (Burleigh 1995a, 179).

Figure 21: Iron Age Baldock (1: The Tene chieftain‟s burial; 2: California Large Enclosure; 3:
California Small Enclosure; 4: Downlands Enclosure A; 5: Downlands Enclosure B; 6: Icknield
Way East Enclosure; 7: Yeomanry Drive North; 8: Stane Street; 9: Icknield Way Roadside; 10: Sale
Drive Doline; 11: Mercia Road; 12: Wallington Road; 13: South Road; 14: Hartsfield School)
It was during this period that Julius Caesar invaded Britain and in the summer of 54 BC, he was in the
Hertfordshire area. He defeated a king named Cassivellaunus, forcing him to pay tribute, but the location
of his oppidum remains unknown. Both Wheathampstead and Ravensburgh Castle have been suggested
(Wheeler & Wheeler 1936, 9; Dyer 1976, 158), but neither seems suitable (Niblett 1995b, 14). It is just
possible, if unlikely, that Baldock was his main centre; if not, it was certainly the centre of a locally
significant warlord and perhaps of one of the peoples mentioned by Caesar – the Bibroci, the Segontiaci,
the Ancalites or the Cassi – none of whom can now be located (although the Cassi are sometimes
thought to have been the same as the Catuvellauni (Wheeler & Wheeler 1936, 8)). In the aftermath of the
war, a ruler emerged north of the Thames whose coins name him as Aθθedomarus, sometimes written
35
Addedomarus. Nothing is known about him beyond his name and he seems to disappear around 30 BC
(van Arsdell 1989, 18).

Growth
Beginning in the reign of Tasciovanus (after about 25 BC), Baldock began to develop rapidly. The
distinction between a zone reserved for the living and a separate one for the dead seems to have broken
down. Further enclosures were laid out on Upper Walls Common, extending the area of the settlement to
the north and east, and it is clear that by this date the settlement was turning into more than just a village.
It is possible that the settlement also expanded to the south and west, but this is the area overlapped by
the modern town, which remains poorly explored. It is around this time that the first evidence is found for
formally defined roads, consisting of a metalled area between ditches, as opposed to earthen tracks
(Stead & Rigby 1986, 84). A road was laid out parallel with the north-eastern side of the old pit alignment
and at least five others eventually crossed Walls Field on the same alignment as the broad ditched area,
establishing a rough street grid.
Other oppida were developing in the region. The site of St Albans (its name is given as Verlamion on
coins of this period) became the dominant centre in the region, the main town of the Catuvellauni. It is
possible that this period witnessed the development of the Catuvellauni as a distinct kingdom, subsuming
those peoples named by Caesar who can no longer be located on present evidence. Around this time, too,
the oppidum at Braughing began to develop on the border with the Trinovantes („the very modern people‟),
the people of Essex who were also ruled by Tasciovanus. Its rapid development has been thought to show
that it was a principal trading centre (Potter & Trow 1988, 158). There can be little doubt that although
Baldock continued to grow at this time, its relative importance declined as these newer towns developed
and rapidly overtook it.

Figure 22: The Late Iron Age burial zone

Many of the burial grounds in the area that had previously been a zone of the dead stopped being used
around the time of the Claudian invasion. Only those at the extreme ends of the zone – at Wallington
Road (BAL-11) to the south-east and Icknield Way East (BAL-45) to the north-west – and those at
Yeomanry Drive North and Stane Street (BAL-15), north-east of the zone, continued in use. The four
square enclosures at California and Downlands all became incorporated into domestic sites, with
Downlands Enclosure A obliterated by a new road. It is possible that this destruction of old burial grounds
was more than a simple by-product of urban expansion and that it involved the deliberate desecration of
sites representing an older order. At Downlands Enclosure A, the road seems to have been constructed in
the period AD 50-70, so the changes occurred more than a decade after the Roman conquest and cannot
be linked with it in a simplistic way.
Two structures identified in 1982 on the Hartsfield School site (BAL-12) consisted of ring ditches, both
with the same centre but with the outer ditch (17 m in diameter) earlier than the inner (15 m diameter).
The smaller ring ditch was cut by a first century AD rubbish pit and both were truncated by a ditch running
parallel with the road. In 1987, a rectilinear structure was identified, consisting of shallow beamslots that
36
overlay infilled pits on the pit alignment but truncated by early Romano-British pits. South of this, a small
rectangular structure consisting of beamslots with an open end to the north-east was also recorded, but it
could not be dated. In 1991, a roundhouse was discovered to the south-east of the road on the Hartsfield
School site; a drip-gully some 13 m in diameter overlay an earlier working hollow. It appeared to date
from the late first century BC or the early first century AD.
Tasciovanus died around 10 BC (van Arsdell 1989, 19) and there seems to have been some kind of
dispute over the leadership of the Catuvellauni, perhaps a civil war (van Arsdell 1989, 22). Coins were
issued with a number of different names and at Baldock, the name Andoco… (his full name has not yet
been discovered) is frequently found. He may have been from Baldock or at least have used it as his main
centre. After him, coins inscribed DIAS are found (and there is a unique example from Baldock (Burleigh
1982, 14)), followed by RVIIS; it is by no means certain that these are the names of rulers. By AD 7, the
situation was stable and Cunobelinus had become dominant; he claimed to be a son of Tasciovanus (van
Arsdell 1989, 23), although claims for dynastic links must be treated with caution, as they were employed
as a legitimising tactic (Creighton 2000, 170).

The Roman period

It is easy to overestimate the importance of the Roman conquest, especially in the Hertfordshire region
(Niblett 1995b, 22). There was no military occupation as the main resistance – after the fall of
Camulodunon (Colchester) in the summer of AD 43 – was conducted by people further west. Some have
even suggested that the Roman army was invited to Britain; at the very least, Claudius was responding to
a coup among the Atrebates, the people to the south-west of the Catuvellauni and the recent death of
Cunobelinus (Creighton 2000, 220). The Catuvellauni had a new leader, Caratacus, as Cunobelinus
seems to have died in AD 41 or 42; after the siege of Camulodunon, he fled to Wales, leaving his people
leaderless. The Romans may have appointed a new king, Tiberius Claudius Togidubnus, who claimed to
be a son of Verica of the Atrebates, expelled during the recent coup, to rule the south-east while the army
pressed north and west into enemy territory.
Early changes in Baldock include the increasingly formal roads, which were extended to the north-east
across Upper Walls Common, where yet more enclosures were laid out. The growth that had begun in the
decades before the conquest continued apace. In some areas, these new enclosures were individual
properties, with buildings inside them, but in other cases, they seem to have defined paddocks, fields and
perhaps orchards. The character of the north-eastern part of the town was very open, with a great deal of
green space and none of the crowded street frontages usually regarded as typical of Romano-British
towns. It is possible that occupation was mare intensive in the core of the town, but this area is very poorly
explored and many of the buildings known there date from the fourth century.
There is no evidence for the establishment of a Roman fort in the town, although one has occasionally
been postulated (e.g. Webster 1980, 116f.). There is no good reason to regard the three lead sealings
found since 1980 and reading C.VIC / SPVS (RIB 2411.261-3; Frere et al. 1990, 118) as military, despite
their superficial similarity to stamps issued by cohorts. A few small metal items of military dress have been
found but they may be compared with the chain-mail found in the pyre pit for the central burial in the
California Large Enclosure, recently interpreted as a diplomatic gift to a native ruler or the equipment of an
obses who had served in the Roman army (Creighton 2006, 49). Around the time of the revolt of Boudica
in AD 60, at least 98 sheep were slaughtered in the middle of winter and the bones deposited in a single
pit. It has been suggested that this was the work of the Roman army, gathering provisions for the
campaign against Boudica (Stead & Rigby 1986, 86), but it is equally possible that this was the work of
Boudica, also gathering provisions, or perhaps even the people of Baldock offering their support to one or
other side. More likely, this is evidence of ritual feasting at a location that was certainly a religious site by
the mid-second century AD.
Under the new administrative arrangements of the Roman province of Britannia, Baldock would have been
a vicus, the smallest unit of local government, and perhaps the centre of a pagus, „parish‟. If so, it would
have had its own ordo, a „parish council‟ of elected decuriones, but all important matters, such as tax
collection and legal proceedings, would have taken place at Verulamium, a newly planned town in the
Roman style that had been built to replace the old capital of Verlamion (Niblett 1995b, 29).
Most of the settlement evidence consists of pits and enclosure ditches. In the northern part of BAL-13, for
instance, a series of interrelated pits was recorded. Four appeared to date principally from the Late Pre-
Roman Iron Age and early Roman periods. Nearby, at the southern end of the Hartsfield School site
(BAL-12) in 1991, several early Romano-British pits were discovered, with evidence for increasing activity
on the site during the first century AD. One pit contained four postholes in its base; the posts appear to
have slanted inwards, suggesting that they supported something over its centre. It seems to have gone
out of use in the middle of the first century AD and was used to deposit a neonatal inhumation.

37
Figure 23: Romano-British Baldock (1: Icknield Way East; 2: Icknield Way Roadside; 3: Sale Drive
West; 4: Sale Drive East; 5: Yeomanry Drive South; 6: California; 7: Royston Road; 8: Wallington
Road; 9: Walls Field; 10: Clothall Road; 11: The Tene; 12: South Road; 13 Wynn Close temple; 14:
Bakers Close temple; 15: „The Engine‟ possible mansio)
Four structures were found on the playing field to the south-west of Hartsfield School (BAL-13), all
fragmentary. One consisted of a short length of a partly robbed flint rubble wall, aligned on the road
passing through the site. A stretch of curving gully to its south may have been a drainage ditch for water
from its roof or it may have been part of a roundhouse drip gully. A second length of rubble wall on the
north-western edge of the site contained a large re-used millstone, while a surface composed of tile, flint
and sandstone rubble on the southern edge of the site seemed to be part of an internal floor. A T-shaped
kiln on the same consisted of a shallow clay-lined trough, with evidence for burning in the shaft of the T,
although there was no trace of a building that might have covered it. At 39b High Street (BAL-53), a well
dating from the Late Pro-Roman Iron Age was backfilled during the second half of the first century AD
(Richmond & Burleigh 1992, 7). It seems to have been part of a property with an enclosure ditch.

The peak
By the middle of the second century AD, Romano-British Baldock had grown to its maximum extent of 48
ha (120 acres). The town now covered an area extending from the southern end of the medieval High
Street, north towards the railway station and east to the Clothall Common estate (Burleigh 1995a, 177). It
was about the same size as the medieval town of Baldock, before it began to expand in the nineteenth
century. The size of the population is difficult to gauge; in part, this is a result of the highly dispersed
nature of the settlement, at least in those areas so far investigated. As each enclosure seems to have
contained a single domestic unit and fewer than twenty enclosures have been positively identified, while
no more than twenty-five domestic buildings have been recognised, the actual population numbers must
have been fairly small. It can be calculated, for instance, that the living population represented by second-
century burials at the Wallington Road cemetery was under fifty people. However, this was by no means
the only cemetery in use at the time. An overall population of around five hundred seems likely at this
period.

38
Figure 24: Wynn Close temple enclosure
A large structure identified at The Engine Public House (BAL-54) consisted of a substantial and mostly
robbed-out wall over 14 m long. It probably lay in the south-western angle of the junction formed between
the Icknield Way and Station Road (the medieval Brunestrete) and it was later than a substantial ditch
dating from the third or fourth century. Its size and location make an identification as a mansio possible
(Richmond et al. 1992, 15). Although the evidence is inconclusive, it is the type of facility that might be
expected in a settlement like Baldock at a major road junction.
At this time, an unusually large enclosure was laid out on Clothall Common (Figure 24; Plate 7; Stead &
Rigby 1986, 86). At its centre stood a roundhouse some 7 m in diameter, which would have been one of
the last ever erected in Baldock. Over the next century or so, a series of pits were dug to its north and a
single adult burial was made inside the enclosure. The pits and a nearby well contained one of the largest
collections of iron spearheads and arrowheads ever found in Roman Britain, a series of bronze model
weapons, a model bronze antler, a rattle thought to have had religious uses, a dog burial and a pipeclay
figurine of Venus. It is likely that this was the site of a shrine (Burleigh 1995a, 182); given the huge

39
collection of weapons, it is possible that the god (or goddess) worshipped here was connected with
hunting or warfare.

Plate 9: The Wynn Close temple under excavation, 1971

A series of enclosures laid out at The Stationmaster‟s House (BAL-46) during the later first century AD
had gone out of use by the end of the second century (Atkinson et al. 1992, 13). During the third century,
a large ditch running at an angle of about 45° to the Icknield Way was dug, which was deliberately
backfilled with rubbish in the later fourth century. Contemporary with the construction of the ditch, a large
quarry was established. It was used to extract chalk, presumably for use in the building industry, perhaps
to manufacture clunch or cob. It began to fill up with rubbish during the second half of the fourth century,
but clearly remained open for many centuries.

Decline
Early in the third century, some of the enclosures on Clothall Common seem to have gone out of use,
suggesting that this part of the town at least was shrinking for reasons that are not fully understood. It is
known that a number of severe plagues hit the Western Roman Empire in the late second and early third
centuries and it is possible that Baldock was badly hit. Fewer people were being buried after AD 200 in all
the town‟s cemeteries. This may be an indication that the population was getting smaller. On the other
hand, it may mean that the existing cemeteries were becoming less popular and that people who might
once have been buried in them were being buried elsewhere. Indeed, it was around this time that new
cemeteries were established at California, The Tene and Icknield Way East.
Because so little work has taken place on Walls Field and Baker‟s Close, which was where the centre of
the town evidently lay, it is unclear if the pattern of abandonment at Upper Walls Common was also
happening there. It is possible that occupation was becoming more concentrated without a drop in
population, with denser housing filling in the former gaps between properties. Certainly, occupation at
Hartsfield School continued throughout the third and fourth centuries and the digging of rubbish pits
through a major road there has been interpreted as a result of increasing pressure on land use (Colley &
Burleigh 1995). At Hartsfield School playing field (BAL-13), the earlier of a pair of Late Roman pits
contained a coin hoard containing issues of Constantine I, Constans and Constantine II, with a TPQ of
347. It is tempting to link its deposition with political upheavals associated with the usurpation of
Maxentius (350-3).
Despite the decline seen towards the eastern edge of the town in the third century, substantial buildings
continued to be built in the fourth century (Stead & Rigby 1986, 86) and even later, as Applebaum found
in Newbery‟s Meadow (Applebaum 1932, 250). Whilst the population may have been falling – and this is
a pattern seen in many other places (Niblett 1995b, 119) – overall prosperity seems to have remained
high. It was during the fourth century that the most substantial buildings so far identified in Baldock were
constructed: as well as masonry foundations, there were buildings with painted wall plaster and concrete
mouldings. One of the finest Romano-British door keys ever found comes from Baldock: it must have
40
opened a door belonging to someone very wealthy indeed (Stead & Rigby 1986, 87), or perhaps to a
temple.
At the southern end of the 1991 excavation at Hartsfield School (BAL-12), a square pit with sides 3 m
long and cut 0.94 m into the chalk was discovered, which was evidently used as a cellar. In the centre of
the cellar, a shaft 1.54 m in diameter and 3.68 m deep had been cut through the floor, on which four
beamslots set into packed chalk rubble formed a grid over the shaft, evidently to hold some sort of hoist.
At the base of the shaft was destruction débris, including tiles and wood with nails attached, evidently part
of the structure that had once stood over the cellar. On top of the demolition débris, four skeletons were
found: two adult males, an adolescent and a child. Above the bodies were deposits containing domestic
rubbish, all apparently deposited at the same time, although the top 1.8 m of the shaft showed
considerable weathering, suggesting that it had remained open for some time after the demolition of the
building. East of the cellar, a series of beamslots may have been part of the superstructure. A nearby well
seemed to be contemporary with the structure, which seems to have been demolished in the fourth
century.
Another cellar-like feature was partially excavated at 39b High Street (BAL-53); it consisted of a linear
trench some 9 m long and 1.75 m wide, cut 0.45 m into the chalk. It seems to have been backfilled during
the third or fourth centuries. Intriguingly, it shared the same alignment as a post-medieval barn, raising
the possibility that some property boundaries survived to influence the layout of the medieval „new town‟.
A similar phenomenon was noted at The Twitchell (BAL-44), where Romano-British linear features were
overlain by medieval features on the same alignments. North of this feature, a group of five post-holes
may also have belonged to a Romano-British building, although there was no dating evidence from them.
During the late Roman period, the hollow way that had developed on the slope at Hartsfield School (BAL-
12) became a site to dig pits, even though the road clearly continued to be used. Several of the pits
contained large quantities of rubbish, including one ([927]), which contained a great deal of butchered
animal bone. A well on the same site also contained large amounts of animal bone, including wasters
from the manufacture of bone pins, dating from the late third or fourth century AD.

The end
It is always very difficult to recognise when a settlement was finally abandoned and this is particularly the
case with Roman towns, as the consumer goods that date them stopped being produced in the early fifth
century, perhaps because the élites using this material no longer existed (Faulkner 2000, 176). Baldock
seems to have suffered from the general third- and fourth-century population decline in Britain, and by the
beginning of the fifth century, the area of settlement was much reduced. Stead and Rigby (1986, 87) saw
the late fourth century as the end of Romano-British Baldock, basing their interpretation on the discovery
of two red deer fawn skeletons in the top of a well, as “red deer would never have ventured so far into a
human settlement”. They also thought that the fourth-century burial of humans in the tops of three wells
represented “the end of a civilisation.” The 1980s excavations demonstrated that this date was much too
early; moreover, the presence of the fawn skeletons in a well has been reinterpreted as a ritual deposit
and by no means unique to Baldock (Fulford 2001, 209).
Unusually, Baldock has produced evidence for handmade pottery of sub-Roman date that copies late
Roman forms and introduces some innovations. This shows that some people, at least, were still living in
the settlement well into the fifth and perhaps even the sixth centuries. Some of the latest pottery found in
Baldock resembles the earliest pottery from Bedford, where it has been dated to the sixth century or later.
Indeed, numerous burials dating from the fifth and sixth centuries have been excavated, pointing to
continued occupation (Burleigh 1993, 47). There is also sub-Roman structural evidence that shows a
great deal of continuity with Romano-British traditions and can in no way be ascribed to bands of invading
Anglo-Saxons. The Late Roman burial ground at the end of California continued to be used throughout
this period and nearby, the remains of two timber-framed buildings were found. One of them was a
substantial hall-like structure and the other, a small building, was built over a road surface, showing that
the road must have gone out of use (Burleigh 1982, 14). To the north-east, though, the road passing by
the southern edge of the Royston Road cemetery continued in use and was even repaired long after the
boundary ditch of the cemetery (last cleaned in the early fifth century) had filled up with silt. The
maintenance of roads at this date has not been reported elsewhere other than at Wroxeter (Barker et al.
1997, 134) and it suggests that the local population was trying to maintain a thoroughly Roman-style way
of life.
Some of the activity in the partially excavated cemetery at Icknield Way East belongs after the end of the
fourth century, whilst the cemetery at The Tene contained large numbers of undatable (but potentially
Christian) burials without grave goods. Indeed, the repairing of road surfaces into the late fifth century is a
strong indication for continuity well into the sub-Roman period, unique in eastern England (Dark 1994,
86). Contemporary with these final phases of Romano-British settlement, a site of more germanic
character began to develop at Blackhorse Farm (BAL-58), a kilometre to the north, along the road to
Sandy. The relationship between the two communities is unknown: was the Blackhorse Farm site a
41
pioneer settlement of immigrants from northern Europe, facing strong opposition from the sub-Roman
population at Baldock? Might it even have been a community of Saxon mercenaries employed to defend
the town against raids from hostile Saxon settlers to the north an east? On the other hand, the site seems
to have grown up on a Romano-British farmstead, in which case might the changes in architectural style
and material culture more a matter of shifting fashions? The questions posed by the relationship between
these two contemporary settlements are among the most significant in the archaeology of Baldock and
deserves further in-depth investigation.

Figure 25: Sub-Roman features on BAL-1, including contemporary graves in the California
cemetery
By the seventh century, though, neither site seems to have been occupied. The Romano-British
settlement, in decline since the fourth century, appears to have been abandoned by 600, its population
perhaps dispersed to the countryside or devastated by mortuary crises. The Blackhorse Farm site, like so
many early medieval settlements, failed to develop; perhaps it was affected by the settlement shift known
as the Middle Saxon Shuffle. By the time of Domesday Book in 1086, Baldock was simply a corner of the
manor of Weston (Morris 1976, 28.4).

The „New Town‟ of the 1140s

At an unknown date in the early 1140s, the Knights Templar laid out a new town at Baldock, following the
grant of part of Weston by its lord, Gilbert de Clare (Westell & Applebaum 1933, 236; Beresford 1967,
452-3; Crellin 1995, 24). Avoiding the site of the Romano-British settlement, the main road was diverted
by way of an L-shaped market place, and it is perhaps no coincidence that the backs of the medieval
burgage plots south of White Horse Street and east of the northern end of High Street coincide with the
edge of the ancient settlement. Whether this represents a continuity of boundaries over the intervening
42
six centuries or suggests that there were still substantial ruined structures blocking the former site is open
to question (Burleigh 1982), although there are clearly substantial, unploughed masonry buildings
surviving beneath Bakers Close and the field name Walls Field is equally suggestive. It was not until the
mid twentieth century that development began to encroach on the Romano-British town, especially with
the development of the Clothall Common estate on Upper Walls Common between 1980 and 1995.

The character of the Iron Age and Romano-British settlement

Because most excavations have taken place on the edges of the ancient settlement, less is known about
the town than about its cemeteries. This has undoubtedly distorted our view of the place and the facilities
it had to offer. There were certainly temples – there is at least one beneath Baker‟s Close and another on
Clothall Common – but no other public buildings have been found. There were no town walls or any other
physical boundary around the settlement. There was no street grid, no forum, no law court, no market
hall, no public baths and no theatre or amphitheatre, so far as is known. The temple at Baker‟s Close lay
in the centre of the town, beside the main road from Verulamium. It was a typical Romano-Celtic type,
with a central rectangular cella surrounded by an ambulatory; it stood inside a large rectangular enclosure
with stone walls, evidently facing the main road. It was surrounded by a number of rectangular and
trapezoidal enclosures, one of which may have been another temple, some of which may have been
connected with it, but there were also houses nearby. There is a distinct impression that religion lay at the
heart of the town, metaphorically as well as literally: perhaps it was a place of pilgrimage, where a local
god or goddess (or maybe a combination of deities) was celebrated.
In the area around the central temple, and especially to its south, there were substantial houses. Many
seem to date from the third and fourth centuries, but they may have replaced earlier houses; others have
not been dated. It is possible that some of them were built as guesthouses for pilgrims, although most
were likely private residences. The concentration around the main road and the temple suggests that this
was the most prestigious part of the town. On Walls Field, there is evidence for intense activity in the area
closest to Baker‟s Close and it is clear that this was the centre of the town from its inception.
Towards the edge of the town, houses seem to have been spaced further apart. Many stood in individual
enclosures; perhaps the large open spaces around them were used for market gardening, pasture or
even small-scale arable farming, although some may have been ornamental gardens. Towards the edge
of the town, the enclosures are larger and spaced further apart, giving the impression that the town simply
blended into the fields that surrounded it. It is the locations of the cemeteries that really define the limits of
the town.
Agriculture must always have been the mainstay of the local economy, although few agricultural sites
have been investigated locally. Trade in consumer goods brought luxuries into the settlement. Some were
made locally: there is evidence for light industry around Hartsfield School (BAL-12 and BAL-13) and some
of the pottery used in the settlement seems to have been made here. This is not unusual for a Romano-
British „small town‟. Many goods were brought in from outside and there were probably people who
worked full time as merchants and shopkeepers to maintain the supply. The temples would also have had
workers. Two copper alloy pen nibs and the „Baldock curse‟ (RIB 221: Collingwood & Wright 1965, 72-3)
attest to a level of literacy within the town.

43
4: The cemeteries
Keith J Fitzpatrick-Matthews, Gilbert R Burleigh & Mark D Stevenson
At least twenty-one cemeteries are known to have existed in ancient Baldock, not all in use at the same
time (Burleigh 1993, 46). All the known sites lay on the north-eastern, eastern and southern edges of the
town, which is typical of Romano-British burial grounds; it must be suspected that others lay to the west,
where the medieval „new town‟ now covers their sites. Because most of the new development in the
second half of the twentieth century took place on the eastern and southern edges of the ancient
settlement, much of the excavation work has taken place on cemeteries and in many ways more is known
about them than about the town itself.
Cemetery Type Date Number of Publication
graves
California Large Square cremation c 50 - 25 BC 7+ Burleigh 1982; Rankov et al.
Enclosure enclosure 1982, 369; Frere et al. 1983,
304
Wallington Road Inhumation then cremation c 50 BC - AD 174 Frere et al. 1984, 304
cemetery 310
Icknield Way Inhumation cemetery c 50 BC - AD 13
Roadside 250
California Small Square cremation c 40 - 1 BC 3+
Enclosure enclosure
Icknield Way East Square cremation c 25 BC - AD 75 17+ Frere et al. 1989, 298
Enclosure enclosure?
Stane Street Inhumation cemetery c 20 BC - AD 82 Stead & Rigby 1986, 77
105 burials 24 & 25
South Road Cremation cemetery c 10 BC - AD 7+ Goodburn et al. 1976, 338
125
Mercia Road Cremations AD c 1 - 50 4+ Frere et al. 1984, 304
Yeomanry Drive Cremation cemetery AD c 1 - 105 59 Stead & Rigby 1986, 77
North burials 22 & 23
Sale Drive East Cremation then mixed-rite AD c 1 - 250 65
cemetery
Downlands Square enclosure AD c 1 - 25 1+ Stead & Rigby 1986, 61
enclosure A
Downlands Square enclosure AD c 25 - 50 1 Stead & Rigby 1986, 61
enclosure B
Clothall Road Cremation cemetery AD c 50 - 105 8+ Stead & Rigby 1986, 61-75
Sale Drive Doline Mixed rite cemetery AD c 50 - 150 16
Yeomanry Drive Mixed-rite cemetery AD c 70 - 300 15
South
Walls Field Mixed rite then inhumation AD c 70 - 310 351+ Westell 1931
cemetery
Royston Road Mixed-rite then inhumation AD c 70 - 450 720 Stead & Rigby 1986, 75-77;
cemetery Frere et al. 1987, 327; 1989,
298
Sale Drive West Mixed-rite cemetery AD c 75 - 300 59
Icknield Way East Mixed rite then inhumation AD c 175 - 450 34+ Frere et al. 1989, 298;
cemetery Burleigh et al. 2006
California Inhumation cemetery AD c 175 - 550 98 Frere et al. 1986, 401
The Tene Inhumation cemetery AD c 275 - 450 80+ Burleigh 1980; Stead &
Rigby 1986, 78; Frere et al.
1989, 300
Table 2: Cemeteries in Baldock
Although there is evidence for earlier burials – most notably the Welwyn-type burial from The Tene (Stead
& Rigby 1986, 51) – formal burial grounds originated in the first century BC, presumably when the town
began to develop (Stead & Rigby 1986, 84; Burleigh 1995a, 179). Two distinct pre-conquest forms occur:
those within an enclosure up to about 38 m square and unenclosed cemeteries. Five sites of the first type
have been identified, all north of the settlement focus on Walls Field and north of the earlier pit alignment.
They have a „rich‟ central cremation surrounded by satellite burials of less complexity; the central burials
appear to have been covered by an earthen mound. There is evidence to suggest that the satellite burials
were inserted into the mounds rather than being covered by them. These burial enclosures were used
solely for cremations and in one of them (the California Large Enclosure), a pit was dug close to the
central grave to contain débris from the pyre.

44
By contrast, unenclosed cemeteries founded at Wallington Road and Stane Street in the second half of
the first century BC (Burleigh 1993, 43) were purely used for inhumations. The initial contrast is therefore
between cremations in enclosures and inhumations in less formally defined cemeteries, but early in the
first century AD, an unenclosed cremation cemetery was established in a shallow doline at Yeomanry
Drive North and the first cremations were deposited at Wallington Road. Over the next fifty years, more
evidently unenclosed cemeteries developed at Walls Field, Clothall Road and South Road.
The significance of this distinction between enclosed and unenclosed cemeteries appears to be one of
status. The enclosed sites generally had central and occasionally peripheral burials that contain elements
thought to indicate high status. These included multiple pottery vessels, bronze-bound tripod buckets,
joints of meat, jewellery and other metalwork, including razors. All contained only cremations, suggesting
that cremation of the dead was a higher status rite than inhumation; the cremated remains in these
burials were generally left unenclosed in the pit, although there is also evidence for wooden caskets. The
unenclosed cemeteries, by contrast, contained inhumations or single-vessel and unurned cremations
only.
C1 AD C2 AD C3 AD C4 AD C5 AD
California Large
Enclosure
Wallington Road
cemetery
Icknield Way Roadside
California Small
Enclosure
Icknield Way East
Enclosure
Stane Street cemetery

South Road cemetery

Mercia Road shrine

Yeomanry Drive North
cemetery
Sale Drive East
cemetery
Downlands Enclosure A

Downlands Enclosure B

Clothall Road cemetery

Sale Drive doline
cemetery
Yeomanry Drive South
cemetery
Walls Field cemetery

Royston Road cemetery

Sale Drive West
cemetery
Icknield Way East
cemetery
California cemetery

The Tene cemetery

Key:
Inhumation cemetery Mixed-rite cemetery Cremation cemetery
Table 3: Cemetery types by date
Another phenomenon of the Late Iron Age (and, in at least one instance, earlier) was the use of large
solution features in the chalk bedrock of Upper Walls Common for burials. Some of the solution features
are tiny, only tens of millimetres across, some are linear, while others form extensive, circular or irregular
hollows, known as dolines. They are thought to have formed as a result of periglacial processes that
enlarged existing fractures in the chalk (Hopson et al. 1996, 124). Typically, they are filled with sandy
clays, while there are also pockets of clay-with-flints, some of which seems to have provided some of the
45
parent material for the fills of the solution hollows. The variety of forms shown by the solution features
caused enormous problems in identifying archaeological deposits and the cuts of features on many of the
sites on the higher ground, especially where the fills were identical to the parent silts. However, the
deeper solution features were largely unaffected by medieval and later ploughing, preserving a depth of
stratigraphy not represented elsewhere in Baldock. In several places, the depth of material provided an
opportunity to develop stratigraphic sequences as well as providing detailed soil columns for
environmental analysis. It is likely that these dells were seen as natural places for the disposal of the
dead. There may be echoes of pond barrows and the ritual pit (Green 1986, 133) in their use as a means
of accessing the underworld, a natural equivalent of the Greek βοθρός or Roman mundus.
Enclosure of all cemeteries became the norm during the early Roman period. At both Wallington Road
and Royston Road, the boundary ditches date from the later first century AD; the Walls Field cemetery
was probably also enclosed, although the date of the boundary ditch is unclear (Applebaum 1932, 255).
The late inhumation cemetery at California was in a rectangular enclosure that predated the use of the
site as a burial ground and which passed out of use during the earliest phase of burial deposition. At The
Tene and Icknield Way East, however, the limited nature of investigations in this area could have missed
any boundary features, particularly if they were not indicated by a ditch. The evidence from Wallington
Road certainly indicates that boundaries continued to be respected even after the filling of the ditch,
suggesting that fences, banks, hedges or a combination of such markers were maintained through the
subsequent use of the burial ground. The location of the majority of the cemeteries at road junctions will
have placed ready-made limits on their expansion.

Dating the burials

Dating burials with any degree of precision is rarely easy. Cemeteries often lack vertical stratigraphy and
have few relationships between burials. A start must therefore be made with pottery dating. This is
easiest to apply to cremation groups where an assemblage of vessels can be assigned approximate
dates of manufacture, but some contain pottery of widely differing dates. There are examples from
Baldock with extremes of 150 years or more, so that the date of the vessels cannot always be taken as
an accurate reflection of the date of deposition. The problem is particularly acute with groups containing
samian vessels, where it is frequently clear that these vessels were so old at the time of deposition that
they must be regarded as antiques or heirlooms.
There are even greater problems with dating inhumations, since few graves contain complete pottery
vessels and it is not always possible to be certain whether sherds in a grave backfill are „residual‟
(whatever that may mean in a cemetery context) or a „ritual‟ deposition (whatever that may mean). Where
there are relationships between inhumations and other features this may be useful; some graves contain
redeposited disturbed cremation groups (as seen, for instance, at Royston Road and Walls Field).
Even where the dates of vessels within a group are so close as to suggest that the date of deposition may
be close to that of manufacture, there are problems about how to express the date. Coarse ware vessels
tend to be dated at best by thirds of a century (i.e. early, middle or late) and samian is conventionally
dated by imperial reign or dynasty except where closer dates can be inferred. Dating by imperial reign is a
pernicious habit utterly without relevance to Romano-British Baldock, while dating to thirds of a century
can be too broad, especially where assemblages from intercutting features are regarded as ceramically
contemporary.
In order to avoid giving pseudo-historical dates for the deposition of burials, a system of „notional
generations‟ was devised by Keith Fitzpatrick-Matthews during the early stages of post-excavation work
in the late 1980s. This continued to be used as a convenient means of dating burials during the work
carried out by Mark Stevenson during the 1990s. Whilst the question of generation length for ancient
populations is open to question, four generations rather than the frequently cited three generations per
century is likely to be close to the truth. It has been suggested that the average period of fertility for
women in ancient societies was around 17 to 35 (Miller 1976, 105 suggests 21 to 38, which is much too
late); the mean age of the mother at childbirth would therefore be around 26, which gives a figure
tolerably close to four generations per century. The system devised for Baldock starts in 100 BC, allowing
a numbered sequence of generations to continue through to the sub-Roman period, covering the period
of occupation of the settlement.
The approximate date range for each burial can therefore be expressed in terms of the numbers of the
generations in which the pottery dating suggests its deposition occurred. Few burials can be assigned to
any single generation, so the suggested date of deposition should be treated as a statistical probability. It
was initially assumed that any burial had an equal chance of its true date of deposition falling into any one
of the generations allowed by the pottery date. This may not be an accurate assumption, but in this way a
general spread of burial dates can be established. The overall figures shows a huge peak in burials
during the second century AD, with a dramatic slump in the third. The extreme nature of this decline in
numbers from the late second to early third century raises suspicions that it is a function of the reliance
upon samian to date many pottery assemblages. No samian manufactured later than AD c 190 reached
46
Baldock, so that an unknown number of third century burials datable only by reference to samian have
almost certainly been placed a generation or so too early. It may be possible to suggest „calibrations‟ for
the dates, based on observations about the longevity of samian (Wallace 2006, 268), or by weighting
probabilities for the date of deposition towards the end of the suggested range (and even beyond), but
this is not the place to examine such possibilities.
Generation Date
1 100 – 74 BC
2 75 – 49 BC
3 50 – 22 BC
4 25 – 1 BC
5 AD 1 – 25
6 AD 26 – 50
7 AD 51 – 75
8 AD 76 – 100
9 AD 101 – 125
10 AD 126 – 150
11 AD 151 – 175
12 AD 176 – 200
13 AD 201 – 225
14 AD 226 – 250
15 AD 251 – 275
16 AD 276 – 300
17 AD 301 – 325
18 AD 326 – 350
19 AD 351 – 375
20 AD 376 – 400
21 AD 401 – 425
22 AD 426 – 450
23 AD 451 – 475
24 AD 476 – 500
25 AD 501 – 525
26 AD 526 – 550
Table 4: Notional generations devised for dating burials
In the following cemetery descriptions, each burial is assigned a range of dates based on these „notional
generations‟ rather than traditional historical dates. It should always be borne in mind that they are a
statistical device and that the latest generation figure given is not to be regarded as a terminus ante
quem, although the first date is a terminus post quem.

Iron Age enclosures

California large enclosure

Setting
The enclosure was visible as a major feature both from the geophysical survey of 1979 and from aerial
photographs of Upper Walls Common, although its character was not understood at the time. As the
original plan for the development of the common was to commence buildings works at the western end of
the field, the enclosure was selected for the first phase of investigation. Work began in 1980 immediately
after the end of a town centre excavation in Hitchin, with the labour force drawn largely from the ranks of
the enthusiastic and loyal members of the local archaeological society. Moving so quickly from one
demanding site to another proved a taxing task for the members. The first season‟s work on this
enclosure was limited to cleaning an area of 1,600 m², cutting a number of sections across the enclosure
ditch and commencing the excavation of several features, including two wells.
The nearly square enclosure lay in one corner of a crossroads. Continued renewal of the roadside ditches
through to the sub-Roman period meant that it was impossible to date the origins of the roads with any
precision, but it is likely that they pre-dated the construction of the enclosure, although not necessarily by
very long. The enclosure was dug on more-or-less level ground to the east of a large doline that had been
the focus of earlier burial activity. It measured 38.5 × 36 m overall and its shallow V-shaped ditches
survived up to 2 m across at the top of the chalk and up to 1 m deep. In the centre of the ditch on the
south-eastern side was a causeway.

47
Figure 26: California Large Enclosure
Inside the enclosure, six badly truncated cremation groups were located, initially suggesting that it had
been a cremation cemetery. At the centre was a second-century AD T-shaped corn drying kiln. A dark
feature partly truncated by the western side of the kiln was completely excavated and the entire fill sieved.
The material obtained from it proved to be débris from a late Iron Age cremation pyre. During the
excavation of the corn dryer in 1981, it was found to have truncated a second feature, to the east. This
proved to be a high status Late Iron Age burial, which included a bronze bound wooden bucket, pedestal
urns and the remains of three pigs (Burleigh 1982, 12). This demonstrated that the enclosure was an
exceptionally large square burial enclosure similar to the smaller examples excavated nearby by Ian
Stead between 1968 and 1972 (Stead & Rigby 1986).
Context Age Sex Date Type
F7 3-4 Unurned (?) cremation
F64 Mature adult Female 3-4 Unurned (?) cremation
F66 Adult? 3-4 Unurned (?) cremation
F80 3-4 Unurned (?) cremation
F81 3-4 Unurned (?) cremation
F95 3-4 Pyre débris pit
F106 Adult 3-4 Unurned (?) cremation
Table 5: California large enclosure summary of burials

48
The central burial (F106)
The central burial, which was clearly the focus of the enclosure, consisted of two discrete elements, both
truncated by a second-century AD corn dryer, F13/14. To the east lay a sub-rectangular pit, F106,
surviving measurements 1.75 × 1.05 m, with its long axis aligned north-north-west to south-south-east,
while to the west, F95 was also sub-rectangular, surviving measurements 2.20 × 1.05 m and with its long
axis aligned north-east to south-west.

Plate 10: F106 under excavation

It was evident that F106 was the grave pit itself, although very little human bone remained in it as a result
of its truncation. In the south-eastern corner of the grave lay a bronze-bound wooden bucket with an iron
rim, which was removed in a soil block by staff of the Ancient Monuments Laboratory for subsequent
excavation, conservation and reconstruction in the laboratory. When found, the entire vessel had been
crushed and distorted. However, sufficient remained to demonstrate that it was built from staves of yew
some 11 mm thick, although it was not possible to determine the width of individual staves. The diameter
of the vessel at the outer edge of its iron rim was 213 mm; below the rim, it was 200 mm. The top of the
rim bore traces of organic residues suggestive of a basketry lid. At the base of the rim was a copper alloy
band 38 mm wide, with a band of punched raised pellets at the top and, at the bottom, a similar band of
pellets above a continuous raised band. This band was pinned to the wooden staves where its two ends
overlapped. 25.5 mm below this band was a second, 28 mm wide. This had raised bands and pellets at
both top and bottom, with raised pellets inside the band. A third band lay 24 mm below this. This band
was 45 mm wide, again with raised bands and pellets at top and bottom. In three places, the band
overlapped flared tabs 10 mm high, below which were copper alloy roundels 41 mm in diameter with
borders of raised pellets. The roundels were pinned to longer staves projecting 42 mm below the base of
the vessel. The base was 210 mm in diameter, demonstrating that the vessel tapered in towards the top.
It stood 216 mm high. Two plain but unmatched iron escutcheons were also found with the vessel and
although they were no longer attached when found, they appear to have projected through slots in the
iron rim. There was no trace of a handle and it was apparent that the vessel had been damaged before
deposition and was not new.
To the north of the bucket was a complete but smashed grog-tempered pedestal jar with „dice box‟ foot of
Thompson (1982) Type A1. These types are found only in contexts of first century BC date and are
associated almost exclusively with burials.
The remains of at least two immature pigs aged two to three years, which had been cut into joints, lay to
the south-west of the bucket and pedestal jar. The right sides of two individuals lay aligned north-west to
south-east, the northernmost with the neck to the north-west, the southernmost with the neck to the
49
south-east. A right foreleg and shoulder had been laid across the northern individual and a lower back leg
joint placed over this. To the north, but badly damaged by the corn dryer, lay another group of ribs aligned
north to south.
No cremated bone was recovered from F106, although part of an adult atlas and humerus head fragment
survived in residual contexts within the kiln to allow a rough assessment of age. The absence of bone in
situ suggests that it had been deposited in the northern part of the grave, which was destroyed when corn
dryer F13/14 was constructed. There were also sherds from a grog tempered jar and a shell-tempered lid-
seated jar from the corn dryer that may have been part of the original burial.

Figure 27: Copper-alloy bound wooden bucket (A: reconstruction of entire vessel; B: metal
elements; C: surviving wooden staves)

Pyre Débris Pit

To the west of the corn dryer, F95 was somewhat deeper and more irregular in shape than the grave pit.
As a result of its greater depth, it had been less damaged by the construction of the corn dryer. The entire
contents of the feature were removed for sieving off-site. Some 3166.4 g of bone were recovered, of
which only 0.1% was identifiable as adult human. The small proportion of human bone in relation to
animal bone suggests that it was not deliberately included and was perhaps collected with other débris
from the funeral pyre, which had been collected as a representative of the pyre gifts. Most of the animal
bone could not be identified to species. Apart from seven bird bones, one amphibian bone and two fish
bones, the remainder was mammalian. The dominant species (4.1%) of the total was horse, followed by
caprid, cattle and pig. All the horse bones were burnt and consisted of tooth and foot bone fragments,
which may have derived from a head and feet left on a hide used to wrap the corpse or act as a cover for
a funerary bier, similar to the hypothesised use of a bearskin in the earlier chieftain‟s burial from The
Tene (Stead & Rigby 1986, 53). The fragments of pig may have derived from a single individual, which
was definitely not one of the animals in the main grave. The remains of a wood mouse and the amphibian
were probably incidental.
Carbonised wood from the pit was identified as deriving from a wide range of species typical of open
chalk landscapes, particularly from hedgerows and coppices. The dominant genus was Quercus (oak),
followed by Fraxinus (ash), Fagus (beech), Sorbus (rowan) and Acer (maple), with single examples of
Corylus (hazel), Salix (willow), Ulmus (elm) and Buxus (box). Other carbonised plant remains included
Triticum spelta (spelt wheat), Hordeum (barley), Rumex (dock), Plantago lanceolata (plantain), Bromus
(brome-grass) and Arrhenatherum elatius (onion couch grass). These may indicate the use of
incompletely threshed cereal straw and grassland weeds as kindling for the pyre.
The pit produced a large quantity of metallic débris, with about ten times as much copper alloy as iron
(597.5 g of copper alloy and 60.4 g of iron). Divided into functional categories, the two metals produced
largely exclusive groups: copper alloy had been used for studs, tacks, pins, clasps, tubes, decorative
bands, rims and sheets, whilst iron had been used for chain-mail armour, nails, clasps and springs. The
most significant material from the pit was the iron chain mail armour, which had been chopped into pieces
before burning and which accounted for almost 80% of the ironwork; the effect of passing through the
50
pyre led to its exceptionally good preservation, permitting a detailed analysis of its manufacture. It
consisted of links of a uniform size (6 mm diameter externally) in alternating rows of welded and riveted
rings, each ring linking to four others. The rings were composed of a solid iron wire 1.2 to 1.3 mm in
diameter and there was no trace of attached fabric. It closely resembles Roman lorica hamata and the
only similar Iron Age example is from the rather later burial at Folly Lane, Verulamium (Foster et al. 1999,
160). That from Lexden (Foster 1986, 82-5) consists of alternate rows of riveted and solid rings, more
typical of Iron Age types, although, like the Baldock example, it had been cut into small pieces before
deposition.
In contrast, most of the copper alloy consisted of fragments and droplets of material that had melted in
the intense heat of the pyre. The commonest single identifiable form was sheet metal, accounting for 21%
of the copper alloy. Much of the sheet metal was curved or folded; in many cases this may be distortion
resulting from burning, but in some instances, it is likely that the sheets followed the shapes of destroyed
organic objects. At least one piece contained a rivet still in place and a second rivet hole, while another
had traces of gilding. It may be suggested that much of this material derives from prestige goods such as
caskets or items of furniture, as would the studs that form almost 4% of the copper alloy assemblage.
Analysis of one of the copper alloy droplets showed it to have derived from a leaded tin bronze of
probable Alpine or Central European origin (Northover this volume), indicating that some, at least, of the
metal goods were imported from the Roman Empire or nearby areas.

Satellite Burials
Six further burials were located inside the enclosure, all between four and six metres from the ditch. As it
is likely that the central burial lay beneath a mound into which the corn drying kiln was later inserted, it is
probable that these „satellite‟ burials were in fact secondary deposits inserted towards the edge of the
mound. All were badly damaged by later activity, especially ploughing, and it is likely that other secondary
burials, placed higher up in the mound had been completely destroyed. No secondary burials were found
on the south-eastern side of the enclosure, where the causewayed entrance was located.
All the burials consisted of one or two vessels, generally with at least one pedestalled jar. In most cases,
there was no cremated bone and in the only instance where there were more than a few scraps, F64, it
amounted to no more than 6.6 g and the burial was so badly damaged that it was impossible to tell
whether the bone had originally been contained in one of the vessels, although this is unlikely as better
preserved examples were unurned. All the vessels dated from the closing decades of the first century BC.

Summary
The large enclosure at California is much larger than the usual square burial enclosure found in south-
eastern Britain. The burial at its centre does not conform to the Welwyn type, unlike that discovered at
The Tene in 1967, but is nevertheless at the „wealthier‟ end of the Aylesford-Swarling tradition. Its date is
in the second half of the first century BC and is thus directly comparable with the burials at King Harry
Lane, Verulamium (Stead & Rigby 1989). Although badly damaged, it is noteworthy that both the central
burial and its satellites produced no evidence for imported pottery, contrasting with King Harry Lane. The
inclusion of chain mail armour, however, places it among the very high status burials at Folly Lane (Niblett
1999) and Lexden (Foster 1986).
The survival of satellite burials only at some distance from the central burial has been thought to indicate
that they were inserted into the edge of a mound, with other burials lost to ploughing as the mound was
subsequently denuded. These burials are broadly contemporary with the central burial and there is no
sign that the enclosure was used for the deposition of human remains after the first century BC.

California small enclosure

Setting
Eighteen metres to the north-west of the large burial enclosure at California lay a smaller enclosure,
[1269], measuring 10.5 × 9.5 m, with a ditch on average 1 m wide at the surface of the chalk. It also had a
causewayed entrance in the centre of its south-eastern side. It was not located in a corner of the
crossroads, but instead its entrance faced the centre of the north-western ditch of the large enclosure,
thus lining up with the entrance on the opposite side. This perhaps indicates that it was constructed after
the large enclosure to the south-east but at a time when that enclosure remained a significant feature in
the landscape. Unlike the large enclosure and the two excavated by Ian Stead in the early 1970s (Stead
& Rigby 1986, 61), no central burial was located. Its ditches were very shallow and would have provided
little material to create a mound, so it is perhaps more likely that this was a cemetery within a square
enclosure, more similar to those at King Harry Lane, Verulamium (Stead & Rigby 1989) than to the
nearby Baldock example. Moreover, during the re-use of the site as a cemetery in the late Roman period
(below), there seems to have been no attempt to respect the earlier enclosure, perhaps indicating that it

51
was no longer visible. The enclosure had suffered extensive plough damage and its north-western side
had been completely removed by the construction of a sewer trench in early 1980.
Figure 28: California small enclosure

The burials
Three burials were located inside the enclosure. In two cases, the bone seems to have been placed
directly in the grave pit together with one or more pottery vessels in one instance, while the third appears
to have been urned. However, the degree of plough damage was so great that insufficient detail survived
to enable detailed analysis. Two cremations were of adults, while very little bone remained in the third,
making an assessment of age impossible.
Context Age Sex Date Type
1285 Adult Female?? 3-6 Urned cremation
1292 Adult 3-6 Unurned cremation
1301 ? 3-6 Unurned cremation
Table 6: California small enclosure summary of burials

Summary
This enclosure was comparable in scale to those excavated by Ian Stead a short distance to the east-
south-east in the early 1970s. The lack of a central burial may be more apparent than real: this area was
not only used for domestic purposes from the mid first to late second centuries AD, but was also heavily
ploughed, so that any centrally placed burial might easily have been destroyed. Although the way in
which this enclosure is evidently aligned on the large enclosure suggests that it post-dates it, the range of
pottery from the burials indicates that its use was probably broadly contemporary.

52
Icknield Way East enclosure

Setting
Discoveries of several burials had been made over a number of years from the area between Royston
Road, Icknield Way East and North Road (known locally as The Triangle), but these were thought to have
been isolated finds. Nevertheless, an interest was taken in a site on Icknield Way East, opposite the end
of California, when redevelopment began in 1988. An initial brief inspection of the footings for number 22
seemed to bear out the impression of scattered burials, but it became clear after initial cleaning of the
sections that a large number of inhumations had been disturbed. It was decided to investigate several
areas of the site more thoroughly and a team from North Hertfordshire Museum Service‟s Field
Archaeology Section undertook small-scale excavation in advance of footings between March and June
1988. It revealed Late Pre-Roman Iron Age cremations, some of which were probably in an enclosure.

Figure 29: Icknield Way East enclosure

Only a small part of the cemetery was investigated in 1988 and there are no doubt more burials in the
vicinity; some were recorded during the construction of the previous house on the site, the former 5a
Royston Road, including a collection of Late Iron Age and early Romano-British vessels presumably
deriving from cremation groups (Applebaum 1932, 257). The site occupies roughly level ground on the
edge of the scarp that runs west-south-west to east-north-east through Baldock, in common with the other
burial enclosure sites. However, this example lies to the north of the line of the Icknield Way, whereas all
the others are to its south. There was generally about 0.3 m of topsoil overlying the chalk bedrock or,
where a subsoil had survived, over the subsoil, but this had not improved the survival of the burials, which
had all been truncated by post-Roman ploughing.

The burials
The principal area with Iron Age burials lay in the north-western part of the site. Applebaum‟s (1932, 257)
notes on the pottery recovered from the foundations of a house built in 1927 include two Iron Age
vessels, which raises the possibility of a further concentration towards the south of the site. A shallow
ditch or gully, [3930], containing pottery of the period AD c 1-50 was traced for a short distance, which
was thought to have been part of a burial enclosure. Another feature noted during the watching brief
phase of investigation as a possible gully, [3823], lay at right angles to [3930]; it could also be part of an
enclosure. Applebaum (1932, 258) also observed a length of ditch 8‟ [2.4 m] wide in 1933 during building
operations; he states that this ran east-west, by which he meant parallel to Royston Road, and therefore
on the same alignment as the enclosure. Although his dimensions do not tally with those observed in
53
1988, it is likely that what he observed was in fact part of the same ditch system or else a road ditch for a
line of the Icknield Way, perhaps running parallel to the enclosure at this point.
If this was an enclosure, then its north-western side was not encountered during the excavation, which
would indicate that it was over 16 m square, a large but not impossible size for an enclosure of this type.
Sizes in Baldock range up to about 12 m square for smaller enclosures, and from 20 m to 40 m square for
the larger types. Since the gully here is small, this argues for a size closer to 20 m than to 40 m square.
Context Age Sex Date Type
(3850) Subadult/adult 6-7 Urned cremation
(3876) 7 Urned cremation
(3889) Adult Female? 5-6 Urned cremation
3900 Mature/older adult 3-4 Unurned cremation
3903 Adult 5-6 Unurned cremation
3905 Mature adult Female 5-6 Unurned cremation
3908 Adult 5-6 Urned cremation
3915 Mature adult 3-6 Urned cremation
(3917) 7 Urned cremation
3947 Subadult/adult 7 Unurned cremation
3991 Older mature/ older Male 3-6 Unurned cremation
adult
3995 Mature/older adult Male 5-6 Urned cremation
3997 Older adult Male 3-6 Urned cremation
3998 Adult 4-6 Urned cremation
7003 Older mature/ older Female 5-6 Urned cremation
adult
7008 Older subadult/ 3-6 Urned cremation
adult
7037 5-6 Urned cremation
Table 7: Icknield Way East enclosure summary of burials
In support of the enclosure hypothesis are the number and status of burials within an apparently square
area bounded by ditches, the two “richest” being some distance from the proposed corner, although no
definite relationship between evident wealth and distance from the edge of the enclosure can be shown.
Moreover, it is in the same topographical location as the other burial enclosures of this date known in
Baldock, and they all fall roughly in line. Although the Icknield Way East enclosure is over 200 m north-
east of those already known, the area between has not been surveyed since it is under houses and
gardens, so it is not certain whether this is a genuinely blank zone or not.
Seventeen burials were located, twelve (71%) urned and five (29%) unurned. Of these, two of the urned
cremations were male and two female, while one unurned cremation was male and one female. No
infants or definitely younger subadults were represented; seven individuals (41%) fell into the Mature or
Older Adult age cohorts.

Summary
It is likely that this is a cremation cemetery in a square enclosure of Late Iron Age date. The putative
enclosure ditch very clearly defines the north-eastern limit of pre-conquest burials with few exceptions,
which appear to be scattered burials around the main area. Like the large California enclosure, it was
perhaps marked by a barrow and would thus attract burials of individuals not entitled to a place inside the
enclosure.

Downlands Enclosure A

Setting
About 50 m to the east of the large California enclosure lay another square ditched enclosure with an
entrance in the centre of its south-eastern side. It measured about 12 × 10 m, with a ditch about 1 m wide
at the top of the chalk. Pottery from the ditch indicated at date early in the first century AD for its silting, so
the enclosure perhaps belonged to the final decades of the first century BC or the very beginning of the
first century AD. This enclosure was overlain by a later Roman road (Stead & Rigby 1986, A521), the side
ditches of which contained pottery belonging to the third quarter of the first century AD. Its situation on the
edge of the scarp had led to the creation of a hollow way by the fourth century, destroying any possible
burials within the enclosure.

54
Figure 30: Downlands Enclosure A

Summary
Although no burials were recovered from this enclosure, its morphology makes it certain that this was
another Late Iron Age burial enclosure. Whether it contained only one central burial (like the nearby
Downlands Enclosure B) or whether there were several burials (either scattered inside the enclosure, as
at the California small enclosure, or satellite burials around a central high-status burial, as at the
California large enclosure) is impossible to establish, given the degree of destruction throughout the
enclosure.

Downlands Enclosure B

Setting
Eighty metres to the south-east of the large California enclosure and about 16 m east of Downlands
Enclosure A lay a square ditched enclosure investigated in the early 1970s (Stead & Rigby 1986, 61
Burial 2). Like the California enclosures, this example lay on roughly level ground at the edge of the scarp
overlooking the settlement. It also had a causewayed entrance in the centre of its south-eastern side. The
southern side of the enclosure had been destroyed by a quarry in use from the first to third centuries AD,
A457. A single burial was located roughly in the centre of the enclosure.

55
Figure 31: Downlands Enclosure B

The burial
The single burial consisted of a circular grave pit 0.3 m in diameter cut 0.2 m into the chalk. The bone
was placed on the floor of the grave pit and was accompanied by a cordoned jar with burnished upper
and lower panels. The date appears to belong in the first quarter of the first century AD.
Context Age Sex Date Type
A473 5 Unurned cremation
Table 8: Downlands Enclosure B summary of burials

Summary
A small enclosure slightly larger than the California small enclosure. However, unlike the California
example, there was no trace of burials other than that placed in the central pit. Although the south-
western arm of the enclosure had been destroyed by Romano-British quarrying, it had not affected much
of its interior, so unless secondary burials were placed in a mound subsequently destroyed, it appears
that the central burial was the sole burial in this enclosure. It is the only definite example of this
arrangement at Baldock, although it is possible that Downlands Enclosure A also contained a single
central burial (above). The date of this burial suggests that it was the last of the group to be deposited.
This may explain its apparent failure to attract secondary burials: as the tradition of burial in square
enclosures seems to have ended before the Roman conquest, there may have been other locations more
favoured for burial by this date.

56
Iron Age/Romano-British cemeteries
Wallington Road

Setting
The site of the cemetery at Wallington Road (Westell Close) slopes very gently down towards the south-
west and south-east while to the north, the ground levels out with little trace of a slope; its position on the
edge of the scarp is similar to that of the square enclosures to the west-north-west. To the south-east is
Wallington Road, in origin a ridgeway running north-east to south-west. The cemetery lay beyond the
eastern edge of the settlement.
It was discovered by contractors in 1982, when they disturbed several inhumations during the course of
digging footings. Arrangements were made for archaeological recording, but it soon became apparent
that the burials were part of an extensive and hitherto unknown cemetery. The investigation of the site
was therefore a salvage operation and not a formal rescue excavation. Several inhumations and a further
cremation have been recorded in subsequent watching-briefs on the site, indicating that elements of the
site remain to be discovered. In all, 24 inhumations and 150 cremations have been recorded from the
cemetery.

Plate 11: Salvage archaeology at Wallington Road, 1982

Burials
The original cemetery, consisting of dispersed inhumations, had no formal boundaries and does not seem
to have been located at a road junction, unlike other contemporary cemeteries. However, after
inhumations had ceased to be deposited, in the third quarter of the first century AD, a boundary ditch was
dug, defining a roughly oval area. For around fifty years, all the cremations were deposited in this
enclosure, even after the ditch had silted up completely, suggesting that a fence or hedge survived to
mark the boundary. It appears to have been on the outside of the ditch, as later burials were deposited
right up to the outer edge of the ditch. Around AD 125, a tightly defined group of burials was deposited to
the east of the main cemetery, at a point where a possible path left the enclosure. Although no boundary
ditch was present, the burials in this area were also tightly constrained by a barrier that could not be
detected archaeologically. A few additional burials were made to the south-east of the cemetery area.
After AD 200, all burials were deposited in the original enclosure area, again without any evidence for a
ditch to define it.

57
Figure 32: The Wallington Road cemetery
Context Age Sex Date Type
B1 Older adult Female 5-6 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-east
B2 Mature adult Male 3-4 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
B4 Mature adult Female 3-7 Inhumation; extended supine
B7 Adult Male? 3-4 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
B8 Adult 3-7 Inhumation; extended supine
B10 Adult 11-12 Urned cremation
B11 11-12 Urned cremation
B12 9-12 Urned cremation
58
B13 Mature adult Female 7-10 Urned cremation
B14 Young adult Female 10-12 Urned cremation
B15 10 Urned cremation
B16 Mature adult Male 9-12 Urned cremation
B17 Mature adult Female 11-16 Urned cremation
B18 Older child? 9-11 Urned cremation
B19 Older child? 9-12 Urned cremation
B20 Child? 11-14 Urned cremation
B21A Young adult Female 3-4 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
B21B Child? 9-12 Urned cremation
B22 10-12 Urned cremation
B23 Child 9-12 Urned cremation
B24 Older adult Female 13-14 Urned cremation
B25 Mature adult Female 11-12 Urned cremation
B26 Older adult Male 9-12 Urned cremation
B27 Adult Male 6-7 Inhumation; flexed on left side, head to south
B28 Adult? 11-12 Urned cremation
B29 Child 6 Urned cremation
B30 Older child 9-12 Urned cremation
B31 Mature adult + Infant Female 11-12 Urned cremation
B32A Older child/young 10 Urned cremation
adult?
B32B Young adult Female 9 Urned cremation
B33 Mature adult Female 10-12 Urned cremation
B34/35 Older adult 3-4 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
B36 9-12 Urned cremation
B37 Young adult Male 10-12 Urned cremation
B38 Mature adult Female 11-12 Urned cremation
B39 Young adult Female 13 Urned cremation
B40 9-12 Urned cremation
B41 Adult Male? 11-12 Urned cremation
B42 Infant 9-11 Urned cremation
B43 Older child 11-12 Urned cremation
B44 11-12 Urned cremation
B45 9-12 Urned cremation
B46 7-11 Urned cremation
B47 10-12 Urned cremation
B48 7-8 Urned cremation
B49 Adult 7-12 Urned cremation
B50 Adult Male 9-12 Urned cremation
B51 Infant 9-12 Urned cremation
B52 10-17 Urned cremation
B53 10-11 Urned cremation
B54 Young adult Female 10-11 Urned cremation
B55 Child 11-12 Urned cremation
B56 Adult Female 11-12 Urned cremation
B57 Adult Male? 11-12 Urned cremation
B58 11-12 Urned cremation
B58A >Older child 9-11 Urned cremation
B60 Young adult Female 9-12 Urned cremation
B62 Infant 9-12 Urned cremation
B63 Adult 10-14 Urned cremation
B64 9-12 Urned cremation
B65 Child 9-12 Urned cremation
B67A Young adult Male 10-11 Urned cremation
B67B Young adult Male 9-12 Urned cremation
B68 Young adult Female 14 Urned cremation
B68A 5-6 Urned cremation
B69 Adult? 13-16 Urned cremation
B70 Infant 10-11 Urned cremation
B71 Older adult Male 13-16 Urned cremation
B73 9-17 Urned cremation
B74 11-12 Urned cremation
B76 Older adult Female 13-16 Urned cremation
B77 Older child 11-12 Urned cremation
B78 13-16 Urned cremation
B79 Child? 13-16 Urned cremation
B80A Older child? 13-16 Urned cremation
B80B Mature adult 3-4 Urned cremation
59
B81 13-16 Urned cremation
B83A 9-12 Urned cremation
B83B 9-12 Urned cremation
B84 Adult Male 9-12 Urned cremation
B85 9-12 Urned cremation
B86 Older adult Female 13-16 Urned cremation
B87 7-17 Unurned cremation
B88 Older adult Female 5-6 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-west
B89 7-17 Unurned cremation
B90 9-12 Urned cremation
B91 9-12 Urned cremation
B92 9-12 Urned cremation
B93 Child 9-16 Urned cremation
B94 6-7 Urned cremation
B95 Older adult Female 13-14 Urned cremation
B96 Adult 14-15 Urned cremation
B97 9-12 Urned cremation
B98 Older adult Female 12-16 Urned cremation
B99 Mature adult Female 11-15 Urned cremation
B100 10-17 Unurned cremation
B101 Mature adult Male 10-17 Urned cremation
B102 10-16 Urned cremation
B103 Young adult Male 11-12 Urned cremation
B104 Young child 5-6 Inhumation; flexed on left side, head to south-east
B105 8-10 Urned cremation
B106 10-12 Urned cremation
B107 Mature adult Male 9-12 Urned cremation
B108 13-16 Urned cremation
B109 9-12 Urned cremation
B110A Mature adult Male 3-6 Urned cremation
B110B 11-15 Urned cremation
B112 10-12 Urned cremation
B113 Adult 9-12 Urned cremation
B114 Adult? 11-14 Urned cremation
B115 Young child 6-7 Inhumation; crouched on right side, head to north
B116 Young adult Male 15-17 Urned cremation
B118 Young adult Female 6-7 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-east
B119 10-12 Urned cremation
B121 Young child 17 Urned cremation
B122 11 Urned cremation
B124 11-14 Urned cremation
B125 13-16 Urned cremation
B126 Adult Female 10-12 Urned cremation
B127 Older adult Male 10-11 Urned cremation
B128 11-14 Urned cremation
B131 Mature adult Male 3-4 Inhumation; flexed on right side, head to north
B131A Infant 5-6 Inhumation; head to east
B132 10-11 Urned cremation
B133 10-11 Urned cremation
B134 10-11 Urned cremation
B134A 10-11 Urned cremation
B135 Older adult Male 11-12 Urned cremation
B136 Older child Male 13-16 Urned cremation
B137 Young adult Male 11-16 Urned cremation
B138 Adult Female? 3-4 Inhumation; head to north-east?
B139 Adult? 14 Urned cremation
B143 11-16 Urned cremation
B145 Young/mature adult Female 15-16 Unurned cremation
B146 10-17 Unurned cremation
B147 Young/mature adult 10-12 Unurned cremation
B148 10-12 Unurned cremation
B149 10-12 Unurned cremation
B150 Adult? Male 10-12 Urned cremation
B151 10 Urned cremation
B152 10-11 Urned cremation
B153 Young adult Female 10-11 Urned cremation
B154 Adult Male 10-11 Urned cremation
B155 Young adult Female? 3-4 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
B156 15-16 Urned cremation
60
 B157 Older adult Female 10-12 Urned cremation
B158 Younger adult Female 11 Urned cremation
B158A 10 Urned cremation
B159 10 Urned cremation
B160 Younger adult Male 10-12 Urned cremation
B161 Infant 10-11 Urned cremation
B163 11-12 Urned cremation
B164A Adult Male 11 Urned cremation
B164B 12 Urned cremation
B165 Adult? Male 11-12 Urned cremation
B166 Young adult Female 10-12 Urned cremation
B168 Young adult Female 10-11 Urned cremation
B169 10-12 Urned cremation
B170 Young adult 10-11 Urned cremation
B171 10-12 Unurned cremation
B172 Older adult Male 10-12 Urned cremation
B173 Mature adult 12 Urned cremation
B174 Mature adult Male 6-7 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east
B175 Mature adult Female 3-4 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
B176 Young adult Male 10-12 Urned cremation
B177 Older child 9-12 Urned cremation
B178 3-17 Urned cremation
B180 13-16 Urned cremation
B181 9-15 Mirror from destroyed cremation?
B182 Child 3-4 Inhumation
B183 Older child/young 10-12 Urned cremation
adult
B184 Mature adult Male 10-11 Urned cremation
B185 10-12 Urned cremation
B186 10-12 Urned cremation
B187A Older child 10-11 Urned cremation
B187B 10-12 Urned cremation
B188 10-11 Urned cremation
B189 10-12 Urned cremation
B190 Young adult Female 11-12 Urned cremation
B191 Infant 10-12 Urned cremation
B192 11-12 Urned cremation
B193 10-12 Urned cremation
B194 10-12 Urned cremation
B195 Adult 3-4 Inhumation; head to north-east?
B196 Adult? 3-7 Inhumation
B197 Adult? 3-7 Inhumation
04 Adult Female 3-4 Inhumation; extended prone, head to south-west
06 Adult 5-6 Inhumation; extended supine
HN243 Adult? 10-12 Unurned cremation
Table 9: Wallington Road summary of burials
The earliest burials were all inhumations, generally without grave goods. Two (B88 and B182) were
buried in coffins and three others (B7, B34/35 and B118) were each provided with a pottery jar. Only
twenty-four inhumations have been recorded; with so small a sample, palaeodemographic analysis is
fraught with uncertainties. All the individuals could be assigned an age; four (17%) were immature and
the remainder adult. Of the adults whose age could be determined more precisely, three (12%) were
Young Adults, five (21%) were Mature Adults and three (12%) were Older Adults. Of the sexed burials,
five (21%) were male and nine (37%) were female.
Before the mid first century AD, fewer than 25% of the burials at Wallington Road were cremations, rising
to 100% by the last quarter of the century. The majority of the cremations were urned, deposited in pits,
often with one or more additional vessel. The accompanying vessels could take almost any form: platter,
dish, cup, beaker, jar and flagon were all represented, with a tendency for dishes and cups to be samian
ware products. Where a burial had only one accompanying vessel, it was not clear what determined the
choice of vessel form. The incidence of single vessel cremations is not easy to assess owing to plough
damage of the site. Many apparently single vessel burials consisted solely of the truncated base of a
cinerary urn, and in an unknown proportion of these instances, accessory vessels may originally have
been present and completely removed by later activity.

61
Figure 33: Pyre pit TH/B
In the group of sixty-one virtually undamaged cremations, 23 (38%) had one accessory vessel, 16 (26%)
had two, 6 (10%) had three and 1 (2%) had five, while 4, (7%) were unurned. Of the twenty-three with
one accessory vessel, three contained an accessory jar, six a flagon, five a beaker, six a colour-coated
beaker and one a samian dish. Two other burials had vessels of indeterminate form. Of the sixteen
burials with two accessory vessels, eleven contained flagons, nine a samian vessel, five dishes, four
cups, five jars, two beakers, one a colour coated beaker, two platters. One burial, B55, contained two
glass vessels, the only examples from the site. Of the six cremation groups with three accessory vessels,
five contained flagons and samian dishes. The one burial without either, B158, had a jar and a platter.
Whenever there was a third accessory vessel, it always consisted either of a jar or a beaker.
There were clear differences in the burial groups recovered from cremations of different dates. Whereas
flagons and samian dishes were the commonest accessory vessel forms in the second century, occurring
in 30% and 24% of burials respectively, beakers were the commonest vessel form in the third century,
occurring in 35% of burials and 45% of burials deposited after AD c 225. At the same time that beakers
become the dominant accompanying vessel, jars used as accessory vessels also become more
prominent, which suggests that one of their functions was as a drinking vessel.

62
Figure 34: Location of the pyre pit in relation to the Wallington Road cemetery
Altogether, 94 (63%) of the cremations could be assigned an age category and 52 (35%) could be sexed.
Of these, 27 (18%) were immature; of the adults that could be assigned a closer age category, 20 (13%)
were Young Adults, 13 (9%) Mature Adults and 11 (7%) were Older Adults. There were 26 (17%) males
and 26 (17%) females. Where the cremated bone had been sexed, colour-coated beakers were only
found with female burials, suggesting that sex or gender may have played a role in determining some
aspects of the burial rites in this particular cemetery.

The pyre pit

During Ian Stead‟s programme of trial trenching on Upper Walls Common in 1969, a spread of carbonised
material was identified in Trench TH29, TH/B. Excavation revealed carbonised wood, cremated bone,
pottery and burnt nails in an irregular hollow up to 0.45 m below the ground surface. Although initially
interpreted as a cremation pit containing a wooden box, it became clear that it was the site of a pyre
measuring some 3 × 1.5 m. Further trenches nearby failed to locate a cemetery, so the function of the
pyre remained obscure until the discovery of Wallington Road cemetery some 20 m to the south in 1982;
significantly, one of the apparent paths through the cemetery leaves the enclosure in the direction of this
feature. The carbonised wood derived from the fuel of the pyre and also possibly from biers and boxes
burnt with the corpses; the presence of copper alloy box fittings, some with traces of gilding, suggests
that they could be highly decorated. The survival of the pyre base appears to have been a result of the
creation of a hollow in the underlying chalk by the intense heat of repeated firings. To determine whether
the pyre pit might be associated with a cemetery to the east, area BAL-6 was stripped in 1982 and proved
to be archaeologically sterile.

Summary
The cemetery at the Wallington Road site was in use for a little over three hundred and fifty years, from
about the middle of the first century BC to the early fourth century AD. Initially used largely as an
inhumation cemetery, with widely scattered burials, cremation became more prominent as a rite until by
63
the late first century AD, it had become the sole rite. The originally scattered burials were provided with
an enclosure in the late first century AD, at the same time as cremation became the sole burial rite. The
enclosure was respected until the end of the cemetery's use in the early fourth century, implying that
some surface feature survived the filling of the ditch. During the period of maximum population expansion
in the second century, three subsidiary areas were used for disposal of cremated remains.

Stane Street

Setting
Several cemeteries have been found to lie on the northern edge of the settlement, mostly to the south of
the Icknield Way. Two inhumations were found during trial trenching by Ian Stead in 1969, thought at the
time to have been in the top of a pit and not investigated further (Stead & Rigby 1986, 77 burials 24-5).
During the 1987 season of excavation on the huge Royston Road Romano-British cemetery, an attempt
was made to locate these unexcavated burials. A small trench was opened and it was immediately
apparent that they belonged to a cemetery. The initial assumption was that they were outliers of the
Royston Road cemetery, which contained both cremations and inhumations, but after much more
intensive topsoil stripping in 1989, it became apparent that this was a separate and (almost) uniquely
inhumation cemetery. It was also evident that this cemetery must have pre-dated many of the burials in
the Royston Road cemetery, as the road defining its southern edge was realigned at one point to run
across the top of the burials in the Stane Street cemetery.

Figure 35: Stane Street cemetery

The site is roughly triangular and occupies more-or-less level ground. To the north-west, there was a
large solution hollow some 23 m in diameter, while to the north-east, a number of graves were cut into
shallow, vertically sided and flat bottomed hollows whose origin and function could not be determined.
Many of the graves were intercutting, enabling a stratigraphic sequence to be established for a number of
them. Although the date at which the road was realigned to run over the burial ground by shifting its
southern ditch some five metres to the north has not yet been established, it is evident that few, if any of
the graves were dug after about AD 100. Others contained Late Iron Age metalwork and pottery. When in
use, the cemetery seems to have occupied the V between two tracks that diverged as they left the
settlement. Almost 60 m to the west-south-west was a broadly contemporary cremation cemetery
occupying a solution hollow on the north side of the track, Yeomanry Drive North, also originally
excavated as part of the Royston Road cemetery.

Burials
Eighty-four graves were excavated from the cemetery, all but one – [7570] – intended for an inhumation,
although one ([7566]) proved to be empty. Eighteen graves contained redeposited bone and two – [7220]
and [7652] – contained more than one individual, in both cases an adult female and infant(s). The earliest
64
burials seem to date from the closing decades of the first century BC; [7756] and [7945] certainly belong
to this early phase. Others are certainly post-conquest; [5411], [7178], [7459] and [7468] all belong to the
second half of the first century AD or even the very early second century. The majority could not be dated
so closely. There does not appear to be any correlation between date of grave and position in the
cemetery, a phenomenon occasionally given the misnomer „horizontal stratigraphy‟. One of the very late
graves, [7468], is located towards the western end of the cemetery; another, [7459], towards the eastern
end and only a metre away from one of the earliest, [7212].
The majority of the burials, especially those in the western half of the cemetery, are aligned approximately
east-north-east to west-south-west, roughly parallel with the tracks defining the edges of the cemetery.
Those towards the eastern end are rather more haphazard, but nowhere is there any suggestion of order
to the location of graves. Intercutting (and, in one case, near-complete obliteration) of earlier graves is
commonplace. There is a tendency for female graves to be on the edges of the cemetery towards the
western end, but to the north and east, the majority of graves have male occupants and the few female
graves are dispersed amongst them. Juvenile graves are found only in the western-central part of the
cemetery (with the notable exception of the female accompanied by three perinatal bodies in [7652]).
Supine burials accounted for about 37 (48%) of the total number of burials whose position could be
determined, with no perceptible difference between the sexes. Fifteen (21%) were prone, with more
males (8 – 22%) than females (4 – 9%). For burials buried in a crouched or flexed position on one side,
more females than males were on the left side (7 – 28% for females and 4 – 11% for males), whereas the
opposite was true for the right side (6 – 16% for males and 3 – 8% for females). This suggests that there
was a gendered component to the burial rite. The orientation of the burials is less clear-cut as a gendered
phenomenon: forty-five (58%) of all burials were oriented with the head to a position between north and
east, with no difference between the sexes. On the other hand, a greater proportion of women were
buried with their heads between south and north-north-west (11 – 44% of all females and 9 – 24% of all
males).
There was a wide spread of ages. In all, eighty-six individuals could be assigned an approximate age at
death. Of these, seventeen (20%) were definitely immature, with six foetuses and neonates (7%) and four
young infants (5%). The majority of the adults were Older Mature or Older Adults (40 – 47%). There was
no obvious difference in longevity or mortality between the sexes. Apart from one instance of a poorly
aged male in [7756], where the age was Young/Mature Adult, only Older Mature and Older Adults or
Neonates were placed on their sides, suggesting that position in the grave could be determined by age as
well as sex.
Context Age Sex Date Type
5261 Neonate 5-9 Inhumation
5312 Older adult Male 4-7 Inhumation; extended prone, head to east
5340 Older mature adult Male? 4-9 Inhumation; extended prone, head to south
5350 Older adult Male 4-9 Inhumation; flexed on right side, head to north-east
5356 Young adult Male 5-9 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east
5356 Older mature adult Male? 4-8 Inhumation; supine, head to east
5359 Young infant 6-8 Inhumation; flexed supine, head to east
5411 Older adult Male 8 Inhumation; crouched on left side, head to south-
east
7178 Older adult Female 7 Inhumation; flexed on left side, head to north-west
7184 Older mature/ older Male 4-9 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
adult
7212 Older mature/ older Male? 5 Inhumation; extended on left side, head to east-
adult south-east
7220 Young adult and Female 4-9 Inhumation; extended prone, head to north-east;
infant infant near left hand
7233 Older adult Male 4-9 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
7331 Subadult/adult 4-9 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south
7335 Older mature adult Male 4-8 Inhumation; extended on right side, head to north-
east
7339 Older mature/ older Female 5-9 Inhumation; crouched on right side, head to north-
adult north-east
7346 Younger mature Male 4-9 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
adult
7351 Younger mature Male?? 4-9 Inhumation; extended prone, head to south-west
adult
7352 Older mature adult Male 5-9 Inhumation; extended on left side, head to south-
east
7355 Older adult Female 4-8 Inhumation; extended prone, head to north-east
7367 Older mature adult Male 4-9 Inhumation; flexed on left side, head to north-east
7369 Older mature/ older Male?? 4-9 Inhumation; flexed on left side, head to north-north-
adult east

65
7382 Older mature/ older Female? 4-9 Inhumation; flexed on left side, head to west
adult
7384 Young adult Male 4-8 Inhumation; flexed supine, head to north-east
7385 Older mature/ older Male?? 4-9 Inhumation; flexed on left side, head to north-east
adult
7387 Young infant 4-9 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
7393 Older mature/ older Female 4-9 Inhumation; flexed supine, head to north-west
adult
7395 Older adult Male? 4-9 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south
7417 Mature adult Female 4-9 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
7421 Older mature/ older Female 4-9 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west-south-
adult west
7424 Older subadult/ 4-9 Inhumation; extended prone, head to south-east
mature adult
7428 Older adult Male 4-9 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
7444 Older subadult 4-9 Inhumation; extended prone, head to east-north-east
7459 Younger mature Male 9 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west-north-
adult west
7468 Older juvenile 9 Inhumation; crouched on left side, head to north-east
7471 Older adult Female?? 6-9 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west,
decapitated?
7482 Young infant 4-9 Inhumation; head to south
7491 Older adult Male 4-9 Inhumation; crouched on right side, head to north-
east
7492 Older subadult Female? 6-9 Inhumation; extended prone, head to south-west
7504 Older mature/ older Male 4-9 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east-north-
adult east
7507 Older mature adult Male 4-8 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
7511 Adult? 4-6 Inhumation; extended supine (?), head to south
7518 Young/younger Male?? 5-8 Inhumation; extended prone, head to north
mature adult
7521 Older mature adult Male 6-8 Inhumation; crouched supine, head to north-north-
west
7523 Older mature adult Male 4-9 Inhumation; flexed on right side, head to south-west
7533 Older juvenile 4-9 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east
7534 Mature adult Female 4-9 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east
7541 Younger mature Female 4-9 Inhumation; extended prone, head to east-north-east
adult
7553 Foetus/neonate 6-9 Inhumation; extended on right side, head to south
7557 Older mature/ older Male 4-9 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east
adult
7559 Older mature/ older Male? 5-9 Inhumation; extended prone, head to south-east
adult
7566 4-9 Empty grave
7570 Adult (& infant?) 5-15 Unurned cremation
7576 Older adult Male?? 5-8 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north
7580 Older mature/ older Male 4-9 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-south-
adult east
7581 Older mature adult Female 5-8 Inhumation; flexed on left side, head to north-north-
east
7588 Older mature/ older Male 5-9 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east
adult
7592 Older juvenile/ 4-7 Inhumation; flexed prone, head to north-north-east
younger subadult
7610 Older adult Female 6 Inhumation; flexed on left side, head to east-south-
east
7615 Older adult Male 6-8 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
7638 Older adult Female 4-9 Inhumation; flexed on left side, head to east-north-
east
7652 Mature adult & Female 4-8 Inhumation; extended on right side, head to south;
three neonates one foetus by shoulder, remainder unborn
7656 Young infant 5-9 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
7664 Older juvenile 4-8 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-north-
west
7668 Older adult Female 4-9 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
7669 Older mature/ older Female?? 5-7 Inhumation; flexed on left side, head to north-east
adult
7682 Mature adult Female 4-8 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-south-
west

66
 7694 Older adult Male 4-9 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east-north-
east
7696 Younger mature Female 4-9 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
adult
7710 Older mature adult Female 4-8 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
7726 Older adult Male? 5-9 Inhumation; extended prone, head to south
7728 Older mature/ older Female 4-9 Inhumation; flexed supine, head to south-south-west
adult
7756 Young/mature adult Male 6 Inhumation; flexed (?) on right side, head to east-
south-east
7768 Older mature/ older Female 5-9 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-north-
adult west
7787 Older mature/ older Male 4-8 Inhumation; extended prone, head to north
adult
7826 Older adult Female 4-8 Inhumation; crouched on left side, head to north-
north-east
7853 Older mature adult Female 5-9 Inhumation; flexed on right side, head to north-north-
west
7892 Younger mature Male 4-9 Inhumation; extended prone, head to south-south-
adult west
7918 Older mature adult Male? 4-8 Inhumation; flexed on right side, head to north
7945 Older mature adult 4 Inhumation; flexed on left side, head to south-south-
west
8163 Older mature/ older Male 4-9 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-south-
adult west
8369 Older adult Male 5-9 Inhumation; flexed supine, head to north-east
8372 Neonate 4-9 Inhumation; crouched on right side, head to south-
west
Table 10: Stane Street summary of burials
Grave goods were uncommon. There was a riveted copper alloy object of unknown function in [7382], a
copper alloy pin in [7417], a copper alloy bracelet and Much Hadham ware jar in [7468], a post-conquest
grave, half a locally made jar in [7615], a jar and a whetstone in [7710] and an iron brooch of the mid-first
century BC in [7945]. This accounts for fewer than 8% of the graves in the cemetery. Three of the grave-
goods were pots and only three were items of personal adornment.
Other than the shallow pits, most of which lay at the north-eastern end of the cemetery, and a few
possibly Neolithic pits, there were no other features in the cemetery. Nothing in the layout of the graves
appeared to indicate the presence of surface features no longer visible archaeologically. It is evident that
the layout of the cemetery became less orderly towards the north-east, but there is little in the south-
western part to show that much care was taken with the location of individual graves.

Summary
Stane Street is one of a growing number of Late Iron Age inhumation cemeteries known in the region. It
was in use for perhaps one hundred and fifty years or so and shows no break in tradition at the time of
the Roman conquest. There is a wide range of inhumation practice demonstrated by these burials and a
relatively good range of palaeopathological data. It is perhaps curious that this cemetery, with its mainly
older „population‟, is the most distant from the core of the settlement so far identified, if distance from the
core be correlated with social marginality.

South Road

Setting
At the southern end of the settlement, where the road south-south-west towards Verulamium is crossed
by the ridgeway from Wallington, several burials were observed by the late Kit Westaway during the
1970s. This cemetery occupies roughly level ground, with the land rising towards the south-west.
Because only a few burials have been recorded and these were seen in contractors‟ trenches, the extent
of the cemetery is unknown. Archaeological evaluations in the immediate vicinity have revealed no traces
of further burials, so it may be surmised that the burial ground was not extensive. With so few burials, an
accurate estimation of the span of use of the cemetery is impossible to gauge, but it was evidently
established in the late first century BC and continued in use until at least the early third century AD.

67
Figure 36: South Road cemetery

Burials
Only one burial (SR1), discovered in the grounds of the Convent in May 1971, was recorded in sufficient
detail to enable an understanding of its character. This was among the most richly-furnished burials ever
found in Baldock, containing three coarse-ware vessels, four samian vessels, two silvered bronze dishes
and a wooden box containing the cremated bone, its position marked by nails. Another (SR2) was located
across the road in the former Kayser Bondor factory grounds; it contained an early third-century dish, but
no other information is available. A third burial (SR3) was found in the same general area. The fourth
burial (SR4) was observed in 1975 during the construction of a new Roman Catholic church and was
found to contain a coarse-ware urn and a samian cup of the third quarter of the first century AD. A fifth
(SR5), also from the convent site, consisted of a single cordoned jar of Late Iron Age date. In earlier
decades, a number of cremation burial groups were found in and around the Kayser Bondor site. One
(SR6), from the area of the convent, contained an early and large white-ware flagon. Another (SR7)
comprised five Late Iron Age vessels and other artefacts (including an iron razor and whetstone) found by
a builder whose family donated them to the Museums Service around 1990, after he died.
Context Age Sex Date Type
SR1 Older adult Male 8-9 Urned cremation
SR2 13-14
SR3 ?
SR4 8 Urned cremation
SR5 3-6 Urned cremation
SR6 6-7 Urned cremation
SR7 3-6 Urned cremation?
SR8 ?
Table 11: South Road summary of burials

68
Summary
The cemetery seems to have been located at a major road junction on the southern periphery of the
settlement, amongst ribbon development alongside the road leading south-west to Welwyn and
Verulamium. The earliest burials appear to have been deposited around the end of the first century BC
and the remainder seem to be of first century AD date, with the exception of the early third century burial,
which may have been an isolated later burial, as this cemetery appears otherwise to have been roughly
contemporary with the Clothall Road cemetery.

Plate 12: Burial SR1

Mercia Road

Setting
The plan of the geophysical survey undertaken by The Ancient Monuments Laboratory in 1979 (Stead &
Rigby 1986, fig 2) showed two parallel linear anomalies with an apparent subdivision half way along, on a
different alignment from a road to the western side. These features lay at the lowest point of Upper Walls
Common, in a slight hollow running down to the south-west. Area BAL-2 was laid out to investigate the
northern end of the likely enclosure, which appeared to be open, an unusual situation. A second area,
BAL-3, was positioned to investigate the relationship between the western ditch of the parallel pair with
the cross ditch, while BAL-4 was located to resolve the relationship between the two ditches to the south-
west of the parallel ditched area. The results of the work in the first season meant that the area of
investigation needed to be extended to cover the whole of the parallel ditched enclosure as far south-west
as the edge of Upper Walls Common, as it was clear that it extended into Walls Field.

69
What was revealed was a monument type apparently without parallel in Late Iron Age Britain: a ditched
linear „enclosure‟, open at both ends, for which the term cursiform monument may be appropriate. In
form, general orientation and width, it resembles the enclosure of La Croisette at Acy-Romaine in the
Ardennes, which also contained a structure and burials, although the ends were closed (Fitzpatrick 2000,
20). At the north-eastern end of the feature was a circular building, F137. Geophysical survey of Walls
Field by The Ancient Monuments Laboratory in 1991-2 demonstrated that the ditches continued at least
another ninety metres to the south-west, making the monument over 180 m long and some 20 m wide. It
also crosses the late Middle Iron Age pit alignment, interrupting the likely boundary function of the line.
The earliest phase of the western ditch, F158, stopped short of the pit alignment. It was between 1.15 and
1.3 m wide at the surface of the chalk and up to 0.58 m deep, with a V-shaped profile. Pottery suggested
a Late Iron Age origin after 50 BC for the feature; it was cut by F126, the primary silts of which also
contained only Late Iron Age material, perhaps suggesting a date towards the end of the first century BC.
Around the same time that F126 was dug or slightly later, three cremations were deposited towards the
northern end of the enclosure. They appear to have been associated with the circular building, F137. The
structure was represented by a ring gully some 4.6 m in diameter, 0.3 m wide at the surface of the chalk
and up to 0.12 m deep, with an entrance facing south-east. Pottery from the fill of the gully suggests a
date for the dismantling of the structure around the middle of the first century AD. There were no evidently
domestic features around it, which may support a ritual interpretation. It may be compared with the
broadly contemporary series of structures excavated in a solution hollow at California, which seem to
have functioned as mortuary houses (below). A second ring gully to the south-west, F181, produced
second-century pottery and cannot have been associated.
It was not clear if the cremations and structure were contemporary with the second phase of ditches that
defined the long enclosure, as the pottery from ditches F126 to the north-west and F305 to the south-east
was not diagnostic. Nor was it clear if F158 represented an early phase of this enclosure or if the
enclosure was only laid out with ditches F126 and F305. While the cremations were roughly in the centre
of the enclosed area, the structure was not. There were probably originally more than three cremations,
but the area between the surviving examples and building F137 had been destroyed by the development
of a hollow way during the Roman period.

Burials
Three cremations in shallow grave pits survived to the south-west of building F136. All were typical Late
Iron Age cremations with pedestal jars that could be dated to the closing decades of the first century BC
and the early first century AD. In all three cases, the bone was deposited outside the pots and there was
associated articulated pig bone. In the case of F134, one of the vessels contained burnt ovicaprid bone.
F134 also contained a whetstone, F311 contained three copper alloy bindings lined up 80 mm apart that
had evidently been used to hold together strands of an organic material, and F312 contained a copper
alloy pinhead. Both F311 and F312 contained two separate fills; the lower of the two in each case was
silty in nature, suggesting that it had formed in a pit left standing open for some time. In both cases, it
covered the feet of pedestal vessels, suggesting that they had been deposited some time before the pits
were backfilled. There are other instances of burials that seem to have been left open for a while after the
deposition of the human remains, most notably grave 3960 at Icknield Way East, an early fourth-century
infant inhumation, where there was clear evidence for a structure over the grave (Burleigh et al. 2006,
282-3).
Ditch F126 also contained a quantity of cremated bone that was thought to have been redeposited from a
disturbed cremation; given the degree of truncation during the Roman period, it is quite possible that a
number of Iron Age burials were indeed disturbed. On the other hand, cremated bone was relatively
commonplace as a residual material in all areas close to burial grounds, so the case cannot be
considered proven.
As well as the three human burials, an adult dog had been inhumed in grave F320, cut into ditch F305.
The dog was male and had serious skull injuries that were only partly healed, suggesting that the cause
of death was infection following trauma. The occasional burial of animals is paralleled in other cemeteries
at Baldock, although they usually accompany humans; dog burials are also known on other sites, such as
Danebury (Cunliffe 1995, 83), where they have been thought to have a religious significance.

70
Figure 37: Mercia Road shrine and burials

71
Figure 38: The postulated shrine at Mercia Road
Context Age Sex Date Type
F126 Adult 5-6 Material redeposited in ditch
F134 Mature/older adult 4-6 Unurned cremation
F311 Adult? 4-6 Unurned cremation
F312 Adult? 5-6 Unurned cremation
F320 Adult dog Male 6 Animal inhumation
Table 12: Mercia Road summary of burials

Summary
The open ended cursiform enclosure created by ditches F126 and F305 (and, possibly, earlier by F158, if
it had been paired with a ditch completely destroyed by F305) is so far without known parallel in the
British Iron Age. It is clearly different from the other late Iron Age burial enclosures found to the north-
72
west of this site. In some ways, it resembles an open ended cursus, although the dating is clearly Iron
Age; a comparison with the Viereckschanzen of Central Europe fails on the grounds of shape, as such
enclosures are not as attenuated as this example and they are monuments of woodland (Audouze &
Büchsenschütz 1991 [1989], 149).
It is evident that the ditches were quarries for banks and the profiles of sections cut through them
suggested that the banks had stood inside the ditches. In two places, burnt deposits in the lower fills of
F305 seemed to indicate that a fence on top of the bank had been burnt and had fallen into the ditch. The
location of a possible mortuary structure or shrine at the north-eastern end is strongly indicative of a
function related to disposal of the dead. As the second-century BC pit alignment seems to have been
used from the middle of the first century BC as a demarcation line between the settlement to the south-
west and the burial zone to the north-east, this „enclosure‟ marks a break through it and links the two
zones. It would be instructive to examine the southern end of the feature, as it opens in the settlement
area in Walls Field, to see whether there is a second building at that end, maybe this time without
evidence for burials.

Yeomanry Drive North cremation cemetery

Setting
Another cemetery on the northern edge of the settlement was investigated as part of the huge BAL-15
excavation area in 1986-9, again with burials located during the trial trenching of 1969 (Stead & Rigby
1986, 77 burials 22 & 23). During post-excavation work, it became clear that this was a discrete burial
ground in its own right as it was evident that this cemetery must have pre-dated many of the burials in the
Royston Road cemetery. Further work by The Heritage Network in 1994 revealed the full extent of this
cemetery and showed that it occupied a large, shallow doline on the northern side of the road that ran
past the contemporary inhumation cemetery at Stane Street. In this instance, the burials consisted
uniquely of cremations; 48 were located in all.

Figure 39: Yeomanry Drive North cemetery

The burials all seem to fall into the first and very early second centuries AD; four urned cremations
([1777], [1778], [1780] and [1782]) were deposited in a small square enclosure, for which [1782] was
thought to be the primary burial as it lay centrally within the ditched area and was conical rather than flat

73
based. The enclosure seems to have provided a subdivision within the cemetery; morphologically, it is
unlike the Late Iron Age burial enclosures discussed above, lacking the south-eastern entrance. A second
possible enclosure was located immediately to the east; in this case, the position of the two short
stretches of ditch excavated appear to define a trapezoidal enclosure.

Burials
Of the forty-eight burials recorded in the three separate investigations of the site, only twenty-eight (58%)
have been examined by a palaeopathologist, reducing the value of what can be said here. All but one of
the 16 collections of bone that could be aged (64% of those examined) were adult; this was a Young
Juvenile. Five (31% of the aged collections) could not be aged more precisely than Subadult/Adult;
another five were Older Mature or Older Adults. Although this is at first sight a lower percentage of older
adults than in the contemporary inhumation cemetery to the east-north-east, this may be an artefact of
the greater difficulty in ageing cremated bone. There are similar problems with sexing the bone: only six
(24%) could be sexed, and there were four females and two males. There was no correlation between
age at death and the provision of a burial urn; the two sexed urned burials were both female, but with so
small a sample, it is not clear if this is at all meaningful.
Context Age Sex Date Type
TH/BT 5-9 Unurned cremation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 23
TH/CB 7-9 Unurned cremation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 22
205 5-9 Unurned cremation
207 5-9 Unurned cremation
1775 5-6 Urned cremation
1777 5-9 Urned cremation
1780 7-8 Unurned cremation
1782 7-9 Unurned cremation + accessory vessel
1794 5-9 Unurned cremation
1795 5-9 Unurned cremation
1796 5-9 Unurned cremation
1797 5-9 Unurned cremation
1798 5-9 Unurned cremation
1799 5-9 Unurned cremation
1800 5-9 Unurned cremation
1801 5-9 Unurned cremation
1808 5-9 Urned cremation
1816 5-9 Urned cremation
1818 5-9 Unurned cremation
1819 5-9 Unurned cremation
1820 5-9 Unurned cremation
1821 5-9 Unurned cremation
1822 5-9 Unurned cremation
1823 5-9 Unurned cremation
1824 5-9 Unurned cremation
1826 5-9 Unurned cremation
1827 9 Unurned cremation
1831 5-9 Unurned cremation
1832 9 Unurned cremation
1837 5-9 Unurned cremation
1839 8-9 Unurned cremation
(4043) 5 Urned cremation
4223 Subadult 9 Unurned cremation
4224 8-9 Unurned cremation
4225 7-9 unurned cremation
4228 Older mature/ older 8-9 unurned cremation
adult
4422 Subadult/adult 7-9 Unurned cremation
5998 5-9 Unurned cremation
5999 Subadult/adult 5-7 Unurned cremation
6400 5-7 Urned cremation
6401 Older mature/ older Female 5-9 Unurned cremation
adult
6403 5-7 Unurned cremation
6406 Adult Female?? 5-8 Unurned cremation
6407 Adult 5-8 Unurned cremation
6408 Older mature adult Male 5-8 Unurned cremation
6409 Older mature/ older 6-8 Unurned cremation
adult
6414 Subadult/adult 5-9 Unurned cremation
74
 6422 5-9 Unurned cremation
6424 Adult 5-9 Unurned cremation
6425 Subadult/adult 7-9 Unurned cremation
6431 Subadult/adult 5-9 Unurned cremation
6448 5-9 Unurned cremation
6509 Subadult/adult 5-9 Unurned cremation
6513 Young adult Female 6-8 Urned cremation
6514 Older mature/ older Male 5-9 Unurned cremation
adult
6519 Young juvenile 6-9 Urned cremation
6523 5-9 Unurned cremation
6529 Adult 5-7 Unurned cremation
6531 Older mature adult Female? 6-8 Urned cremation
Table 13: Yeomanry Drive North summary of burials

Summary
A small, uniquely cremation cemetery. Exactly contemporary with the inhumation cemetery at Stane
Street to the north-east, it provides an interesting insight into the different choices of funerary rites
available to the population of Baldock in the Late Iron Age and early Roman period. A comparison of the
palaeodemography is not yet possible, as only 56% of the cremations have so far been subject to
specialist analysis.

Sale Drive East

Setting
Another cemetery on the northern edge of the settlement was investigated as part of the BAL-15
excavation area in 1994 occupying a large, shallow doline to the south-west of that in which the
Yeomanry Drive North cemetery was located. A significant number of the burials were recovered under
salvage conditions and none has yet been subject to any post-excavation analysis.

Burials
Altogether, 52 cremations (all unurned) and 12 inhumations were recovered from this doline. It is not clear
whether the burials represent a single mixed-rite cemetery or if the cremations and inhumations were
deposited at different times. None of the cremations was urned, which is an unusual feature of this
particular cemetery.
Context Age Sex Date Type
646 5-14 Unurned cremation
659 5-14 Unurned cremation
665 5-14 Unurned cremation
666 5-8 Unurned cremation
676 5-14 Unurned cremation
691 5-8 Unurned cremation
692 5-14 Unurned cremation
696 5-14 Unurned cremation
698 5-14 Unurned cremation
700 5-14 Unurned cremation
755 Infant 5-14 Inhumation; supine, head to south
757 5-14 Unurned cremation
779 Child 5-14 Inhumation; flexed on right side, head to north-west
782 5-14 Unurned cremation
796 Adult Male 5-14 Inhumation; supine, flexed, head to south-east
(812) 5-14 Unurned cremation
818 5-14 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-north-
west
822a Adult Female 6-13 Inhumation; flexed on right side, head to south-west
822b Adult Male 5-12 Inhumation; extended prone, head to south-west
830 Adult Male 5-14 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east-north-
east
(846) 5-14 Unurned cremation
(847) 5-14 Unurned cremation
(848) 5-14 Unurned cremation
(849) 5-14 Unurned cremation
(850) 5-14 Unurned cremation
(851) 5-14 Unurned cremation
(852) 5-14 Unurned cremation

75
 (855) 5-14 Unurned cremation
(856) 5-14 Unurned cremation
(857) 5-14 Unurned cremation
(859) 5-14 Unurned cremation
(860) 5-14 Unurned cremation
(861) 5-14 Unurned cremation
1419 5-14 Unurned cremation
1433 5-14 Unurned cremation
1435 5-14 Unurned cremation
1437 5-14 Unurned cremation
1439 Infant 5-14 Inhumation; contracted supine, head to south
1442 5-7 Unurned cremation
1458 6-14 Unurned cremation
1470 5-14 Unurned cremation
1472 5-14 Unurned cremation
1487 5-14 Unurned cremation
1489 5-14 Unurned cremation
1502 >Infant 5-14 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east
1519 5-14 Unurned cremation
1525 5-14 Unurned cremation
1530 Infant 5-14 Inhumation; contracted supine, head to south-south-
west
1544 5-14 Unurned cremation
1550 5-14 Unurned cremation
1566 Adult Male 5-14 Inhumation; flexed on right side, head to north
1583 Subadult 5-14 Inhumation; extended prone, head to north-north-
east
1588 5-8 Unurned cremation
1734 5-14 Unurned cremation
1735 5-14 Unurned cremation
1736 5-14 Unurned cremation
1737 5-14 Unurned cremation
1738 7-8 Unurned cremation
1791 5-14 Unurned cremation
1792 5-14 Unurned cremation
1793 6-14 Unurned cremation
1804 5-14 Unurned cremation
1805 8-14 Unurned cremation
1873 8-14 Unurned cremation
1883 8-14 Unurned cremation
Table 14: Sale Drive East summary of burials

Figure 40: Sale Drive East cemetery

Summary
A probably mixed rite cemetery, although post-excavation work may suggest differences in date between
the cremations and inhumations. Nothing can yet be said about the population as the human remains
have not been examined by a palaeopathologist.
76
Clothall Road

Setting
A cremation cemetery was discovered during trial trenching in advance of a road widening scheme in
1968, when eight burials were excavated. The extent of the cemetery is unknown; it occupies level
ground in a position in the angle formed by the main road running south-east to Braughing and the
Wallington Road ridgeway. All the burials dated from the first and second centuries AD and several
contained more grave goods than have been found in other cemeteries in the town.

Figure 41: Clothall Road cemetery (after Stead & Rigby 1986, fig 26)

Burials
All the burials were cremations and all were adults. Only one could be sexed and was male. The sample
is too small to permit any meaningful analysis of the palaeodemography. Further analysis of the bone
may be useful, however, in refining age at death and perhaps suggesting sexes for more of the
assemblages.
Context Age Sex Date Comments
TF/1 Adult 7 Unurned cremation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 6
TF/2 Adult 7 Unurned cremation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 7
TF/3 Young adult 7 Unurned cremation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 5
TS/1 Adult 7-8 Urned cremation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 8
TS/2 Adult Male 7-8 Unurned cremation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 9
TS/3 Adult 7-9 Unurned cremation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 10
TS/4 Adult 5-7 Unurned cremation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 11
TS/5 Adult 9-12 Urned cremation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 12
Table 15: Clothall Road summary of burials
In three cases (TF/1, TF/3 and TS/3), the remains were contained in wooden boxes and in two instances
(TS/1 and TS/5), the bone was contained in an urn. In the remaining three burials, the cremated bone
was placed on the floor of the pit and accessory vessels placed on or around the bones. In five instances,
animal bone was found to accompany the human bone. In TF/3, there were unburnt bones from a
77
minimum of two domestic fowl and part of a pig femur. In TF/1, there were fowl bones, the right back leg
of a pig and the right shoulder and foreleg of a sheep, apparently placed on a hinged wooden board. In
TF/2, one of the vessels contain domestic fowl bones, another contained part of a calf scapula and two
others contained vertebrae and ribs from a sheep. Animal bone was recorded as present in TS/2 but not
identified. In TS/3, the unburnt ribs of a sheep or pig were placed in a samian dish.

Summary
Given the limited nature of investigations in this cemetery, it is uncertain whether the eight burials
excavated in 1968 are typical of this burial ground and even how large the burial ground might have been.
The date of the burials, though, makes them contemporary with the early phases of the Walls Field
cemetery, less than a hundred metres to the north and Royston Road on the opposite side of the
settlement. Box burials are rare in early Roman Britain and those in this cemetery were clearly in
elaborate caskets. Further work is clearly needed to place this site in its context.

Sale Drive doline

Setting
A small cemetery found during the 1994 excavation at BAL-15, which consisted of a small cluster of
thirteen cremations and two inhumations, some of which were only located during the watching brief that
followed the excavation. This was a small doline on otherwise flat ground to the south of the romanised
Icknield Way, in an area where dolines were the focus for ritual activity from the first century BC onwards.

Burials
Burials were placed within the solution hollow in the late first century BC to early first century AD, as at
the Yeomanry Drive North cremation cemetery. The edge of the burial ground was marked by a ditch,
defining the top of the doline. The silts of the hollow were relatively soft, compared with the surrounding
hard chalk, making the digging of grave pits an easy task. All the cremations were unurned, in common
with the majority of this date, but none had accessory ceramic vessels.
Context Age Sex Date Type
621 3-6 Unurned cremation
622 3-6 Unurned cremation
623 3-6 Unurned cremation
625 3-6 Unurned cremation
630 3-6 Unurned cremation
632 3-6 Unurned cremation
638 3-6 Unurned cremation
647 3-6 Unurned cremation
648 3-6 Unurned cremation
651 Adult Male 3-6 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north
655 Subadult Female 3-6 Inhumation; flexed supine, head to north-north-east
1104 3-6 Unurned cremation
1106 3-6 Unurned cremation
1108 3-6 Unurned cremation
1110 3-6 Unurned cremation
1112 3-6 Unurned cremation
Table 16: Sale Drive doline summary of burials

Summary
A small cemetery consisting largely of cremations but with two inhumations. The limited investigations in
this area mean that the full extent of the cemetery is not known, although the south-western and north-
eastern limits can be established. The use of dolines for burial seems to have begun in the Middle Iron
Age and continued, at least at California, until the later Roman period; all the burials in this example,
though, appear to date from the very Late Iron Age.

78
Figure 42: Sale Drive doline cemetery

Walls Field

Setting
Located at the extreme south-eastern end of the town, this was the first of the cemeteries to be
discovered; indeed, its discovery led to the recognition of a Romano-British settlement at Baldock for the
first time. It occupies almost level ground at the foot of a gentle slope running north-west to south-east
and occupies a plot between the two principal roads entering the town from the south-east.
Although both Percival Westell and Shimon Applebaum excavated ditches on the edges of the cemetery,
none appears to have been part of a formal enclosure. That found by Westell to the north-east was a
roadside ditch, whilst Applebaum‟s cannot be recognised as part of any features seen on the geophysical
survey carried out on the field in 1991.

Burials
The Walls Field cemetery consists of a mixed rite burial ground excavated principally in the late 1920s,
containing of about 316 cremations (an estimated 100 of which were represented by apparently
redeposited groups of pottery in later inhumation graves: it is likely that Westell slightly overestimated the
numbers, although there were not fewer than 81 cinerary urns in this redeposited assemblage) and 35
inhumations. The cremations all dated from the early first to the later third centuries AD; the inhumations
probably date from the second to fourth centuries. Unfortunately, Westell kept very poor records and was
79
principally interested in the site as a source of objects for the growing collection of Letchworth Museum,
so little is known about the layout of the cemetery. It is clear that he did not excavate the entire site and
that burials were concentrated in two principal groups, one to the north-east and one to the south-west of
the area he excavated.

Figure 43: Walls Field cemetery

Westell‟s prompt publication of the data has meant that the site is relatively well known as a Romano-
British cemetery. However, his publication is full of errors (especially in the dating of burial groups) and it
has been thought worthwhile to republish the data, especially in the light of an analysis undertaken by
Maria Fabrizi, an undergraduate from the University of Bradford, for a dissertation in 1985. Using the
dating information from the burial groups, it appears that the south-western group was established by AD
c 70, with the first burials in the north-eastern group perhaps a little later. However, with the possible
exception of the very poorly recorded inhumations in the south-western group, no burials were made in
this area after the early third century, whereas deposition continued in the north-eastern group into the
fourth. It is therefore possible that two separate burial grounds have been conflated. Westell retained very
few cremated human remains, nor did he record the positions of vessels in cremation groups or the
alignments of bodies in individual inhumations. The majority were aligned with head to the west, although
some had heads to the south; most were extended, but some seem to have been crouched (Westell
1931a, 248). Some of the inhumations were placed in the collections of the Royal College of Surgeons
but unfortunately were destroyed by bombing during World War II.
80
There is ample potential for further work on the site and finds. Careful excavation might reveal the
locations of burial pits and possibly further burials missed by Westell. As the cemetery extended beyond
the areas he investigated (shown by Applebaum‟s discovery of further inhumations during limited
trenching in 1932), it is likely that more burials remain to be discovered. Up-to-date analysis of the finds –
especially the coarse wares – by suitably qualified specialists would enhance information about the
burials, not least with their dating.
Context Age Sex Date Type
WF1 9-10 Urned cremation
WF2 10-11 Unurned cremation
WF3 11-12 Urned cremation
WF4 9-10 Unurned cremation
WF5 10-11 Urned cremation
WF6 13-16 Inhumation
WF7 9-12 Inhumation
WF8 12-14 Urned cremation
WF9 9 Urned cremation
WF10 11 Urned cremation
WF11 10 Urned cremation
WF12 9-11 Urned cremation
WF13 11-12 Urned cremation
WF14 10-11 Urned cremation
WF15 9-10 Urned cremation
WF16 10-11 Urned cremation
WF17 9-12 Inhumation
WF18 9-10 Urned cremation
WF19 10-11 Urned cremation
WF20 10-11 Urned cremation
WF21 13-16 Inhumation
WF22 8-9 Urned cremation
WF23 13-16 Urned cremation
WF24 10-11 Urned cremation
WF25 10-12 Urned cremation
WF26 9-11 Urned cremation
WF27 9-10 Urned cremation
WF28 7-10 Urned cremation
WF29 9-10 Urned cremation
WF30 9-10 Urned cremation
WF31 9-10 Urned cremation
WF32 10-11 Unurned cremation
WF33 9-10 Urned cremation
WF34 7-8 Urned cremation
WF35 9-10 Urned cremation
WF36 11-12 Urned cremation
WF37 10-11 Urned cremation
WF38 10-11 Urned cremation
WF39 8-10 Urned cremation
WF40 10-11 Urned cremation
WF41 9-10 Urned cremation
WF42 10-11 Urned cremation
WF43 10-12 Urned cremation
WF44 10-12 Urned cremation
WF45 10-11 Urned cremation
WF46 11-13 Urned cremation
WF47 9-12 Urned cremation
WF48 9-10 Urned cremation
WF49 10-11 Urned cremation
WF50 9-12 Urned cremation
WF51 12-13 Urned cremation
WF52 10-11 Urned cremation
WF53 11-12 Urned cremation
WF54 13-16 Urned cremation
WF55 11-12 Urned cremation
WF56 9-11 Urned cremation
WF57 11-12 Urned cremation
WF58 10-11 Urned cremation
WF59 9-10 Unurned cremation
WF60 10-12 Unurned cremation
WF61 13-16 Urned cremation
81
WF62 9-11 Urned cremation
WF63 11-12 Unurned cremation
WF64 8-10 Urned cremation
WF65 11-12 Urned cremation
WF66 10-12 Urned cremation
WF67 10-12 Urned cremation
WF68 11-12 Urned cremation
WF69 11-12 Urned cremation
WF70 9-11 Urned cremation
WF71 9-12 Urned cremation
WF72 11-12 Urned cremation
WF73 11-12 Urned cremation
WF74 9-12 Urned cremation
WF75 9-10 Urned cremation
WF76 10-11 Urned cremation
WF77 11-12 Urned cremation
WF78 9-11 Urned cremation
WF79 12-13 Urned cremation
WF80 10-11 Urned cremation
WF81 11-13 Urned cremation
WF82 9-10 Urned cremation
WF83 12-13 Urned cremation
WF84 9-10 Urned cremation
WF85 9-10 Urned cremation
WF86 12-13 Urned cremation
WF87 11-12 Urned cremation
WF88 11-12 Urned cremation
WF89 11-12 Urned cremation
WF90 12-13 Urned cremation
WF91 13-14 Urned cremation
WF92 9-11 Urned cremation
WF93 10-11 Urned cremation
WF94 12-14 Urned cremation
WF95 11-12 Urned cremation
WF96 11-12 Urned cremation
WF97 11-13 Urned cremation
WF98 11-12 Urned cremation
WF99 12-13 Urned cremation
WF100 11-13 Urned cremation
WF101 9-10 Urned cremation
WF102 10-12 Urned cremation
WF103 11-12 Urned cremation
WF104 12-13 Urned cremation
WF105 9-12 Urned cremation
WF106 12 Urned cremation
WF107 11 Urned cremation
WF108 12-16 Urned cremation
WF109 12-13 Urned cremation
WF110 12-14 Urned cremation
WF111 17-20 Urned cremation
WF112 13-16 Urned cremation
WF113 11-14 Urned cremation
WF114 ? Urned cremation
WF115 9-12 Urned cremation
WF116 ? Urned cremation
WF117 11-14 Urned cremation
WF118 9-12 Unurned cremation
WF119 10-11 Urned cremation
WF120 9-10 Urned cremation
WF121 11-12 Urned cremation
WF122 ? Urned cremation
WF123 11-17 Urned cremation
WF124 17-20 Urned cremation
WF125 ? Urned cremation
WF126 11-12 Urned cremation
WF127 12-15 Urned cremation
WF128 11-15 Urned cremation
WF129 10-12 Urned cremation
WF130 10-12 Unurned cremation
82
WF131 11-12 Urned cremation
WF132 12-13 Urned cremation
WF133 10-12 Urned cremation
WF134 11-20 Urned cremation
WF135 9-12 Urned cremation
WF136 9-12 Urned cremation
WF137 9-12 Urned cremation
WF138 9-12 Urned cremation
WF139 9-12 Urned cremation
WF140 9-12 Urned cremation
WF141 9-12 Urned cremation
WF142 9-12 Urned cremation
WF143 9-12 Urned cremation
WF144 9-12 Urned cremation
WF145 9-12 Urned cremation
WF146 9-12 Urned cremation
WF147 9-12 Urned cremation
WF148 9-12 Urned cremation
WF149 9-12 Urned cremation
WF150 ? Urned cremation
WF151 ? Urned cremation
WF152 ? Urned cremation
WF153 ? Urned cremation
WF154 ? Urned cremation
WF155 ? Urned cremation
WF156 ? Urned cremation
WF157 ? Urned cremation
WF258 ? Urned cremation
WF259 9-12 Urned cremation
WF260 ? Urned cremation
WF261 10-12 Urned cremation
WF262 10-11 Urned cremation
WF263 7-11 Urned cremation
WF264 ? Urned cremation
WF265 9-11 Urned cremation
WF266 13-14 Urned cremation
WF267 ? Urned cremation
WF268 10-20 Urned cremation
WF269 9-12 Urned cremation
WF270 10-11 Urned cremation
WF271 9-10 Urned cremation
WF272 11-12 Urned cremation
WF273 9-12 Urned cremation
WF274 10-11 Urned cremation
WF275 9-12 Urned cremation
WF276 9-12 Unurned cremation
WF277 9-12 Urned cremation
WF278 10-11 Urned cremation
WF279 ? Urned cremation
WF280 9-12 Urned cremation
WF281 ? Urned cremation
WF282 9-12 Urned cremation
WF283 11-12 Urned cremation
WF284 9-12 Urned cremation
WF285 9-12 Urned cremation
WF286 ? Urned cremation
WF287 10-12 Urned cremation
WF288 ? Urned cremation
WF289 11-12 Urned cremation
WF290 ? Urned cremation
WF291 9-12 Urned cremation
WF292 ? Urned cremation
WF293 ? Urned cremation
WF294 ? Urned cremation
WF295 ? Urned cremation
WF296 ? Urned cremation
WF297 11-12 Urned cremation
WF298 9-12 Urned cremation
WF299 10-12 Urned cremation
83
 WF300 11-20 Urned cremation
WF301 ? Urned cremation
WF302 11-12 Urned cremation
WF303 13-14 Urned cremation
WF304 11-12 Urned cremation
WF305 9-12 Urned cremation
WF306 11-20 Urned cremation
WF307 ? Urned cremation
WF308 9-12 Urned cremation
WF309 7-9 Urned cremation
WF310 12-20 Urned cremation
WF311 9-12 Urned cremation
WF312 ? Urned cremation
WF313 10-13 Urned cremation
WF314 ? Urned cremation
WF315 ? Urned cremation
WF316 ? Urned cremation
WF317 ? Urned cremation
WF318 ? Urned cremation
WF319 ? Urned cremation
WF320 ? Urned cremation
WF321 Inhumation
WF322 Inhumation
WF323 Inhumation
WF324 Inhumation
WF325 Inhumation
WF326 Inhumation
WF327 Inhumation
WF328 Inhumation
WF329 Inhumation
WF330 Inhumation
WF331 Inhumation
WF332 Inhumation
WF333 Inhumation
WF334 Inhumation
WF335 Inhumation
WF336 Inhumation
WF337 Inhumation
WF338 Inhumation
WF339 Inhumation
WF340 Inhumation
WF341 Inhumation
WF342 Inhumation
WF343 Inhumation
WF344 Inhumation
WF345 Inhumation
WF346 Inhumation
WF347 Inhumation
WF348 Inhumation
WF349 Inhumation
WF350 Inhumation
WF351 Inhumation
016 Inhumation
015 Inhumation
007 Inhumation
Table 17: Walls Field summary of burials

Summary
A mixed-rite cemetery, in use from AD c 70-310, with cremation the dominant burial rite until the third
century, although some inhumations certainly belong to the second century. Two separate zones evident
within the cemetery may indicate that this was two largely separate burial grounds, each focused on a
different road, rather than a single large cemetery at the road junction. Although poorly excavated and
recorded, there is however ample scope for further work on this cemetery.

84
Royston Road mixed-rite cemetery

Setting
The Royston Road cemetery was the largest of several cemeteries that have been found to lie on the
northern edge of the settlement, mostly to the south of the Icknield Way. Nine cremations were found
during trial trenching by Ian Stead in 1969 (Stead & Rigby 1986, 75 burials 13-21; note that burials 22 and
23, which Stead recorded as part of „Cemetery E‟ have been treated as part of a separate cemetery,
Yeomanry Drive North, for the purposes of this report). In 1986, a 40-metre square trench was opened,
centred on Stead‟s burials 13-21 and it immediately became clear that this was the site of an extensive
cemetery, much of which lay to the east of the original discoveries, and that there were both cremations
and inhumations present. The size of the cemetery meant that the excavation area had to be extended in
each of the following three seasons; eventually, an area some 140 by 80 m was stripped. Although the
easternmost burials and those to the south-west in this trench were recognised as part of separate
cemeteries by 1989 and those to the west excavated by The Heritage Network in 1994 were clearly not
part of the cemetery, there has been a tendency in the few published references to lump them all together
as if they form a single burial ground. The other cemeteries are referred to in this report as Stane Street,
Yeomanry Drive North, Yeomanry Drive South, Icknield Way Roadside, Sale Drive East, Sale Drive West
and Sale Drive Doline; for details see the individual sections in this chapter.
The site is approximately triangular, being defined by a road to the south-south-east, the Icknield Way to
the north and a ditch, recut on numerous occasions, to the south-west. It occupies slightly sloping ground
between two dolines; one, to the north-east, was some 23 m in diameter, while that to the south-west was
about 35 m in diameter. The crest of the ridge lies close to a pyre base identified on the centre of the
south-western side of the cemetery and the ground falls away gently from this point in all directions. The
Icknield Way is on the slight slope down to the north. Between the north-eastern part of the main
clustering of burials in this cemetery and the north-eastern doline was a large series of intercutting pits,
some covered by a deposit of hillwash. Some burials had been made in these pits while they were still
filling up; in other cases, what appeared to have been cremations disturbed from elsewhere in the
cemetery were redeposited here. In some cases, the fills of these pits were heavily carbon stained,
although there was no suggestion that they were either the bases of pyres or pits for disposing of the
remains of pyres.

Figure 44: Royston Road cemetery

85
Burials
The cemetery was mixed-rite, with both cremations and inhumations. Both forms of burial were employed
during the earliest phases of use, from AD c 70 onwards, but by AD 280, cremations seem no longer to
have been deposited. Inhumations appear to have continued to be deposited until well into the fifth
century and the cemetery boundary ditch was certainly recut at least twice after AD 400. In all, 717 burials
or likely burials were identified; 618 (86.2%) were cremations and 99 (13.8%) were inhumations. The
majority of cremations – 399 (55.6% of all burials, 64.6% of cremations) – were unurned; 216 (30.1% of
all burials, 34.9% of cremations) were in urns, while the status of three was unclear.
Of the 717 burials, 586 (81.7%) could be assigned an approximate age at death; however, of these, 14
(2%) could not be aged more closely than “older than infant” (it is probably no coincidence that all of
these were unurned cremations), 81 (11.3%) no closer than “subadult/adult”, while 117 (16.3%) were
simply “adult”. These leaves 374 (52.2%) with a relatively close age at death. Only 195 (27.2%) of the
burials could be sexed; of these, 81 (11.3%) were male and 114 (15.9%) were female, giving a perhaps
unrealistic sex ratio of 1:1.4. The problems may derive largely from dealing with cremated remains, as the
majority of the burials were cremations; this was compounded by their poor preservation, as they had
been badly damaged by ploughing. Many appear to have been deposited in the topsoil originally and
subsequently lost, apart from leaving a trace of leached carbon staining in the subsoil or bedrock.
Of the sexed cremations in urns, 16 (2.2%) contained male remains and 36 (5.0%) contained female
remains; superficially, this suggests that females were more likely to be interred in cinerary urns, but the
numbers are too small to permit reasonable deductions. By age, 120 of all adult cremations were in urns,
33 of all immature (neonate to subadult) cremations were in urns and 25 were subadult/adult.
Context Age Sex Date Type
TH/BE 13-15 Urned cremation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 15
TH/BJ Adult 11-15 Urned cremation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 17
TH/BM 7-15 Unurned cremation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 16
TH/BO Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 18
(=[4203]?)
TH/BP Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation; unurned cremation; Stead &
Rigby 1986, burial 20
TH/CH Adult 7-9 Unurned cremation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 14
TH/CL 7-15 Unurned cremation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 21
TH/CW Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 13
TH/DB 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4003) 9-15 Unurned cremation
(4008) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4009) 9-15 Unurned cremation
(4012) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4013) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4017) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4018) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4019) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4025) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4026) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4027) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4039) 9-15 Unurned cremation
(4049) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4050) 7-15 Unurned cremation
4058 Mature/older adult 10-12 Unurned cremation
4059 Adult Female? 10-12 Unurned cremation
4061 Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4074) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4076) 9-15 Urned cremation
(4077) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4078) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4085) 7-15 Urned cremation
(4089) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4101) Mature adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4103) Mature adult Male? 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4106) Mature adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4119) Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4125) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4137) 7-15 Unurned cremation
4144 Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
4145 7-15 Unurned cremation
4147 7-15 Unurned cremation
4148 Young adult Female?? 10-15 Unurned cremation
86
4150 Older infant/ 9-14 Urned cremation
juvenile
4155 Older mature/ older 9-15 Unurned cremation
adult
4157 7-15 Unurned cremation
4158 9-15 Unurned cremation
4160 7-15 Unurned cremation
4161 Adult 9-15 Urned cremation
4165 9-15 Unurned cremation
4168 7-15 Unurned cremation
4171 Mature/older adult Male?? 7-15 Unurned cremation
4173 Young/mature adult 9-15 Urned cremation
4177 Older mature/ older Male? 7-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
adult
4178 Older mature/ older Female 9-15 Urned cremation
adult
4179 Subadult/adult 9-12 Unurned cremation
4181 7-15 Unurned cremation
4182 Older mature adult 9-15 Unurned cremation
4184 7-9 Unurned cremation
4187 Older mature/ older 9-12 Unurned cremation
adult
4188 7-15 Unurned cremation
4191 Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
4193 Older mature/ older Female 9-15 Urned cremation
adult
4194 7-15 Unurned cremation
4195 Adult Female? 7-8 Unurned cremation
4197 Adult Female? 8-15 Urned cremation
4198 Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
4199 Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
4200 Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
4202 Adult 9-15 Unurned cremation
4203 Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation = TH/BO?
4204 Older mature/ older Female? 7 Unurned cremation
adult + mature/older +
adult Male?
4205 Older mature adult Male? 9-11 Unurned cremation
4206 Adult Male? 10-12 Unurned cremation
(4207) 7-15 Unurned cremation
4209 Older mature/ older 9-12 Unurned cremation
adult
4210 Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
4211 Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
4212 Older mature/ older 11-14 Unurned cremation
adult
(4215) 7-15 Unurned cremation
4216 Older subadult/ 9-15 Urned cremation
adult
4217 Older mature/ older Male? 9-15 Unurned cremation
adult
4219 Young/younger Female? 9-15 Unurned cremation
mature adult
4220 Mature/older adult Male? 9-15 Unurned cremation
4227 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4229) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4233) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4241) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4246) Older mature/ older Male?? 7-15 Unurned cremation
adult
(4252) Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4254) Older adult Female? 10-12 Urned cremation
(4255) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4256) Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4265) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4269) Subadult/adult 9-15 Unurned cremation
(4272) Older mature/ older 7-15 Unurned cremation
adult
(4274) Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation

87
(4275) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4276) >Infant 7-15 Unurned cremation
TH/CA >Infant 7-15 Unurned cremation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 19
(4278) Older mature/ older 7-15 Urned cremation
adult
(4285) Mature/older adult Female?? 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4286) Mature adult 7-12 Unurned cremation
(4287) Older mature/ older 9-15 Urned cremation
adult
(4290) Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4293) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4294) Adult Female? 7-8 Urned cremation
(4297) Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4298) Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4301) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4302) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4308) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4309) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4315) Subadult/adult 7-15 Urned cremation
(4318) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4322) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4328) >Infant/young child 7-15 Unurned cremation
4332 Mature adult 7-15 Urned cremation
4335 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4341) Mature/older adult + Female? 9-15 Urned cremation
infant?
(4344) Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4348) >Infant 7-15 Unurned cremation
4356 Mature/older adult Male? 7-15 Unurned cremation
4358 Older juvenile/ 9-15 Unurned cremation
subadult
4360 Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
4361 Subadult/adult 9-12 Unurned cremation
4362 Older mature/ older Female? 7-15 Unurned cremation
adult
4363 Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
4364 Older mature/ older Male?? 7-15 Unurned cremation
adult
4365 7-15 Unurned cremation
4366 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4368) Older infant/ 9-12 Unurned cremation
juvenile
(4370) Older mature/ older 7-15 Unurned cremation
adult
(4375) 7-15 Urned cremation
(4384) Younger subadult 9-15 Urned cremation
(4385) Mature/older adult Male? 7-15 Urned cremation
4387 Older mature/ older 7-15 Unurned cremation
adult
4389 Subadult/adult 9-15 Unurned cremation
(4395) Younger subadult 9-15 Urned cremation
4398 Older mature/ older 7-15 Unurned cremation
adult
4401 Older mature/ older 9-15 Unurned cremation
adult
(4402) Adult 9-15 Unurned cremation
4405 Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
4406 Adult Male?? 7-15 Unurned cremation
4408 Older adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
4411 Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
4414 Subadult/adult 9-15 Unurned cremation
4415 Subadult/adult 8-14 Unurned cremation
4419 Mature/older adult 8-15 Urned cremation
4420 Older infant/ young 7-15 Unurned cremation
juvenile
4425 Older mature/ older Female?? 7-15 Unurned cremation
adult
4426 Adult 9-15 Unurned cremation
4428 Mature/older adult Female? 10-15 Unurned cremation

88
4429 Older mature adult Male 7-13 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
4434 Older mature/ older Male?? 9-15 Unurned cremation
adult
4435 Older mature/ older 10-12 Urned cremation
adult
4439 Younger/mature 9-12 Unurned cremation
adult
4441 Older adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
4442 Subadult/adult 9-12 Unurned cremation
4444 Older mature/ older 10-12 Unurned cremation
adult
4445 Adult Male? 7-15 Unurned cremation
4446 7-15 Unurned cremation
4448 Mature adult 9-12 Unurned cremation
4450 9-15 Unurned cremation
4453 Older adult 9-12 Urned cremation
4455 Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
4456 Older adult 9-15 Unurned cremation
4457 Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
4458 7-15 Unurned cremation
4460 Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4461) Subadult/adult 7-9 Unurned cremation
4462 Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4464) Older adult 7-9 Urned cremation
(4465) Infant 7-15 Urned cremation
(4466) Subadult/adult Female?? 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4472) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4476) Subadult/adult Male? 9-12 Urned cremation
4482 Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
4484 >Infant 7-15 Unurned cremation
4486 Older adult Female 15 Unurned cremation
4487 Older mature/ older 7-15 Unurned cremation
adult
4489 Older adult 11-15 Unurned cremation
4490 Adult Female?? 10-15 Unurned cremation
4491 Older adult Female?? 7-15 Unurned cremation
4492 Older adult Female? 9-15 Unurned cremation
4494 Adult 11-15 Unurned cremation
4495 Older adult Female?? 13-15 Unurned cremation
4500 Older mature/ older Male 7-15 Unurned cremation
adult + infant?
(4503) >Infant 7-15 Unurned cremation
4507 Subadult 11-15 Urned cremation
(4508) Younger juvenile 7-15 Unurned cremation
4510 Subadult 10-12 Urned cremation
(4511) 7-15 Urned cremation
4515 Adult 9-15 Urned cremation
4519 Mature/older adult 11-15 Urned cremation
4520 Adult 7-12 Unurned cremation
4523 Older mature/ older 9-12 Unurned cremation
adult
4524 Adult 9-15 Urned cremation
+ infant?
4527 Adult 9-15 Unurned cremation
4529 7-15 Unurned cremation
4530 Mature adult Female 7-12 Urned cremation
4532 Adult Female? 9-15 Unurned cremation
4533 9-15 Urned cremation
4534) Subadult 9-15 Urned cremation
4537 Adult Male?? 9-12 Urned cremation
4539 Older adult 9-15 Unurned cremation
4541 Young adult Female 10-15 Unurned cremation
(4543) 9-15 Unurned cremation
(4552) Older mature adult Female 9-12 Urned cremation
(4557) Mature adult Female? 7-9 Urned cremation
(4563) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4564) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4568) Older mature/ older 9-15 Urned cremation
adult

89
(4576) Mature/older adult 7-12 Urned cremation
(4584) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4586) Adult 9-12 Urned cremation
(4588) 9-15 Urned cremation
(4598) Mature/older adult 9-15 Urned cremation
(4599) Subadult/adult 9-15 Urned cremation
4604 Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4605) 7-15 Unurned cremation
4606 Older mature/ older 9-14 Unurned cremation
adult
(4610) Juvenile 9-15 Unurned cremation
(4619) Subadult/adult 9-15 Unurned cremation
(4622) Adult 11-15 Urned cremation
(4624) Mature adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4625) Older mature/ older 7-15 Unurned cremation
adult
(4626) >Infant 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4627) Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4633) Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4638) Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4643) Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
4653 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4662) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4673) Adult 7-12 Urned cremation
(4678) 7-15 Urned cremation
(4679) Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4681) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4685) 7-15 Urned cremation
(4686) Mature adult 7-15 Urned cremation
(4688) Older adult Female? 9-15 Unurned cremation
(4689) Older subadult/ 9-12 Urned cremation
adult
(4694) 7-15 Urned cremation
4698 Older adult 11-15 Urned cremation
4699 Young/mature adult 9-12 Urned cremation
+ infant/ young
juvenile
4703 Infant/young 9-12 Urned cremation
juvenile
4704 Subadult/adult 7-15 Urned cremation
4707 Subadult/adult 13-15 Urned cremation
4713 Infant/juvenile 11-15 Urned cremation
4715 Older juvenile/ 9-15 Urned cremation
younger subadult
4720 Older mature/ older 11-14 Urned cremation
adult
4725 Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
4726 Older mature/ older Male 7-15 Unurned cremation
adult
4728 Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
4730 Older adult Female? 9-15 Unurned cremation
4731 Adult Male?? 7-15 Urned cremation
4734 Adult Female 9-15 Unurned cremation
4735 Mature adult Female? 13-15 Unurned cremation
4736 Older mature/ older 9-15 Unurned cremation
adult
4737 Adult 13-15 Unurned cremation
4738 Older juvenile 7-10 Unurned cremation
4739 Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
4740 Adult 9-15 Unurned cremation
4741 Older adult Female? 13-15 Unurned cremation
4742 Older mature adult Female? 10-15 Unurned cremation
4746 Older adult Female? 9-15 Urned cremation
4749 Mature/older adult Male? 7-15 Unurned cremation
4752 >Infant 9-15 Unurned cremation
+ infant
4753 Neonate 7-12 Unurned cremation
4753 Foetus/neonate 7-12 Inhumation
4754 Older adult Female 9-15 Unurned cremation

90
(4757) Mature/older adult 8-15 Urned cremation
(4764) Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
4765 Mature adult Female?? 7-8 Unurned cremation
4771 Older mature/ older Female?? 9-15 Unurned cremation
adult
4780 Older mature adult Female? 7-15 Unurned cremation
4782 Infant/juvenile 9-16 Inhumation
4791 Infant/juvenile 7-15 Inhumation
4793 Infant/juvenile 8-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north
4798 Neonate 5-20 Inhumation; crouched on right side, head to north-
west
4814 Older adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
4820 Older mature/ older Male 11-14 Unurned cremation
adult
4821 Older mature/ older Male?? 13-15 Unurned cremation
adult
(4834) 7-15 Unurned cremation
4835 Older adult Male 7-9 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east
(4842) Older mature/ older 7-15 Urned cremation
adult
4845 Older adult Female? 7-12 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east
4846 Older mature/ older Female 13-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west-south-
adult west
(4847) Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(4854) >Infant 7-15 Unurned cremation
4858 Young infant 7-15 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east-north-
east
(4876) Adult 7-22 Inhumation
(4880) Older mature/ older 7-15 Unurned cremation
adult
4881 Older mature/ older Female? 7-15 Unurned cremation
adult
4885 Older adult 9-15 Unurned cremation
(4890) Adult 10-12 Unurned cremation
4891 Older mature/ older 9-15 Unurned cremation
adult
4896 Foetus/neonate 9-12 Inhumation
4896 Older mature/ older 7-11 Unurned cremation
adult
4900 Older mature/ older Male 11-15 Unurned cremation
adult
4903 7-14 Unurned cremation
4907 Older mature/ older Female? 9-15 Unurned cremation
adult
4910 Subadult/adult 9-14 Unurned cremation
(4935) Adult 9-15 Urned cremation
4951 Older mature/ older Female?? 10-12 Unurned cremation
adult
4957 Adult 9-15 Unurned cremation
(4962) Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
4969 Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
4971 Older mature/ older 7-15 Unurned cremation
adult
4978 Juvenile 9-12 Urned cremation
4983 Adult Female? 9-12 Urned cremation
4993 Neonate 7-13 Inhumation
(5010) Young/mature adult Female 11-15 Urned cremation
5034 Mature/older adult 9-15 Unurned cremation
5037 Adult 9-15 Unurned cremation
(5042) 9-15 Urned cremation
(5045) Older adult Male?? 10-12 Urned cremation
(5052) Adult 7-12 Unurned cremation
(5056) 9-12 Urned cremation
(5057) Older mature adult Male?? 9-15 Urned cremation
(5058) Adult 7-15 Urned cremation
(5059) Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(5060) Adult 7-13 Unurned cremation
(5063) 8-15 Unurned cremation
(5064) Older adult Female? 14-15 Urned cremation

91
(5068) 7-15 Urned cremation
(5069) Mature adult Female? 9-12 Urned cremation
+ adult + male?
5087 Neonate? 7-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north
(5099) Older mature/ older Male?? 9-12 Urned cremation
adult
5100 Older mature adult Male? 11-15 Urned cremation
(5104) Subadult/adult 9-12 Urned cremation
5107 Older infant 7-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east-north-
east
(5108) Older adult 7 Urned cremation
(5110a) Older mature/ older 7-11 Urned cremation
adult
(5115) Adult 9-12 Urned cremation
(5120) Younger subadult 14-15 Urned cremation
(5121) Younger subadult 10-12 Urned cremation
(5124) Older adult Female? 9-12 Urned cremation
5128 Older mature/ older 13-15 Urned cremation
adult
5129 Older mature adult 11-12 Urned cremation
(5130) Adult 9-15 Urned cremation
(5135) Older adult 9-15 Urned cremation
(5136) Older adult 7-15 Urned cremation
(5139) Adult Female?? 9-15 Urned cremation
(5140) Younger juvenile 9-15 Urned cremation
(5145) Infant 9-12 Urned cremation
5148 Adult 15 Unurned cremation
5151 Younger mature Female? 10-12 Urned cremation
adult
5154 Young/younger Male 7-15 Unurned cremation
mature adult
+ infant
5154 Younger infant 8-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north
(5158) Older adult 9-15 Urned cremation
5163 Older adult 11-15 Urned cremation
(5166) Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
5167 Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(5173) Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
5174 Adult 9-15 Unurned cremation
5176 Subadult/adult 10-15 Unurned cremation
(5179) Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(5184) 7-15 Urned cremation
5183 Older subadult 14-15 Urned cremation
5191 Older adult 8-15 Unurned cremation
5193 Neonate 9-22 Inhumation; crouched on right side, head to north
5195 Older adult 7-15 Urned cremation
5206 Older mature/ older 7-15 Urned cremation
adult
(5207) Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
5211 Older mature/ older Male? 11-15 Urned cremation
adult
(5213) Older mature/ older 7-15 Unurned cremation
adult
5215 Neonate? 7-22 Inhumation
5225 Older adult Female? 9-15 Unurned cremation
5228 Older mature adult Female? 9-12 Urned cremation
5232 Older mature adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
5234 Older adult 11-15 Urned cremation
5237 Older juvenile/ 7-15 Urned cremation
younger subadult
5238 Subadult/adult 13-15 Urned cremation
(5245) Adult 7-15 Urned cremation
(5251) Subadult/adult 7-15 Urned cremation
5255 Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
5262 Older adult Female?? 12-15 Unurned cremation
(5263) Older juvenile 7-15 Unurned cremation
5264 Younger juvenile 11-15 Urned cremation
(5265) Younger juvenile 8-15 Urned cremation
(5267) Older adult Female?? 10-15 Unurned cremation

92
(5268) Older mature adult Female? 7-12 Urned cremation
+ infant
(5271) Younger juvenile 7-15 Urned cremation
(5272) Mature adult Male? 7-15 Urned cremation
(5273) Subadult 7-15 Urned cremation
5278 Older adult Male 14-22 Inhumation; extended prone, head to north
(5282) Mature adult Male? 7-15 Urned cremation
(5283) Subadult/adult 7-15 Urned cremation
(5288) Adult 7-15 Urned cremation
5289 Subadult/adult 7-8 Unurned cremation
5297 Older mature adult Female?? 7-15 Unurned cremation
(5301) Adult 7-14 Unurned cremation
5306 Older mature adult Male 13-15 Inhumation; extended prone, head to south-west
5307 Older subadult/ 7-15 Unurned cremation
adult
(5308) Subadult/adult 7-15 Urned cremation
5309 Older mature/ older Male 7-8 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east-north-
adult east
5313 Older mature/ older Male? 8-15 Urned cremation
adult
5332 Older adult Female 11-14 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east;
decapitated head on coffin lid
(5333) Adult 7 Urned cremation
5354 7-15 Unurned cremation
(5360) Neonate 7-22 Inhumation
5361 Older mature/ older Female? 13-16 Inhumation; flexed prone, head to west-south-west
adult
5426 7-15 Unurned cremation
5426 Neonate 8-20 Inhumation; flexed on right side, head to east-north-
east
5431 Older adult Male 10-22 Inhumation; extended on left side, head to south-
east
(5432) Older adult Female?? 7-15 Urned cremation
5439 >Infant 7-14 Unurned cremation
(5442) 7-15 Urned cremation
5444 Older subadult/ 11-15 Urned cremation
young adult
5453 Older mature/ older 9-15 Urned cremation
adult
(5469) Older subadult/ Female? 7-15 Urned cremation
adult
5474 Adult 8-15 Urned cremation
5477 Older adult Female 7-14 Urned cremation
5491 9-15 Urned cremation
5494 Older adult Female 9-11 Urned cremation
5500 Older adult Male?? 11-15 Urned cremation
5501 Mature/older adult Female?? 7-15 Unurned cremation
(5512) Older adult 11-15 Urned cremation
5520 Young adult Male?? 15-21 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-east
5521 Young adult Male 14 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
5522 Mature adult Female? 9-12 Urned cremation
+ young infant
(5525) Adult 8-14 Unurned cremation
(5528) Infant 9-15 Urned cremation
5530 Older infant 7-11 Inhumation; flexed prone, head to north
5531 Older mature/ older Female? 10-15 Urned cremation
adult
5533 Neonate 7-9 Inhumation; crouched on left side, head to west-
south-west
5534 Older mature/ older Female 9-12 Urned cremation
adult
5538 Subadult/adult 9-15 Urned cremation
5541 7-15 Unurned cremation
5545 Infant 7 Urned cremation
(5548) 7-15 Unurned cremation
5550 7-15 Unurned cremation
(5552) 7-15 Unurned cremation
5553 Older mature/ older Female? 11-15 Urned cremation
adult
(5554) 7-15 Unurned cremation
93
(5555) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(5556) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(5558) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(5560) Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
5563 Older adult Female?? 7-15 Unurned cremation
(5566) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(5568) 7-15 Unurned cremation
5569 Older adult Female 9-15 Unurned cremation
(5571) 7-15 Unurned cremation
5572 Older adult Female? 7-15 Unurned cremation
(5573) Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(5578) Infant/younger 7-15 Unurned cremation
juvenile
5580 Young/mature adult Female 10-15 Urned cremation
5581 Older adult 7-15 Urned cremation
5582 Older adult Female?? 8-14 Unurned cremation
5584 Older mature/ older Male?? 9-15 Unurned cremation
adult
5585 Older adult Male 10-12 Urned cremation
(5623) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(5634) Older adult 8-15 Urned cremation
5637 Older mature/ older Female 13 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-west
adult
(5638) Adult 9-13 Urned cremation
5639 Young/younger Female 8-12 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-north-
mature adult east
(5640) Adult 7-11 Unurned cremation
(5641) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(5647) 7-11 Unurned cremation
5649 Young infant 9-22 Inhumation; head to south-east?
5660 Subadult Male 21-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-west
5664 Older mature/ older 7-11 Urned cremation
adult
5667 Older adult Female 7-21 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-north-
east
5672 Older mature adult Female 8-21 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south
5674 Older subadult Female?? 13-14 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-west;
decapitated head between knees
(5679) Older mature adult 9-15 Urned cremation
5687 Older mature adult Female 8-12 Urned cremation
5692 Younger mature Female 7-11 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-west
adult
(5694) Subadult/adult 7-15 Urned cremation
5697 Neonate/young 8-22 Inhumation
infant
5700 Younger mature Male?? 8-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-east
adult
5703 7-15 Unurned cremation
5707 Adult Female 10-11 Unurned cremation
5709 Infant 8-22 Inhumation
5710 Adult Female?? 7-15 Unurned cremation
5712 7-15 Unurned cremation
5716 Young adult Male?? 14 Inhumation; skull only, cut into foot end of 5637
(5726) Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(5732) 11-13 Urned cremation
5733 Young infant 7-15 Urned cremation
(5746) 7-15 Unurned cremation
5765 Subadult/adult 8-15 Urned cremation
5769 Young infant 12-14 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-south-
east
(5772) Adult 7-13 Unurned cremation
5773 Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(5775) Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
5780 Adult 7-13 Inhumation; flexed supine, head to north
5781 Neonate 7-22 Inhumation; crouched on right side, head to north-
west
5783 Older adult Male 8-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-east
5784 Mature adult Male 8-14 Inhumation; flexed prone, head to north-west

94
5787 Older mature/ older 11-15 Urned cremation
adult
(5791) 7-15 Urned cremation
5793 Older mature/ older Male 7-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-south-
adult east
5801 Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
5819 Neonate/infant? 7-22 Inhumation
5833 Young infant 7-14 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east
(5842) 7-15 Urned cremation
5843 Younger juvenile 9-11 Urned cremation
5864 Older adult Male?? 10-12 Urned cremation
+ young infant
5869 Adult Female 13-15 Unurned cremation
+ infant/juvenile
5879 Neonate 7-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
5882 Younger juvenile 7-22 Inhumation; crouched on right side, head to south-
east
5884 Older adult Female 8-22 Inhumation; extended prone, head to north
5893 Older subadult/ 9-15 Urned cremation
adult
5900 Older mature/ older Male 7-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
adult
5902 Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
5942 Older adult Male 9-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east
6506 Adult 9-12 Urned cremation
6558 Older adult 8-15 Urned cremation
6563 7-15 Urned cremation
6565 Subadult/adult 7-15 Urned cremation
6566 Subadult/adult 7-14 Urned cremation
(6575) 9-15 Urned cremation
6577 Younger juvenile 11-15 Urned cremation
6578 Older mature/ older Male 7-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west-south-
adult west
6580 Older adult Male? 7-12 Unurned cremation
6584 Adult 7-10 Urned cremation
6586 Older adult 9-15 Urned cremation
6588 7-15 Urned cremation
6591 10-15 Unurned cremation
(6592) Adult 13-15 Urned cremation
6593 Older adult Female? 10-15 Unurned cremation
6597 Older adult 9-15 Urned cremation
6598 Older adult 9-15 Urned cremation
6602 Adult 7-12 Urned cremation
6604 Subadult/adult 8-15 Unurned cremation
6605 Older mature/ older 7-15 Unurned cremation
adult
6607 Older mature adult Female? 7-15 Unurned cremation
(6608) 7-12 Urned cremation
6610 9-15 Urned cremation
6613 Older adult 7-14 Urned cremation
6615 Mature/older adult 9-12 Urned cremation
(6616) 7-15 Unurned cremation
6617 Neonate 8-13 Inhumation; flexed supine, head to east
6624 Older adult 7-13 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east
6629 Older adult Male?? 9-15 Urned cremation
6630 Older adult 10-15 Urned cremation
6633 Older adult Female?? 13-15 Urned cremation
6634 Older adult Male?? 9-15 Urned cremation
6637 Older adult Female?? 9-15 Urned cremation
6643 Adult 9-14 Urned cremation
(6646) 7-13 Urned cremation
6676 Older mature adult Female 7-15 Unurned cremation
6677 7-15 Unurned cremation
6680 Older mature adult Male 7-15 Urned cremation
6700 Older mature/ older Female?? 7-10 Urned cremation
adult
6711 Older juvenile 8-14 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
6724 Older mature adult 11-12 Urned cremation
6733 >Infant 7-15 Unurned cremation

95
6739 Older juvenile/ 9-15 Urned cremation
young subadult
6740 7-22 Empty grave
6744 Young infant 8-22 Inhumation; crouched on right side, head to north-
west
6756 Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
6762 Older mature/ older 7-15 Unurned cremation
adult
(6766) Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
6769 Older adult Female 11-15 Urned cremation
6773 Older infant/ young 7 Unurned cremation
juvenile
6775 Older adult Female?? 9-15 Urned cremation
6780 Older mature adult 7-15 Urned cremation
6781 Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(6785) >Infant 7-12 Unurned cremation
6789 Subadult/adult 9-15 Unurned cremation
(6790) 7-15 Unurned cremation
6796 Infant 7-22 Inhumation; extended prone, head to south-west
(6797) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(6798) 7-15 Unurned cremation
6803 Adult Female?? 7-10 Urned cremation
+ infant
6808 7-15 Urned cremation
6809 Subadult/adult 8-15 Unurned cremation
6812 Adult 7-12 Urned cremation
6831 Older mature adult Female?? 7-15 Unurned cremation
+ infant
6833 Older adult 9-12 Unurned cremation
6838 Mature adult Male? 7-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east
6841 Subadult 8-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
6842 Adult 8-14 Unurned cremation
6850 Older mature adult 9-15 Unurned cremation
(6854) Older adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
6855 Older juvenile 7-15 Unurned cremation
6857 Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
6863 Mature adult 7 Unurned cremation
+ young juvenile
(6864) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(6865) 7-15 Unurned cremation
6866 Older mature/ older Female?? 13-15 Unurned cremation
adult
+ older infant
6871 Older adult Male? 7-14 Inhumation; flexed prone, head to east-north-east
6879 Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(6881) Adult Female?? 7-13 Unurned cremation
6886 9-15 Unurned cremation
6898 7-15 Unurned cremation
6900 Young adult Female? 8-14 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east-north-
east
6903 Older adult Male? 7-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east-south-
east
6922 Mature adult Female? 7-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east
(6932) 7-13 Unurned cremation
6933 Young infant 7-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
(6950) Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(6954) Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
+ young infant
(6973) Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
6979 Older adult Male 8-14 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west-north-
west
6981 Young adult Male 7-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-west
6993 Older mature adult Female 7-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east-north-
east
7112 Older mature adult Female 7-22 Inhumation; flexed supine, head to north-east
7124 Infant 7-22 Inhumation; flexed supine, head to east-south-east
7154 Adult Female?? 7-13 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
7164 Subadult Male?? 10-12 Inhumation; extended prone, head to east-south-east

96
7186 Older mature adult Male 7-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east-north-
east
7202 Older adult Male? 7-22 Inhumation; extended prone, head to east-north-east
7217 7-15 Urned cremation
7224 Young infant 7-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
7227 Older mature/ older Female 7-15 Unurned cremation
adult
7229 Mature adult Female? 7-12 Urned cremation
7231 Older mature adult Male 8-14 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east-north-
east
7238 Older adult Female?? 7-22 Inhumation; extended prone, head to north-west
7252 Older adult Male 7-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
7272 Juvenile 7-22 Inhumation; extended prone, head to east-north-east
7277 Older mature adult Female 7-22 Inhumation; flexed on right side, head to north-east
7279 Older mature/ older Female? 7-15 Unurned cremation
adult
7287 Older mature adult Female 7-22 Inhumation; extended prone, head to east
(7297) 7-15 Unurned cremation
7298 Older mature adult Female?? 9-15 Unurned cremation
7300 Older infant 7-22 Inhumation; flexed prone, head to south
7314 7-15 Urned cremation
7317 Older adult Male 7-22 Inhumation; extended supine head to east
7362 Older adult Female 8-22 Inhumation; extended prone, head to north-east
7374 7-15 Unurned cremation
7381 Older mature adult Female 7-21 Inhumation; flexed prone, head to west
(7445) Older mature/ older 7-15 Urned cremation
adult
7456 Older adult Female? 7-15 Unurned cremation
+ infant?
(7479) 7-15 Urned cremation
(7524) Older mature/ older 7-15 Unurned cremation
adult
7530 Adult? 7-22 Inhumation; flexed supine, head to west-north-west
7575 Adult 7-15 Urned cremation
7595 7-15 Urned cremation
7606 Older adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
7654 Subadult/adult 7-15 Urned cremation
(7782) 7-15 Unurned cremation
7788 Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
+ juvenile?
7791 Older mature adult Female?? 7-15 Unurned cremation
7793 7-15 Unurned cremation
(7795) 7-15 Unurned cremation
7807 7-15 Unurned cremation
7811 Older infant 7-15 Unurned cremation
7814 7-15 Unurned cremation
7818 Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
7819 Older mature adult Female?? 7-15 Unurned cremation
7820 Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
7830 7-15 Unurned cremation
7836 7-15 Unurned cremation
7839 Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
7849 Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
7866 Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(7870) Subadult/adult 8-15 Urned cremation
7887 Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
7888 Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
7906 >Infant 7-15 Unurned cremation
7912 Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
7920 Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
7925 Mature adult Male?? 7-15 Unurned cremation
7935 Young adult Female?? 7-15 Unurned cremation
(7936) Older subadult/ 7-15 Urned cremation
adult
(7940) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(7942) Older mature adult Male?? 7-15 Unurned cremation
(7955) 7-15 Urned cremation
7968 Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
7969 Older mature adult Male? 8-15 Unurned cremation

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 7979 Subadult/ adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
7985 Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
7986 Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
7994 Older mature adult Male 8-22 Inhumation; flexed prone, head to west-north-west
(8065) Mature adult 7-15 Urned cremation
(8071) Older mature adult Male?? 7-15 Urned cremation
8075 Subadult/adult 7-14 Unurned cremation
8099 Young infant 7-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-east
8101 Adult Female?? 7-15 Unurned cremation
8145 Young adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(8146) Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(8150) Subadult/adult 8-15 Unurned cremation
(8169) Older mature/ older 7-14 Urned cremation
adult
(8184) Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(8189) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(8215) Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
8232 Older mature/ older 7-15 Unurned cremation
adult
8236 Adult Male?? 8-22 Inhumation; flexed prone, head to west
(8247) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(8249) Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
8253 Older adult Male 7-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east-south-
east
(8256) Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(8263) Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(8264) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(8270) Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(8280) Subadult/adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
(8290) 7-15 Unurned cremation
(8291) 7-15 Unurned cremation
8319 7-15 Unurned cremation
8321 Older mature/ older 7-22 Inhumation; extended prone, head to north-east
adult
8325 Older mature/ older Female 7-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-east
adult
8328 Mature/older adult Male 7-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-east
8335 Young/mature adult 10-12 Urned cremation
8337 Mature adult Female 7-8 Urned cremation
8342 Older mature adult Male? 13-15 Urned cremation
8343 Older adult 13-15 Urned cremation
8344 Adult 9-15 Urned cremation
8349 Adult Female 8-15 Urned cremation
8350 Older adult 7-14 Urned cremation
8353 Adult Male?? 7-15 Unurned cremation
8357 Older adult 7-15 Urned cremation
8358 Adult 7-15 Urned cremation
8359 Adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
8360 Older mature adult 7-15 Unurned cremation
8361 Older infant 7-15 Unurned cremation
8362 Young/mature adult Female?? 7-15 Unurned cremation
8363 Older mature/ older 7-15 Unurned cremation
adult
8364 7-15 Unurned cremation
8367 Subadult/adult 8-14 Urned cremation
8368 Subadult/adult 9-15 Unurned cremation
Table 18: Royston Road summary of burials

The pyre
Uniquely among the cemeteries at Baldock, a pyre area was identified on the south-western side of the
Royston Road burial ground. It appeared as a linear spread of carbon-stained soil measuring around 15
m in length from north-west to south-east, and up to 5 m across, with patches of carbonised material,
scraps of cremated human and animal bone, nails and pottery. It was evidently long-lived, as parts of it
sealed earlier burials, while later burials were also cut through it. It occupied the highest part of the
cemetery and had thus been subject to greater plough damage than any other part of the site,
nevertheless, in places pyre deposits survived in places up to 0.25 m deep beneath the ploughsoil, while
in others, there was only leached carbon. It is evident that these pyres were unenclosed, unlike the

98
structures at Verulamium and Litlington, causing the pyre to shift around within a general area reserved
for this purpose.
There are also two instances of possible in situ cremations, where a pyre was constructed over the grave
pit, [4820] and [6866]. The latter contained mostly carbonised wood, suggesting that the pyre had
collapsed into the bottom of the pit, with most of the cremated bone remaining at a higher lever, to be
dispersed by post-Roman ploughing.

Summary
A large but poorly preserved cemetery showing a complex variety of burial rites, continuing in use from
the later first century AD until at least the early decades of the fifth century, when the boundary ditch was
recut for the last time. Although initially a mixed-rite cemetery, by about 280, only inhumations were being
deposited. The unusually high proportion of unurned cremations might be taken as evidence for a lack of
wealth, but this is not borne out by the human remains, which show no unusually high incidences of
poverty-related pathologies, including early death. Indeed, the population seems to have been relatively
healthy and long-lived by Baldock standards.

Icknield Way roadside

Setting
This cemetery was discovered during the 1994 season in The Heritage Network‟s excavation of BAL-15
Areas 3 and 5. The site occupies level ground to the north-east of the top of the gentle scarp running
west-north-west to east-south-east. To the south-east were numerous dolines, which the road avoided
crossing. To the north of the site and partly overlain by the road, lay a short Iron Age pit alignment.

Figure 45: Icknield Way roadside burials

Burials
A number of inhumations were placed up against the south side of the ditch marking the southern edge of
the Icknield Way. The ditch and the burials were clearly associated and probably mostly contemporary.
The majority of this group stretched out along the line of the silted east-west ditch, although three of them
(graves [499], [912] and [469]) lay in a line just to its north, while [966] lay a short distance to the south.

99
None of the burials has yet been examined by a palaeopathologist, so no data on age or sex are
recorded.
Context Age Sex Date Type
110 Adult Female 3-13 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
371 Adult Female 3-13 Inhumation; flexed supine, head to east
436 Adult 3-13 Inhumation; flexed on left side, head to east-north-
east
469 Subadult Female 3-8 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east
499 3-8 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east
609 3-13 Abandoned grave?
643 Adult Male 3-13 Inhumation; crouched on left side, head to north-
north-west
912 Adult Male 3-6 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
916 Subadult Male 8-13 Inhumation; extended prone, head to north-east
932 Adult Male 4-13 Inhumation; extended prone, head to east
932a Adult Male 3-12 Inhumation; redeposited in 932
953 Subadult Female 3-13 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east
955 Older Adult 3-13 Inhumation; contracted prone, head to north-east
Table 19: Icknield Way roadside summary of burials

Summary
A small inhumation cemetery possibly associated with an Iron Age pit alignment pre-dating the
construction of the roadside ditches of the Icknield Way, although it is not clear if the association was
purely coincidental and related to other boundary lines. Its use continued into the late second or early
third century, when the southern roadside ditch was used as a convenient place to dig graves.

Sale Drive West mixed-rite cemetery

Setting
A rather diffuse cemetery occupying a large doline on otherwise flat ground to the north of the settlement.
The Icknield Way ran about thirty metres to the north but no other roads were identified in the vicinity.
Most of the burials occupied a band around ten metres wide running north-east to south-west along the
south-eastern side of the doline; others were cut through the enclosure ditch to the north or lay in the
western part of the enclosure.

Burials
A large enclosure ([935]/[956]/[964]) was constructed in the late first century AD, partially enclosing a
solution hollow. Although only the northern portion of the enclosure had escaped truncation, it seems
originally to have extended over a substantial area of solution silts. More than twenty inhumations were
deposited inside the enclosure. Although laid out in what initially appears to be a rather haphazard
arrangement, further study may reveal specifically ordered patterns of interment as it is evident that set
patterns of burial were undertaken, not only relating to the siting of the graves, but also relating to the
laying out of the individuals within their cuts. It is probable that some of the cremations located within the
enclosure were deposited at this time; however, the general lack of dating evidence from many of the
unurned burials in this zone, makes it difficult at this stage to assign cremations to particular phases.
Closer inspection of the assemblage is necessary in order to determine which of the 30+ cremations
located belong to this or to later phases, when further inhumations were deposited within the enclosure.
Context Age Sex Date Type
466 Adult Female 8-10 Inhumation; flexed prone, head to south-east
470 8-14 Unurned cremation
493 Adult Male 11-14 Inhumation; flexed on right side, head to south-east
+ horse skull
808 Adult Female 8-14 Inhumation; extended on left side, head to south-
east
817 8-14 Inhumation; extended prone, head to north-west
917 8-14 Unurned cremation
918 8-14 Unurned cremation
919 8-14 Unurned cremation
920 8-14 Unurned cremation
921 8-14 Unurned cremation
922 8-14 Unurned cremation
923 8-14 Unurned cremation
933 8-14 Unurned cremation
936 8-14 Unurned cremation

100
 937 8-14 Unurned cremation
939 8-14 Unurned cremation
943 8-14 Unurned cremation
945 8-14 Unurned cremation
950 8-14 Unurned cremation
951 8-14 Unurned cremation
958 8-14 Unurned cremation
959 8-14 Unurned cremation
960 8-14 Unurned cremation
966 Adult Female 11-14 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east
971 Older Adult Female 11-14 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-west
974 Child 8-14 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-west
979 Infant 8-14 Inhumation
983 11-14 Inhumation; extended prone, head to north-west
985 8-14 Unurned cremation
987 Adult Female 8-14 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east
990 Adult Male 8-14 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-north-
west
992 Child 11-14 Inhumation; extended on left side, head to north
994 Adult 8-14 Inhumation; flexed supine, head to south-east
998 Subadult Female 11-14 Inhumation; extended on right side, head to north-
west + horse skeleton
1000 Adult Male 8-10 Inhumation; extended prone, head to north-north-
east
1019 8-14 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-west
1029 Adult Male 8-14 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
1031 Adult Female 8-10 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east-north-
east
(1087) Adult 8-14 Inhumation; found unstratified
1089 Adult Male 8-14 Inhumation; contracted on left side, head to north-
west
2002 8-14 Unurned cremation
2016 8-14 Unurned cremation
2018 Adult Female 8-14 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-west
2020 8-14 Unurned cremation
2021 8-14 Unurned cremation
2022 8-14 Unurned cremation
2024 Infant 8-14 Inhumation; contracted supine, head to north-east
2026 Adult Female 8-14 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east-north-
east
2027 Adult Female 8-14 Inhumation; flexed on right side, head to north-north-
east
2028 8-14 Unurned cremation
2030 8-14 Unurned cremation
2032 8-14 Unurned cremation
2035 8-14 Unurned cremation
2036 8-14 Unurned cremation
2037 8-14 Unurned cremation
2038 8-14 Unurned cremation
2041 Adult Male 8-14 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-west
2043 Adult Female 8-14 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
Table 20: Sale Drive West summary of burials

Summary
A medium-sized cemetery, occupying an extensive doline, like so many on the northern side of the town.
It is impossible to make detailed comments on the population represented by the burials until the remains
have been examined by a specialist and on the dating of the burials until detailed post-excavation
analysis has been carried out.

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Figure 46: Sale Drive West cemetery

Yeomanry Drive South mixed-rite cemetery

Setting
The site occupies a level area to the immediate north-west of the California enclosures and cemetery,
and south-east of the Sale Drive West cemetery. Unusually, this group of burials does not seem to be
associated with a definite road. The date of the burials falls between those from the California small
enclosure and the California Late Roman cemetery and it is tempting to suggest that the same social
group is represented by all three burial grounds; at any rate, the use of this small cemetery is
contemporary with the use of the California site for domestic purposes.

Burials
A small group of somewhat scattered burials, consisting of three inhumations and ten unurned
cremations. None has yet been examined by a palaeopathologist, so no assessments of age or sex
patterns can be made.
Context Age Sex Date Type
1234 Subadult Male 8-10 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
1236 7-16 Unurned cremation
1237 7-16 Unurned cremation
1243 7-16 Unurned cremation
1244 7-16 Unurned cremation
1245 7-16 Unurned cremation
1258 7-16 Empty grave
1261 Adult 7-16 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-east
1269 7-16 Unurned cremation
1272 7-16 Unurned cremation
1279 7-16 Unurned cremation
1282 7-16 Unurned cremation
1288 Adult Female 7-16 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-west
102
 1292 Infant 7-16 Inhumation
Table 21: Yeomanry Drive South summary of burials

Figure 47: Yeomanry Drive South cemetery

Summary
A small group of burials at the very lowest end of what can legitimately be regarded as a cemetery rather
than backland burials. Owing to the small size of the area excavated, it is not clear whether the burial
ground extended further to the south-west.

Late Romano-British/sub-Roman cemeteries

Icknield Way East Romano-British mixed-rite cemetery

Setting
Discoveries of several burials had been made over a number of years from the area between Royston
Road, Icknield Way East and North Road (known locally as The Triangle), but these were thought to have
been isolated finds. For example, skeletal material was unearthed at the north end of California, at its
junction with Royston Road, in 1962. This led to an interest being taken in a site on Icknield Way East,
opposite the end of California, when redevelopment began in 1988. An initial brief inspection of the
footings for number 22 seemed to bear out the impression of scattered burials, but it became clear after
initial cleaning of the sections that a large number of inhumations had been disturbed. It was decided to
investigate several areas of the site more thoroughly and a team from North Hertfordshire Museum
Service‟s Field Archaeology Section undertook small-scale excavation in advance of footings between
March and June 1988.
This lay on the very edge of the low ridge running roughly west-north-west to east-south-east through the
settlement. It is the only cemetery so far known to have lain to the north of the Romanised line of the
Icknield Way, which otherwise appears to have defined the northern limit of settlement and burial in the
town. It probably lay opposite the junction of Icknield Way with the road travelling north-west from the
cemetery at California, at the edge of the scarp overlooking the town. As such, it may have been in a
prominent location. This could have been enhanced by the presence of the Late Iron Age burial enclosure
to the west, especially if its central burial had originally been marked by a mound. The late Roman
cemetery intruded slightly onto the site of the earlier enclosure, although there was a ditch parallel and
close to the north-eastern enclosure ditch suggesting the continuity of boundary lines at least up to the
time the cemetery expanded to the west. The first burials seem to have been deposited shortly before AD
200, over a century after the last burials were deposited in the enclosure; some were almost certainly of
fifth-century date.

103
Figure 48: Icknield Way East late Roman cemetery

Burials
Only a small part of the cemetery was investigated in 1988 and there are no doubt more burials in the
vicinity; some were recorded during the construction of the previous house on the site, the former 5a
Royston Road, including an inhumation accompanied by a beaker and a collection of vessels presumably
deriving from cremation groups, including East Gaulish samian (Applebaum 1932, 257-8). Thirty-six
burials belonging to the cemetery have been recorded, of which the majority (29, 81%) were inhumations;
of the remainder, six (16.7%) were urned cremations and one (2.8%) was an unurned cremation. The
majority of inhumations were extended and supine, although at least one prone burial was recorded and
there was one probable decapitation. There were numerous intercutting graves as well as redeposited
and disturbed material, including [7023], a pit of probable very late Roman or sub-Roman date dug
through earlier inhumations containing only redeposited skeletal material. Some of the cremations were of
unusually late date, including [7009] and [7012], both of which contained fourth-century pottery.
20 of the burials (83% of the aged burials) were adult and one either subadult or adult, while four infants
were represented. Most of the aged adults were mature or older adults (14, 70% of the adults), with only
one young adult; the four that could not be aged more precisely were from very fragmentary inhumations
and a cremation. Of the sexed remains, four were male and eight female, an unrealistic sex ratio that is
probably an artefact of the limited scale of investigations in this cemetery.
Although the investigations were limited in extent, it was apparent that the inhumations, at least, were
ordered into rows, for the most part aligned roughly east to west. There also appeared to be a correlation
between the alignment of the grave and the date of deposition, as all inhumations with heads to the north
or west proved to be earlier than those with heads to the north-east or east where relationships between
graves could be established.
Context Age Sex Date Type
Adult? 12-16 Inhumation found in January 1933 (Applebaum
1932, 258)
3805 Mature/older adult Female 13-16 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west-south-
west
3806 Adult 19-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
3809 Adult 19-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east
3812 Older mature/ older 13-16 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west-south-
adult west
104
 3814 Subadult/adult 12-16 Urned cremation
3817 Older mature/ older Female? 19-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
adult
3822 Adult 17-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east-north-
east
3827 Young adult Female 15-18 Inhumation; flexed supine, head to north-west,
decapitated
3829 Older adult Female? 15-18 Inhumation; disarticulated
3831 Mature adult Male 15-18 Inhumation; flexed prone, head to north-north-west
3835 Adult 19-22 Inhumation
3837 Mature/older adult Male? 15-18 Inhumation; extended supine; head to north
3842 Young infant 17-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east
3843 13-16 Urned cremation redeposited in [3806]
3844 Older adult Male 17-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east-north-
east
3854 Older adult Male 20-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east
3857 Older adult Male 17-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east-north-
east
3860 Mature/older adult Female 13-16 Inhumation
3863 Mature/older adult Female 13-16 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west-south-
west
(3875) Mature adult Female 17-20 Inhumation
(3877) Older adult Female 15-18 Inhumation
3879 17-20 Inhumation?
3923 Older adult Female 17-20 Inhumation; disarticulated, redeposited
3955 Older adult Female 17-20 Inhumation; flexed supine, head to north-east
3960 Infant 17-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
3971 Older infant 15-18 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-north-
west
(3972) 19-22 Inhumation
7005 Mature/older adult 12-22 Unurned cremation
7009 Young adult Male 17-20 Urned cremation
7012 Mature/older adult 20-21 Urned cremation
7023 20-24 Inhumations; redeposited
7028 Infant 19-21 Inhumation?
(7039) 12 Urned cremation redeposited in [3805]
(7040) Adult 13-16 Urned cremation redeposited in [3844]
Table 22: Icknield Way East Late Roman cemetery summary of burials

Summary
An initially mixed rite cemetery, with early cremations principally towards the western side of the known
distribution and with inhumations arranged in rows running approximately east to west. Despite the
evidently ordered layout, there was a great deal of intercutting between graves, with some evidently
continuing to be dug well into the fifth century. One of the more unusual features was a large pit, [7023],
that contained redeposited remains from the graves through which it had been cut but with no indication
of its original function.

California Late Romano-British cemetery

Setting
The cemetery occupies roughly level ground on the northern side of the scarp that runs roughly west-
north-west to east-south-east through the settlement. It is at a crossroads, in a corner plot. To the south
lay a doline that had been a focus for Middle to Late Iron Age ritual activity, including disposal of the
dead, but which was metalled in the Roman period, suggesting that it had been deliberately and
symbolically sealed. The site lay across the road from the large Late Iron Age burial enclosure discussed
above and had also been used in the Late Iron Age as a burial ground in a smaller enclosure, also
discussed above. During the first century AD, the site had been colonised for domestic use, which was
when the plot was initially laid out; wells on the site suggest that this use continued into the late second
century. The first Romano-British inhumations appear to have been deposited shortly before AD 200, the
earliest examples being those to the south.

105
Figure 49: California Late Roman cemetery

Burials
Ninety-four separate burials were attested in this cemetery, although they occupied only eighty-one
graves. This was largely a reflection of the extensive re-use of grave cuts and the presence of a number
of cuts containing no bone whatsoever. The practice of exhumation before secondary and tertiary
interment was generally performed with great care, so it is possible that the „empty‟ graves were originally
occupied, the bones of former occupants being removed elsewhere. A similar practice was observed in
the doline to the south-east.
Context Age Sex Date Type
106
F4b Older adult Male 12-26 Inhumation
F6 Adult? 12-26 Inhumation
F7 Adult Male? 12-26 Inhumation
F484 Adult Male 16-18 Inhumation
F488 Adult Female 26 Inhumation
F489 Adult Female? 25 Inhumation
F544 Young/mature adult Female 12-26 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-west
F550 Adult 24 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-east
F632 Adult Male 17-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east
F637 Young/mature adult Male 12-14 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-west
F638 Child 14-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
F642 Adult Male? 12-19 Inhumation; redeposited
F642 Young/mature adult Female 16-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-north-
east, decapitated
F643 Young adult Female 21-23 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-north-
east, decapitated and additional skull on shoulders
F644 Adult Female 12-26 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-west
F649 Young/mature adult Male 12-26 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east-south-
east
1005 Subadult 12-15 Inhumation; redeposited
1005 Young/mature adult Female 13-16 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east,
decapitated
1009 Older adult Male 12-14 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
1018 Adult? 12-19 Inhumation; redeposited
1018 Young/mature adult Female 17-20 Inhumations; both extended supine, head to south-
+ infant west
1033 Older adult Female 12-14 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west-north-
west
1041 Older adult Male 19-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-west
1056 Adult Male? 24-25 Inhumation; removed and redeposited
1058 Adult Female 12-25 Inhumation; redeposited
1058 Adult Female 21-26 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-east,
decapitated
1060 Young/mature adult Male 17-24 Inhumation; both extended supine, head to north-
+ infant west
1062 23 empty grave?
1066 Older adult Female 13-16 Inhumation; redeposited
1066 Young/mature adult Female 12-15 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-east
1068 Adult + child 12-15 Inhumation; removed
1075 Older adult Female 12-22 Inhumation
1075 Young/mature adult Female 12-22 Inhumation
1075 Young/mature adult Female 12-22 Inhumation
1075 Older adult 12-22 Inhumation
1075 Young/mature adult Male 22-24 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
1094 Older adult Female? 21-23 Inhumation; head to west
1100 Subadult? 22 Inhumation; removed and redeposited
1108 Young/mature adult Female 25-26 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
1119 Older adult Female 23-24 Inhumation; flexed supine, head to east-south-east
1123 Older adult Female 17-23 Inhumation; removed and redeposited
1125 Adult 21-24 Inhumation; removed
1128 Older adult? Female? 22-24 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east
1141 Older adult Male 21-24 Inhumation; crouched on left side, head to north-
west
1169 Young/mature adult Female 13-16 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-west
1170 Young adult Male 13-16 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-west
1175 Young/mature adult Male 12-25 Inhumation; redeposited
1175 Young/mature adult Male 25-26 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-west
1187 Adult Female 17-20 Inhumation; flexed supine, head to south-west
1196 Older adult Female 25-26 Inhumation; flexed on left side, head to south-west
1198 Older adult Female 21-24 Inhumation; extended prone, head to south-0east
1206 Child 17-24 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
1231 Older adult Male 17-24 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-west
1238 Neonate 22-24 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north
1243 Young/mature adult Male 22-23 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
1247 Older adult Female 24-25 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-west
1248 26 Empty grave?
1256 Child 21-23 Inhumation; head to south-west
1267 Older adult Female 21-23 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east-south-
east

107
 1273 25 Empty grave?
1275 Adult 22-24 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west-south-
west
1305 Young/mature adult Male 21-24 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-east
1318 Mature adult Male 23-24 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east,
decapitated
1322 Young/mature adult Male 21-23 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
1325 Older adult Male? 21-24 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
1358 Adult Male 17-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-west,
disturbed
1361 Young/mature adult Male 21-23 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-west
1367 Young/mature adult Female 17-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-east,
decapitated
1376 Adult Female 16-26 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-east,
decapitated?
1381 Mature adult 17-26 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-west,
decapitated
1387 Adult? 17-20 Inhumation; removed and redeposited
1393 22-26 Empty grave?
1397 Young adult Female? 17-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-west
1411 Young/mature adult Male 17-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-west
1413 Adult Female? 21-24 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
1419 Adult 17-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-east
1434 Adult 13-17 Inhumation; removed
1435a Young/mature adult Female 18-24 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-east
1435b Young/mature adult Male 19-25 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-west
1435c 20-26 Empty grave?
1440 Young adult Male 13-19 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east
1462 Young adult Female? 13-18 Inhumation; redeposited
1462 Adult Female 15-19 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
1463 Young/mature adult Female 22-24 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-east
1464 Subadult Male 21-24 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-south-
east
1472 Adult Female 13-18 Inhumation; removed
2115 Infant 12-26 Inhumation
2209 Adult Male? 13-23 Inhumation; crouched on right side, head to north-
west
2209 Adult Female? 21-24 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-west
2211 Mature adult Male 22-26 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
2211 Young adult Female 22-25 Inhumation; redeposited
3602 Young adult Female 17-24 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-east
3612 Subadult 12-19 Inhumation; supine, head to north-east
3620 Infant 13-26 Inhumation
3630 Infant 21-23 Inhumation; head to north-west
3640 Young/mature adult Male 18-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east,
decapitated after burial
3643 Adult 17-19 Inhumation; removed
3649 Adult 12 Inhumation; extended supine, head to north-east
Table 23: California Late Roman cemetery summary of burials

Summary
The earliest burials in this cemetery appear to be those towards the south, closest to the crossroads.
From this initial area, burials spread towards the north, occupying mostly the north-western half of an
enclosure that had been established in the angle between the roads during the late first or early second
century AD. By the time the first burials were deposited, though, the enclosure appears to have fallen out
of use and a number of burials were eventually made into its silted-up ditches.

The Tene

Setting
The cemetery at The Tene occupies a site sloping gently down to the south and south-west. Its location in
relation to Romano-British urban topography is obscure as this part of the town has not been extensively
explored. Indeed, most of the burials on this site are known only from observations in construction and
service trenches: the four area excavations (BAL-31 in 1978, BAL-48 in 1988, BAL-30 in 1990 and BAL-
31 in 1994) account for only nineteen of the more than eighty burials discovered in the cemetery.

108
Figure 50: The Tene Late Roman cemetery
However, enough is known of the local setting to recognise that the layout of this burial ground is very
different from any others so far known in the Romano-British town. The graves are all aligned in the same
direction (just south of west to east, with the heads all at the west end), all the bodies are extended and
supine, and none of the graves has produced evidence for grave gifts. It is clear that this a well organised
cemetery of a type known to develop only after the middle of the fourth century (Petts 1998, 115). This
makes it the latest cemetery known to have developed in the town. A further interesting feature is the
presence of a cobbled area, not apparently cut by burials, that would therefore appear to be
contemporary with the use of the cemetery. Apart from the shrine at Mercia Road and grave structures at
Royston Road and Icknield Way East, this is the only structure so far identified within a cemetery and
given its late date, it is tempting to compare it with the mausolea at Poundbury (ref?).

Burials
Eighty burials have been observed or excavated in this cemetery, which must be only a small fraction of
the total. However, it is difficult to gauge the likely original size and extent of the cemetery and, apart from
the area of cobbles, it is unclear if evident blanks in the distribution of burials represent zones not used for
burial in the Late and sub-Roman periods or if they are areas where the circumstances of discovery have
not permitted the recognition of graves. Only to the south-east, towards Pinnocks Lane, and towards the
north, between BAL-30 and BAL-45, where area excavations have revealed areas with no burials, is it
certain that none were deposited.
All the burials recorded in any detail consisted of extended supine inhumations, with heads to the west.
Most had their arms extended by their sides or occasionally crossed over the lower abdomen. However,
many burials were recorded only partly, in the sides of foundation or service trenches. revealing only
small parts of the body. There was no trace of intercutting graves, contrasting strongly with all known
contemporary cemeteries in the town.
109
Twenty (25% of the total, 48.8% of the sexed burials) were male and twenty-one (26.25% of the total,
51.2% of the sexed burials) female, close to modern populations. No neonates or infants were identified,
but this could be a result of the circumstances of excavation over much of the cemetery. Of 49 aged
individuals, 12 (24.5%) could not be aged more closely than Adult, 6 (12.2%) were Young Adults, 3
(6.1%) were Young/Mature adults, 1 (2.0%) a Younger Mature Adult, 7 (14.3%) were Mature Adults, 6
(12.2%) were Mature/Older Adults, 2 (4.1%) Older Mature/Older Adults, 7 (14.3%) Older Adults, 1 (2.0%)
Old Adult, 1 (2.0%) Subadult, 1 (2.0%) Young Subadult, 1 (2.0%) Older Juvenile and 1 (2.0%) Older
Juvenile.
Context Age Sex Date Type
- Adult? 20-22 Inhumation; observed c 1931
- Adult? 19-22 Inhumation; observed 1969/70
- Adult? 19-22 Inhumation; observed 1947
- Adult? 19-22 Inhumation; observed 1947
1 Older adult Male 19-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
2 Younger subadult Male? 21-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
3 Mature/older adult 21-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
4 Mature/older adult 19-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
5 Mature adult Female 19-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
6 Adult Female? 19-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
7 Younger mature Male 19-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
adult
8 Adult 19-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
9 Young/mature adult Female? 19-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
10 Older mature/older Male 19-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
adult
11 Adult Female 19-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west-south-
west
12 Adult Female 19-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west-south-
west
13 Older juvenile 19-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west-south-
west
14 Young juvenile 19-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
15 Mature/older adult Male 19-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
16 Young/mature adult Female 21-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
17 Older mature/older Female? 21-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
adult
18 Young adult Female 21-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
19 Older juvenile 19-20 Inhumation
20 Older juvenile 19-20 Inhumation
21 21-22 Inhumation
1802 19-22 Inhumation
6201 Older adult Female 19-20 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
6257 19-22 Inhumation
6271 Older adult Female 19-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
F2 19-22 Inhumation
F3 19-22 Inhumation
F4 19-22 Inhumation
F5 19-22 Inhumation
F9 19-22 Inhumation
F10 19-22 Inhumation
F11 19-22 Inhumation
F12 19-22 Inhumation
F20 19-22 Inhumation
F21 19-22 Inhumation
F22 19-22 Inhumation
F23 Older adult Male 21-22 Inhumation
F26 19-22 Inhumation
F27 Adult Male 21-22 Inhumation
F28 Elderly adult Male 21-22 Inhumation
F30 Adult Male 21-22 Inhumation
F31 Adult Male? 21-22 Inhumation
F33 19-22 Inhumation
F34 19-22 Inhumation
F36 19-22 Inhumation
F39 19-22 Inhumation
F42 19-22 Inhumation
F46 Adult Male 21-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
F47 19-22 Inhumation
110
 F52 Young adult Female 21-22 Inhumation; head to south-west
F56 Older adult Female 21-22 Inhumation
F65 Mature/older adult Male 21-22 Inhumation
F66 19-22 Inhumation
F67 19-22 Inhumation
F68 19-22 Inhumation
F69 19-22 Inhumation
F70 Young/mature adult Female 21-22 Inhumation
F71 19-22 Inhumation
F74 Mature/older adult Male 21-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
F75 Mature/older adult Male 21-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
F76 Older adult Male 19-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
F79 Older adult Female 21-22 Inhumation; extended supine, head to west
HN61 Subadult Female 19-22 Inhumation
HN63 Mature adult Male 19-22 Inhumation
HN64 Young adult Male? 19-22 Inhumation
HN69 Young adult Male 19-22 Inhumation
HN80 Mature adult Female 19-22 Inhumation
HN104 Juvenile Female 19-22 Inhumation
HN120 Young adult Female 19-22 Inhumation
HN133 Mature adult Male? 19-22 Inhumation
HN172 19-21 Inhumation; not excavated
HN182 Mature adult Female 19-22 Inhumation
HN184 Young adult Female 19-22 Inhumation
HN191 Mature adult Male? 19-22 Inhumation
HN192 Mature adult Female 19-22 Inhumation
HN194 19-22 Inhumation; not excavated
Table 24: The Tene Late Roman cemetery summary of burials

Summary
A well ordered very Late Roman cemetery, of a type that has occasionally been associated with Christian
populations, although this association is controversial. However, it is virtually certain that Late Roman
Baldock would have had a Christian population and the rites attested on other contemporary cemeteries
do not seem likely to be types to appeal to those with a belief in bodily resurrection. The lack of infant
burials is perhaps more apparent than real, give circumstances under which most of the burials were
discovered.

Isolated and informal burials

Clothall Common (formerly known as Upper Walls Common)

California doline

Setting
A doline at the south-eastern end of California was used as an area for the disposal of the dead over an
enormously long period. Three discrete phases of Iron Age activity were recognised within the silts,
sealed by an early Roman metalled surface. The earliest phase can be dated to the Middle Iron Age, with
the lowest excavated silts containing weathered and residual human bone, a sample of which gave a
radiocarbon date of 2380 ± 130 bp (HAR-5965, 508 ± 396 Cal BC at 2ζ). Elements from the skeletons of
a neonate, a child and an adult were recovered from these earliest silts. No formal burials belonging to
this primary phase were identified, suggesting either that the focus for burial lay at a higher level or that
some other means of disposal – such as excarnation – was practised. The quantity of child bone – all
from the left side of the individual – suggests that most if not all of the body had been present in the dell
at some time.
The deposit producing this weathered bone was rectangular in shape and followed an orientation that
was repeated in later phases, when it was followed by successive timber-framed structures. It is therefore
possible that the late Middle Iron Age activity was focused around a mortuary house where the dead were
exposed and their bones subsequently dispersed. If this be accepted, then the quantity of child bone may
be explainable in terms of it belonging to the last individual to be exposed in this particular structure.

111
Figure 51: The California doline burials
In the earliest of the Late Iron Age phases, two graves were dug. The earlier, [610], had been cut through
what was presumed to be the floor of the earlier building, although it is not clear if it was standing at the
time this took place. The body of a young to middle-aged adult female had been laid on its left side, with
the head to the north north-east; during the decay process, the skeleton had slumped into a near-prone
position. Two fragments of an iron knife blade were found beneath the left hip, while there were iron
stains to the north and west of the head. A pottery disk was found resting on the spine, just below the
bottom rib and had perhaps originally lain close to the right-hand waist. The burial also contained a flint
flake, quartz, burnt pyrites and iron slag. Somewhat later, and certainly after the putative structure had
been removed, a second inhumation was deposited, [556]. This contained the supine body of a child
aged about 11 or 12, with its arms folded across the chest. No artefacts were found in the grave. The
dating evidence for this phase of activity is inconclusive, and although it may be as early as c 150 BC, the
fabric of the pottery disk suggests a date no later than the middle of the first century BC.
During subsequent phases of the filling of the solution hollow, a series of structures focused around a
probable hearth was established. While the hearth remained in one position, the location of the structures
varied. Individual floor layers were separated by periods of silting. During the second phase, sherds of
pedestalled vessels were found in the silt layers, suggesting a date after about 50 BC; the third phase
deposits contained a coin of Andoco…, suggesting a date after about 20 BC. By this period, the large
mortuary enclosure at California had been established, immediately to the north-east of the hollow. Some
of the vessel fragments and pieces of cremated bone that appear in the silts of these two phases may
derive from activity on that site rather than in the hollow itself. Nevertheless, the continuing presence of a
hearth suggests a continuity of ritual use of the hollow. By the end of the third phase, the structural
evidence included fragments of daub and painted wall plaster. This phase was terminated by the
construction of a fine flint gravel surface in the mid to late first century AD.
During the later Roman period, after the late third century, burials were again deposited in the doline, by
this time a much shallower feature than during the Iron Age. Of five graves, only three (F466, F479 and
F513) contained human remains, the two others being empty. A comparison with the empty graves in the
contemporary California cemetery to the north-west raises the possibility that they originally contained
bodies that were subsequently exhumed.
Context Age Sex Date Type
F466 Mature adult Male 15-16 Inhumation
F479 Young adult Male 15-16 Inhumation
F498 Adult Female? 2-5 Inhumation
112
 F500 4-5 Cremation?
F502/513 Adult? 2-3 Inhumation
F505 Subadult 4-5 Inhumed
F507 Adult? 1-2 Inhumed
F514 15-20 Empty grave
F516 Mature adult Male 15-20 Inhumation
F519 3-4 Cremation?
F534 15-20 Empty grave
F531/641 Neonate C5 BC Inhumation
F569/599
F531/641 Child C5 BC Inhumation
F569/599
F531/641 Adult C5 BC Inhumation
F569/599
F548 15-20 Empty grave
F556 Child C2 BC Inhumation
F573 1-2 Inhumation
F610 Adult Female C2 BC Inhumation
Table 25: Human bone from the California doline

Summary
The large doline at California contained one of the best preserved stratigraphic sequences at Baldock.
Although not fully excavated – probing suggested an original depth of over 2.2 m, a full 0.5 m below the
depth reached in 1982 – it revealed a sequence from the second century BC to the sixth century AD, with
the possibility of extending back at least to c 500 BC. It was evidently the site of ritual activity concerned
with the dead for over two centuries at the end of the Iron Age and perhaps considerably longer.
However, what is not clear is whether it was the focus, or whether it was peripheral. Its continued use
after the establishment of the enormous burial enclosure to the north-east c 50 BC may indeed indicate
that it had always been peripheral to the focus of activity, which has subsequently been lost to later
Roman activity, ploughing and erosion. On the other hand, the lack of Middle Iron material in residual
deposits elsewhere on the BAL-1 excavation area perhaps renders this unlikely.
The sequence of deposits suggests periods of increased activity, when the structures were used,
alternating with periods where the accumulated silts indicate little or no activity. Even during those periods
of reduced activity, human bone was still making its way into the deposits. Although this is not unusual in
deposits of this date, the association with inhumations in the earliest phase and with nearby burial
enclosures in later phases suggests that this is more than simply background noise. Indeed, the
structures erected and dismantled over this period produced no real evidence for domestic activity;
although there was a hearth containing burnt bone and pottery, and a series of spindle whorls, there were
no storage pits.
The structures were visible mainly through the presence of floors: there were no post-holes or sunken
beam-slots, so the form of the buildings must remain conjectural. Nevertheless, some suggestions can be
made. The floors defined generally subrectangular areas rather than circular, while the presence of daub
and (in later phases) plaster suggests that it was not constructed from turfs. It is possible that cob was
used to make the walls, a situation paralleled elsewhere in Baldock and which goes some way towards
explaining the paucity of definite buildings known from excavation (Stead & Rigby 1986, 32). Fragmented
human bone and sherds of pottery usually associated with funerary ritual raise the probability that these
structures were mortuary houses.
After a period of over two and a half centuries when the doline was a paved hollow of uncertain function
at a crossroads, with no evidence for a funerary function, a small number of burials were again deposited
in the late third or fourth century. By the fifth century, this practice had ended and the site was once again
part of an area of domestic occupation.

BAL-1 North-east of large enclosure

A probably subrectangular enclosure, of which three and a half sides were exposed; the geophysical
survey of Upper Walls Common conducted in 1979 suggests that the entrance lay towards the northern
end of the south-eastern side, meaning that it faced away from the road and can have had no connection
with the California Late Roman cemetery to the west.

113
Figure 52: North-east of California large enclosure
The enclosure ditch appears to date from the late first century AD, contemporary with the earliest of the
three burials, [2489]. Probably not long after this individual was buried, a second grave was dug, cutting
into it, the occupant‟s left arm raised above their head so that their fingers were touching those on the
right hand of the occupant of the earlier grave. This suggests a close relationship between the two,
perhaps husband and wife or father and daughter. The female was also accompanied by a small dog
placed in a casket over her abdomen. The care taken with these aspects of the burial contrasts strongly
with the treatment of the young woman‟s lower legs: to fit her into the grave and raise her arm, her legs
were broken at the knee so that her lower legs were raised against the foot end of the grave. The third
burial in the enclosure was dug into the top of a disused third-century well and is probably not connected
with the two burials of AD c 100.
Context Age Sex Date Type
1476 Young/mature adult Male 17-22 Inhumation
2487 Young/mature adult Female 9 Inhumation; extended supine, head to south-south-
west
2489 Mature adult Male 8 Inhumation; extended supine, head to east
Table 26: BAL-1 north-east of large enclosure summary of burials
A small, probably domestic enclosure. Two burials belong to the class of „backland burials‟ that are known
from Romano-British small towns. The third is probably not connected with these two and is part of the
fourth- and fifth-century tradition of burial in disused wells (see below).

Elsewhere on BAL-1
Two cremations were found to lie beneath the surface of the Romano-British road running between the
large and small enclosures at California. The primary fills of the earliest ditches flanking the road were

114
datable to the mid first century AD, providing a terminus ante quem for the cremations and demonstrating
that they were probably contemporary with the enclosures.
Context Age Sex Date Type
2374 Adult 3-6 Unurned cremation
2366 Older adult 3-6 Urned cremation
Table 27: Other non-cemetery burials at BAL-1

Well shafts
In the BAL-1 excavation area and BAL-23 (Stead & Rigby 1986, Area A), a number of wells were found to
have been used for the disposal of human bodies. Although Stead saw this as evidence for a decline in
civilised standards (Stead & Rigby 1986, 87), but the increased numbers of such burials since his
investigations indicates that this was a more widespread phenomenon than he recognised. All these
burials belong to the fourth century at the earliest and appear to represent a distinct burial tradition.
Owing to the dispersed nature of these burials (each well is at least twenty metres from its nearest
neighbour), analysis of the burials as a group is likely to be meaningless.
Context Age Sex Date Type
F18 Adult Male 17-18 Inhumation
F18 Adult Male 18-19 Inhumation
F18 Adult 19-20 Inhumation
F18 Young/mature adult Female 17-18 Inhumation
F18 Young adult Male 13-16 Inhumation
F34 Adult 13-16 Inhumation
F92 Young/mature adult Male 17-24 Inhumation
F557 Subadult 20-22 Inhumation
A154 Young adult Male 18-20 Inhumation
A154 Young adult Male 17-19 Inhumation
Table 28: burials in wells

Isolated burials
A number of infant burials were found during Stead‟s excavation of BAL-23 on Upper Walls Common,
several apparently associated with buildings. Although infant burials are not uncommonly found close to
domestic structures, the concentration around just a few examples and their proximity to the probable
temple at Wynn Close raises questions about the status of the buildings. On the other hand, several of
the cremations are early and belong in the „burial zone‟ north-east of the pit alignment, suggesting that
burials could be deposited across the zone as well as in the formally defined cemeteries. The status of
supposed burial B20 is more difficult to determine: only fragments of a flagon, thought to have been
complete when hit by a machine, and sherds of samian reported by workmen were found, with no bone. It
lay more than 50 m from the nearest definite burial, so it may have derived from a domestic feature.
Context Age Sex Date Type
A85 Infant Inhumation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 69
A298 Foetus 13-16 Inhumation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 70
A324 Foetus 13-16 Inhumation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 71
A423 Infant Inhumation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 72
A424 Infant Inhumation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 73
A435 Infant Inhumation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 74
A458 Infant 16-26 Inhumation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 75
A461 5-6 Unurned cremation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 3
A526 Infant Inhumation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 76
A527 Infant Inhumation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 77
A528 Infant Inhumation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 78
B120 9-12 Urned cremation?
F114 1-4 Unurned cremation
F422 8-10 Unurned cremation
7318 5-15 Urned cremation
Table 29: Isolated burials on Upper Walls Common
It is evident that burials continued to be deposit across the Late Iron Age burial zone once this had gone
out of use and had been developed for domestic use. Whether this represents a continuity of tradition in
use for burial or simply reflects standard Romano-British practice in the deposition of neonates close to
habitation is unclear.

115
Figure 53: Burials outside cemeteries

Walls Field
Apart from Walls Field cemetery and Clothall Road cemetery, all the burials known from elsewhere in
Walls Field (including Hartsfield School and the former Newbery‟s Meadow) are apparently isolated. They
thus fall into the „backland burials‟ typical of small towns. Again, analysis of the group is meaningless, as
they are associated neither chronologically nor spatially.

116
 Plate 13:
Applebaum‟
s Site B,
Burial 1

Context Age Sex Date Type

- Adult Male 15-20 Inhumation; Applebaum 1932, ???
- Mature/older adult Female 15-20 Inhumation; Applebaum 1932, ???
B15/19 Adult Male? 18-22 Inhumation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 57
B22 Foetus 17-26 Inhumation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 79
B62 Older adult Female 15-20 Inhumation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 51
B62 Older adult Female 15-20 Inhumation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 52
B102 Adult 4-5 Inhumation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 55
B120 Neonate 15-26 Inhumation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 80
B123 Neonate 9-26 Inhumation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 81
B130 Neonate 15-26 Inhumation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 82
B140 Neonate 9-26 Inhumation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 83
B143 Foetus Inhumation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 84
B144 Foetus Inhumation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 85
B146 Foetus 9-10 Inhumation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 86
B147 Foetus Inhumation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 87
B152 Foetus Inhumation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 88
- Infant Inhumation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 89
D16 Mature adult Male Inhumation
Table 30: Isolated burials on Walls Field
Plate 15: Applebaum‟s Site B, Burial 2 radiogram,
view from below

Plate 14: Applebaum‟s Site B, Burial 2 radiogram, side view

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 Plate 16: Applebaum‟s Site B,
Burial 2

Orchard Road

Setting
Orchard Road lies to the north-west of the settlement, close
to the springs that form the source of the River Ivel, the land
gently sloping down to the north-west. Very little is known of
this part of the settlement or its cemeteries; it was long believed that the north-eastern limit of the
settlement was followed by the line of The Twitchell, some 250 m to the south-east and that any
cemeteries on this side of the town would be closer to this line. However, excavations since 1993 have
shown occupation extending to the north of White Horse Street and it is now possible that the burials
found at Orchard Road belong to an otherwise unrecorded cemetery in this area. Some doubt must
remain, however, as the contexts of the two burials (a wall and a pit) may indicate that they are backland
burials in an area otherwise used for domestic occupation and that formal cemeteries lay further north
and east from here.

The burials
Only two burials were recovered from the site, which had suffered a great deal of post-medieval
truncation owing to the presence of a brewery and its cellars from the late eighteenth century (Ashworth
2004, 10).
Context Age Sex Date Type
15 Mature adult f 17-20 Inhumation in well
173 Adult Inhumation in pit
Table 31: Burials at Orchard Road

118
Summary
Two burials discovered in redevelopment work that may form part of an otherwise unrecorded late Roman
inhumation cemetery to the north-west of the settlement or which may be backland burials in a poorly
known part of the town.

The Tene

Iron Age chieftain‟s burial

An isolated Iron Age burial discovered by contractors constructing a new road in December 1967 on flat
land to the north of the principal road linking the settlement with Verulamium. The lack of nearby
contemporary features suggests that this burial was not part of a cemetery or other formal burial ground.
The circumstances of discovery and an a full description have already been published (Stead & Rigby
1986, 51-61); the early date of this burial (certainly in the first half of the first century BC, if not before 100
BC) makes it the earliest Welwyn-type burial so far known. Very little bone was recovered, which may
indicate that it had originally been placed in a container that was removed by later truncation. This
probably preceded the construction work in 1967, as none is recorded as having been found on the
adjacent spoilheaps, which were searched for items conceivably deriving from the grave. The
reconstructed contents of the grave (Stead & Rigby 1986, 52 fig 20) would have projected some distance
above the contemporary ground surface, which makes it likely that a mound was raised to cover the
burial. However, such a mound would not seem to have been quarried from ditches surrounding it, as
none were found during an extensive search of the vicinity of the burial.

Figure 54: The Tene Welwyn-type burial (after Stead & Rigby 1986, fig 21)

Context Age Sex Date Comments

TE/A 1-2 Unurned cremation

Table 32: The Tene Welwyn-type burial

Brewery Field

Setting
The archaeological context of the Brewery Field site was little understood when it was excavated in 1968.
The site contained principally domestic remains, including enclosure ditches, fence lines, pits and
structural traces, although there were a number of burials. Most were of neonates, a common
119
phenomenon throughout the town, but, more unusually, there were a number of adults, probably of Late
Roman date. For the locations of the burials, see Figure 12 (above).

The burials
The majority of burials were of neonates, reflecting the domestic status of the site; the Late Roman adult
inhumations, though, are more problematical. It is possible that they are outliers of a cemetery that lay
more to the north-east, although excavations in The Twitchell in 1985 did not locate any burials; they may
also be compared with the late Roman burials found elsewhere in the settlement as apparent backland
deposits (for instance, at The Orchard or Walls Field). Such burials appear to have been widespread
throughout the late Roman town and it is possible that their overall distribution will help to define the
extent of the fourth-century settlement.
Plate 17: Burial 324

Plate 18: Burial 402

Context Age Sex Date Type

I Neonate Inhumation
IV Neonate Inhumation
V Neonate Inhumation
135 Old adult Female 20-24 Inhumation; supine, head to west
253 Adult? Inhumation; supine?
306 Neonate Inhumation; head to south-east
307 Neonate 11-26 Inhumation; head to south-east
324 Young/mature adult Inhumation; flexed prone, head to north-west
402 Old adult Male? Inhumation; flexed on left side, head to south
Table 33: Burials at Brewery Field
The site was very poorly dug and the records are confused; the photographs of burials 324 and 402
(Plates 17 and 18) suggest that little effort was made to clean the site thoroughly, so that other graves
may have been missed. It is also difficult to date the graves, as little post-excavation work was ever
carried out on the records or the finds.

120
Ritual deposits
The Orchard

Setting
A curious group of features found to the south of The Tene Welwyn-type burial. The largest, known as
„the lamp pit‟ because it contained 51 lamps and 15 candlesticks (Stead & Rigby 1986, 78), lay only three
metres to the south. This group of features occupies flat ground 25 m south of the extensive cobbled area
at the northern end of The Tene and some 40 to 50 m north to The Tene Late Roman cemetery; the area
between The Orchard and The Tene cemetery is unexplored archaeologically and it is impossible to place
these features into an archaeological context.
Plate 19:
the „lamp
pit‟ under
excavation

121
Figure 55: The Orchard

The deposits
Only one of the features, TN/D („the lamp pit‟) produced any cremated bone; it also produced fragments
of mortar and tile, suggesting that there may originally have been a structure covering this burial (as is
suspected for a number of inhumations at Royston Road and Icknield Way East). The remainder of the
features on this site consisted of pots and fragments of pots placed in pits cut into the natural chalk. They
were excavated as urned cremations as they contained complete, upright pots, but the lack of bone
makes their interpretation as burials difficult. Nevertheless, they were roughly contemporary with „the
lamp pit‟ and were perhaps therefore associated in some way.
Context Age Sex Date Type
TN/D Juvenile 16 Unurned cremation; Stead & Rigby 1986, burial 50
TN/EQ 14-16 Stead & Rigby 1986, fig 10 no 4
TH/EH 14-16 Stead & Rigby 1986, fig 10 no 5
TN/EJ 14-16 Stead & Rigby 1986, fig 10 no 6
Table 34: Deposits at The Orchard
It is unclear what the deposits at The Orchard represent. TN/D, the „lamp pit‟, does appear to have been a
cremation burial, although of apparently unique character, which may have been located to be close to
the putative mound covering the „chieftain‟s burial‟ in The Tene.

122
 Figure 56: The „lamp pit‟ (after
Stead & Rigby 1986, fig 37)

123
5: Artefacts
Metalwork
Coins
Mark Curteis [2006]
Extensive fieldwork on the LPRIA and Roman complex at Baldock has produced a substantial and very
significant collection of Iron Age and Roman coins. Although some of the earlier numismatic finds had
been examined by Richard Reece, Roger Goodburn and Peter Curnow, the present author has worked
on both the Iron Age and Roman assemblages since 1988 and produced coherent catalogues of both
series of coins drawing on and correlating the results of earlier fieldwork and casual finds. The Iron Age
coinages have been used as a data set as part of a regional study (Curteis 2005) looking at the ritual use
of coins in the south Midlands, otherwise the material has, in the main, not been studied in any detail.

The Iron Age coins

Over 150 Iron Age coins have been recovered from Baldock, 73 of these were recovered as a result of
the excavations carried out by North Hertfordshire District Council. This figure is one of the highest site
assemblages of Iron Age coinages ever recovered in this country (not including hoard coins). For
example, the St Albans complex (including Gorhambury) has produced 126, Dorchester 28, Odell 14,
Duston 20 and Sandy 69 coins. Only the Braughing/Puckeridge complex has produced more (357), yet of
these, only 53 coins were recovered during excavations at Skeleton Green.
Of the site total from Baldock, 31 of the coins are stratified. This is thought to be the largest assemblage
of coins with well recorded contexts in the country and is therefore of great significance.
Coin loss histograms can be constructed for Iron Age coins just as they have been for Roman coins. The
following diagram (Figure 57) shows the value of histograms as a tool of interpretation and clearly shows
that Baldock did not flourish until right at the end of the Late pre-Roman Iron Age, when Braughing and St
Albans were in decline. Histograms have not been produced for different parts of the complex, but the
diagram demonstrates the potential of the methodology and the information it could provide on
understanding the development of the complex in the Late Iron Age.

Figure 57: Coin loss histogram

Phases are 5 (early first century BC), 6 (mid first century BC), C (Continental imports), P (Potins), 7 (Late
first century BC to early first century AD, including Tasciovanus), 8 (divided into the early (E) and late (L)
issues of Cunobelin, 9 represents post conquest issues.

124
Research has shown that Iron Age coins have a tendency to deliberate deposition rather than accidental
loss (Curteis 2005; 2006). Furthermore, because they are deliberately deposited, they tend to be
concentrated in areas of pronounced ritual activity, notably shrines and boundaries. The large number of
stratified coins from Baldock allows this methodology to be used on coin yielding parts of the site and the
plotting and position of coins and can help with the interpretation of site function as well as with
chronology.
For example, on BAL-1, seven coins were recovered from late Iron Age and Roman layers within a
solution hollow (Figure 58), the second highest concentration of non hoard coins from any feature
excavated to date in the south Midlands, the other being at the nearby ritual site at Ashwell End
associated with the Romano-British goddess Senuna (Jackson & Burleigh 2005). All of the layers were
notable for their wealth of finds, which include three brooches, worked flint, finger-rings, slag and
imported pottery.

Figure 58: Plan of Baldock site BAL-1, showing position of coin finds.
Significantly, the other feature excavated in the south Midlands with the most non-hoard coins lies
immediately next to the solution hollow on the opposite corner of the crossroads. Such a high
concentration of coins in a two closely connected features is exceptional. This feature represents an area
of disturbance and „extremely unusual activity‟. It has been postulated that this was an area where
particular ritual ceremonies took place, the resulting ceremonial material perhaps being removed and
placed in the solution hollow (M Stevenson pers. comm.).
About 100 m to the south-east of BAL-1 was an area excavated 1970-1 and known as Site A (Stead &
Rigby 1986, fig. 16). There is a notable concentration of six coins around the entrance to an enclosure
125
dated to the second century AD. The enclosure overlay a smaller Late Iron Age enclosure; the latter
incorporated an area on which a circular building was later constructed. It is probable that the entrance to
the earlier enclosure was in a similar position to that of the later one.
The entrance to the enclosure was marked by a substantial gateway, indicated by four large post-holes.
One of the coins was recovered from the northern ditch terminal. A quantity of other small finds, including
votive objects, came from the same context. The feature was mirrored on the north side of the entrance
by a pit containing another two coins and a quantity of imported and decorated Late Iron Age pottery. The
number of coins from the entranceway, and the other rich assemblage of finds, are clearly concentrated
around, and symbolically marking, the entrance in a ritual way.
Another two coins were recovered from near the top of the enclosure ditch, but only one coin was located
within the enclosure, although this was found to contain a wealth of other small finds including over thirty-
two spear heads and two votive axes. The very large quantity of small finds generally suggests that the
circular building was a shrine and the ditch marked the sacred area surrounding it.
Yet there are parts of Baldock where excavation has revealed extensive Late Iron Age activity but where
very few, if any Iron Age coins, have been recovered. These include extensive cemeteries, and notably
the large area of the Hartsfield School playing area (BAL-13), where pottery assemblages would suggest
intense Late Iron Age activity. This would suggest that the areas where a number of coins recovered were
exceptional and of a different status to other parts of parts of the settlement.

The Roman coins

As with the Iron Age coins, the assemblage of Roman coins recovered from the complex is both large and
significant. Over 2,050 coins have been recovered, of which work undertaken by North Hertfordshire
District Council has produced 1168. Of these, 193 are stratified. The significance of the size of the site
assemblage can be demonstrated by comparing it with other archaeologically explored sites (site totals
from Reece 1991). For example, the major Roman towns of Winchester (1,836), Lincoln (1,939),
Alchester (235), Chelmsford (185), Dorchester (1,876), only St Albans has produced a greater
assemblage. The assemblage can also be compared with extensively explored villas: Rockbourne (684),
Lullingstone (327) and Chedworth (318).
Although the author has produced a catalogue of all Roman coins recovered up to 1989, there has been
very little synthesis of the data and no contextual analysis has been undertaken for either excavation
areas or the complex as a whole.
Draft coin loss histograms have been produced for some areas only and no other site analysis has taken
place. A preliminary interpretation of the diagrams shows their potential as a tool in helping to elucidate
site chronology. For example, the histogram for BAL-1 indicates intensive occupation from at least the
Claudian period right through to the end of the fourth century. The histogram for BAL-2 demonstrates a
similar chronology but with a very high degree of activity at the end of the fourth century. There appears
to be a reduction of activity at BAL-24 in the third and early fourth centuries, picking up again late in the
fourth. Conversely, the histograms for a number of sites (BAL-8, BAL-9, BAL-10, BAL-15, BAL-23, BAL-
33 and BAL-34) suggest a decline in the later half of the fourth century.

Future work
In the preceding pages, the significance of the Iron Age and Roman coinage assemblages from Baldock
has been demonstrated in terms of both the size of the collections and large number of stratified finds.
Because of this, the assemblages have great potential, as yet mostly unrealised, in determining the
chronology, function and status of parts of the site or the complex as a whole.
Although catalogues exist of coins found up to 1989, the catalogues need to updated and revised. Very
limited chronological analysis has been undertaken for the Iron Age coins and this work needs to be
extended to all parts of the site. Hardly any work, apart from basic cataloguing, has taken place for the
Roman coins and, as with the Iron Age collection, the potential archaeological significance of the
assemblage warrants detailed individual site and complex analysis. Only by looking at distributions across
the various sites, the production and interpretation of coin loss histograms and contextual analysis can
this valuable chronological and functional information be released.

Celtic coins
Roger Goodburn [1989]
The numbering of the coins follows on from that given in Stead & Rigby (1986, 89ff), where other Baldock
finds are listed. Some context is given by listing comparable finds; those within twenty miles of Baldock
are generally separated from those further afield; where no county is named, Hertfordshire is to be
understood.

126
British Lx: North of Thames Group – silver, or possibly DUBNOVELLAUNOS

New Type
51 BAL-13 1982. Unstratified metal-detector find SF <4770>.
0.41 g. AR. Quite worn. Two fragments (c two thirds of whole); very slightly corroded.
Obv: Possibly stylised horse left. Crescent, ring, figure-of-eight pelleted rings-and-dots and plain
ring-and-dot above and behind. Trefoil-like ornament or animal head below. Ring-and-dot
below ?forelegs. Trace of finely pelleted border.
Rev: Horse left, large ears and mane. Ring below head and trace of another ornament above.
Ring above back‟ pellet and six rings-and-dots behind and below. Remnant of pelleted
annulus below. Finely pelleted border.
This is a new type which has similarities to the British Lx series (the so-called „Uncertain silver of the
East Midlands‟) such as Lx 10 (Mack 438), Lx 11 (Mack 441) and Lx 14 (Mack 442-3). These are
known from Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, Bedfordshire, Hertfordshire and Essex. It also bears
similarities to the issues of Dubnovellaunos, e.g. Mack 286 and variants noted especially in Kent, but
also examples from Surrey, Norfolk and Hertfordshire (Braughing).
The date of the issue is likely to be in the period 30-15 BC, but it may have continued in circulation
for much longer.
Cf Stead & Rigby 1986, 90 no 2.

British Lx: North of Thames Group – Bronze

British LX 23; Mack 281, DUBNOVELLAUNOS

52 BAL-1 1982, F593, SF <4682>.
1.55 g. AE. Slightly worn. Slightly corroded.
Obv: Stylised head left with long hair formed of crescents. Ring-and-dot and pellet ornaments
indicating devolved wreath.
Rev: Somewhat stylised horse with incised decoration on body. Ring-and-dot above and below.
Trace of decoration or letter in front of nose.
There are eleven other provenanced examples, from Puckeridge (3), Braughing (2), Verulamium (1),
in Essex at Harlow temple (1) and further afield, near Bury St Edmunds (1) and at Colchester (1), in
Norfolk (2). Nine are unprovenanced.
It is probable that this coin was issued by Dubnovellaunos in the Trinovantian area c 5 BC to c AD 5,
roughly contemporaneously with Tasciovanus.
Cf Stead & Rigby 1986, 90f, No 6.

TASCIOVANUS

Mack 168
53 BAL-2 1982, interface of chalk and B horizon, SF <3201>.
2.5 g. AE. Virtually unworn. Slightly corroded; modern damage to reverse.
Obv: VIR[... Heavily bearded and moustachioed head right. Hair straight spiky lines, beard of
crescents.
Rev: VER or VIR over exergual line and beneath horse with girth-band galloping left, tail
streaming. Pellet-rosette before nose; ring-and-dot and trefoil above; two pellets behind.
Other example shave been found in the vicinity of Braughing (1), near Braughing (3), „near Ware‟
(1), Skeleton Green, Puckeridge (2), Verulamium (1). In Beds, near Biggleswade (2). In Essex at
Harlow (1) and Harlow temple (2). There are outliers at Hambleden, Bucks (1), Duston, Northants
(1) and Ostend (1). Three are unprovenanced.
Mack 172
54 BAL-1 1982, unstratified metal-detector find, SF <4627>.
1.91 g. AE. Almost unworn. Slightly corroded.

127
 Obv: Central ringed boss ornament surrounded by eight intersecting, overlapping pelleted
hyperbolae. VERLAMIO in low relief around edge in areas of overlap.
Rev: Bull with sinuous tail and stick-like legs pawing ground left. Whole almost encircled by leafy
branch (only part visible).
We already have one coin of this type from Baldock (Stead & Rigby 1986, 91 No. 9). Besides this,
there are about 36 examples with known find-spots and another 13 with unknown: Braughing (2);
Skeleton green (5); Puckeridge (9); probably Verulamium (1); North Herts (1). Barrington, Cambs
(1). In Bedfordshire: near Biggleswade (1); Sandy (1). In Essex: Harlow (7, of which 4 are from
temple); Great Chesterford (2). Bletchley, Bucks (1). Outliers at Odell, Beds (1); Chipping Warden,
Northants (1); Colchester, Essex (?2); Canterbury, Kent (1).
Mack 177
55 BAL-2 1982, F224, SF <3028>.
1.47 g. AE. Slightly worn. Slightly corroded.
Obv: Head right, unbearded, with spiky hair composed of crescents above beaded hair-line (or
diadem?). Crested boar where ear should be. Large nose. Beaded border.
Rev: Figure with head-gear seated left in chair with ?bird in hand. Inscription [VIR] and exergual
line not visible.
Further aspects of this coin will be held over to the final general discussion.
There is already one example published from Baldock (Stead & Rigby 1986, 92 No 12). Besides
this, there are about 25 examples, six unprovenanced. The distribution is concentrated: Braughing
(1); near Braughing (3); Verulamium (1 or 2); Skeleton green (1); „near Ware‟ (4); Harlow temple,
Essex (5); Sandy, Beds (1); Arlesey, Beds (1). There is one outlier at Silchester, Hants.
Mack 179
56 BAL-1 (E) 1982, L9, SF <1523>.
1.56 g. AE. Unworn. Uncorroded.
Obv: Ornament comprising, on one diameter, a pair of opposed U-shaped lines each enclosing a
beaded line; on the diameter at right angles, a pair of annuli, each with beaded line attached.
Between these two sets of ornament, four sinuous line and at least two pellets, the whole
making a spider-like pattern. No border visible.
Rev: Boar running right; thin crescent over; VIR below. No border visible.
There is already one published example from Baldock (Stead & Rigby 1986, 92 No 13). Besides
that, there are 21 examples, four unprovenanced. Within a twenty-mile radius: Braughing (1);
Skeleton Green, Puckeridge (1); Puckeridge (1); Verulamium (1); Harlow: temple (4); Holbrooks site
(2), Essex. Beyond are Odell, Beds (1); Reading, Berks (1); Duston, Northants (1); and Amiens (1).
Mack 182
57 BAL-1 1982, F593, SF <4683>
0.87 g. AE½. Slightly worn. Rather corroded.
Obv: VER. Rudimentary head left with spiky hair and moustache; beard unclear.
Rev: Horned goat with pelleted body, short upward-curving tail and pronounced sinuous beard,
galloping right. Traces of ring-and-dot below body, pelleted ornaments above rump and in
front of breast.
Already from Baldock, there is a new type of Tasciovanus comparable with Mack 182 (Stead &
Rigby 1986, 92 No 14). Besides this, there are nine or ten provenanced examples, almost all from
within about twenty miles: Puckeridge (1); Skeleton Green (this type? 1); Hitchin (1); Braughing (1);
in Essex at Great Chesterford (2); Harlow temple (1) and Holbrooks site (2). That from Odell, beds
(1) lies rather more than twenty miles distant. One is unprovenanced.
New type
58 BAL-3 1981, F162, SF <2044>
1.11 g. AE½. Almost unworn. Uncorroded.
Obv: Close-cropped, wreathed head facing left. Ring-and-dot behind (?copying bow). Border of
interlaced beaded lines.

128
 Rev: Prancing ?horse, ?hound or ?hind with long S-curved tail, rotund body and long neck, head
twisted backward. Three pellets below, ring surrounded by pellets in front. Linear border
oversailed by front paws or hooves.
This is identical with the coin from Skeleton Green, Puckeridge (Partridge 1981, 125 and Pl Vi No
20). Besides these two examples, another four, some slightly variant, come from „near Ware‟ (1);
Puckeridge (2); Harlow temple, Essex (1).
The weights vary from 0.81 g to 1.20 g and the type seems to be a half-denomination.
The animal on this specimen is clear, but disproportionate in form and hence of doubtful identity. Its
identity on other specimens is also doubtful.
TASCIOVANUS – DIASU(LOS?)
New type
59 BAL-2 1981, F166, SF <2025>
1.32 g. AR. Unworn. Uncorroded.
Obv: Geometric design comprising simple beaded guilloche border within which is beaded circle
containing square with diagonals. Four bulbous lobes originate on intersection of diagonals
and touch the beaded circle.
Rev: DIAS beneath boar running right.
There are two other examples, one from Prae Wood, St Albans, and one from Cow Roast,
Northchurch. The type is comparable with the silver Tasciovanus/Verulamium type Mack 164 and
DIAS/Verulamium type Mack 188.
The Prae Wood coin is most similar to the Baldock specimen and is inscribed T [...]DIAS on
reverse. The square element on the Cow Roast coin has slightly concave sides and, most important,
the reverse is inscribed T SCI DI S V, the V lying between snout and front legs of the boar. Derek
Allen (pers. comm.. 29.9.1974) thought that the name is probably Diasulos.
The name in full occurs on silver Gaulish coins dating to before 52 BC and once thought to belong to
the Aedui (LT 4871), but currently not more closely identifiable than belonging to an East Gaulish
people (Scheers 1978, 96 and Pl XIX Nos 403-5).
Diasulos is the only expansion of Diasu... recorded in Holder (1896, Bd. 1, col 1280-1), although
similar names Diasenius, Diastullus, Diastulus and Diastumarus are noted.
ANDOCO...
Mack 199
60 BAL-1 1982, F603, SF <4620>.
1.16 g. AR. Unworn. Uncorroded.
Obv: Head with fairly short hair, beard and moustache to left. Border of loosely intertwined plain
and pelleted strands. behind head.
Rev: AND [O] C O. Bridled Pegasus prancing left, tail flying and reins resting on neck.
This is only the fourth recorded example of this type. The others are from Harlow temple, Essex;
Duston, Northants; and one probably from near Evesham, Worcs.
Mack 200
61 BAL-1 1982, F547, SF <4445>.
1.47 g. AE. Slightly worn. Slightly corroded.
Obv: Head right with hair short at side, quite long at nape; slightly bearded. NDOCO within
beaded border.
Rev: ND O C O. Bridled horse prancing right with tail and reins flying. Annulus in pelleted ring
over ring-and-dot behind head.
62 BAL-2 1982, unstratified, SF <3198>.
1.26 g. AE. Rather worn. Rather corroded.
Obv: As above, No. 61. NDO[CO].
Rev: As above, No. 61, but pelleted annulus over rump, ring-and-dot behind. Trace of beaded
border.
129
 Apart from these two and one other Baldock specimen (Stead & Rigby 1986, 93 No 19), there are
now twelve examples known. Four are of unknown provenance. The others come from Puckeridge
(2); Braughing (1); probably Verulamium (1). Beyond a twenty-mile radius, from Duston, Northants
(1); Springhead, Kent (1); Wroxeter, Salop (1); Little Harting, Sussex 91).
As might be expected, the distribution in the Verulamium area is strengthening.
We can note here that two of the „ornaments‟ (cf., for example, Mack 1975, 84 No 200, and Stead &
Rigby 1986, 93 No 19) are in fact letters; the „crescent‟ is a C and the „ring‟ an O, and there is as
well an O above the horse‟s head, making NDOCO rather than ND. See below.
CUNOBELIN
Mack 242
63 BAL-1 1982, F617, SF <4660>.
2.30 g. AE. Rather worn. Somewhat.
Obv: CVN[OBEL I] NI. Laureate, curly-headed, beardless bust. Faint beaded border.
Rev: TAS CI OV[A] NI ;F. Centaur standing right with streaming mantle. Horn not preserved.
64 BAL-1 1981, topsoil, SF <2687>
2.35 g. AE. Very worn. Flan distorted and rather corroded.
Obv: CVNOB[EL I NI]. Recognisable bust as above. Beaded border.
Rev: TA]S[ CI OVA] NI ;F. As above.
There are already six coins of this common type known from Baldock (Stead & Rigby 1986, 94 Nos
23-8).
In all there are now about 80 examples known, 1q2 of unknown find-spot. Most are from the Baldock
locality: Puckeridge (11); „near Ware‟ (6); Cow Roast, Northchurch (2); Braughing (3); Ashwell (1). In
Essex: Harlow temples (21) and Harlow, Holbrooks site (2). In Beds: near Biggleswade (1); Henlow
(1); Sandy (1); Toddington (1); Puddlehill, near Dunstable (1). There are also four from Colchester,
five from Northants (Brackley, Duston, Wood Burcote, Chipping Warden, Irchester) and one from
near Aylesbury, Bucks.
Mack 243
65 BAL-1 1982, F568, SF <4534>.
2.48 g. AE. Almost unworn. Somewhat corroded.
Obv: Unbearded head with crested Roman helmet right. Poorly-formed inscription CV O
BELI[NVS] within fairly finely pelleted border.
Rev: Crested, curly-tailed sow standing right on two conjoined exergual lines enclosing row of
pellets. Triple pellet ornament below jaw. T SCIIOV NII above, F in exergue. Traces of
finely pelleted border.
66 BAL-1 1982, F473, SF <4283>.
2.56 g. AE. Almost unworn. Very slightly corroded; obv. Mechanically damaged in antiquity.
Obv: As No. 65. [CVNO] BELINVS; finely pelleted border.
Rev: As No. 65. Pellet ornament off flan. [T ]SCIIOV NII; F off flan; individual letters fairly well
formed but sizes and layout uneven. Finely pelleted border.
67 BAL-1 1982, F568, SF <4535>.
2,86 g. AE. Slightly worn. Very slightly corroded.
Obv: As No. 65. poorly-formed inscription CVNO BELINVS partly on flan. Part of finely pelleted
border.
Rev: As No. 65. T SCIIO[V NII] above sow; F and tail not on flan.
68 East of BAL-1 1982, unstratified metal-detector find, SF <4635>.
2.54 g. AE. Very worn. Rather corroded.
Obv: As No. 65. CV O [BELIN]VS.
Rev: As No. 65. Most of detail lost.

130
 No. 65 and 67 have the same context. Two coins of this type are already recorded from Baldock
(Stead & Rigby 1986, 94 Nos 29-30). Besides these six, 66 examples of this type are known, ten
unprovenanced. There are examples from Puckeridge (3); „near Ware‟ (9); Verulamium (3); Park
Street (1); Gorhambury (1); Braughing (1); near Braughing (2). Harlow temple (24) and elsewhere in
Harlow (2), Essex. Biggleswade, Beds (1). More distant examples are: in Bucks: Wendover Hill (1);
Turville (1); Haversham (1). Near Cambridge (1); in Norfolk (1); Barnes, Surrey 91); in Oxon: near
Didcot (1); Dorchester (1); Silchester, Hants (1).
Mack 244
69 BAL-1 1981, topsoil near F62, SF <2686>.
2.42 g. AE. Almost unworn. Slightly corroded.
Obv: Horseman prancing right with large oval shield on left arm and brandishing sword in raised
right hand. CV NOB within beaded border.
Rev: Helmeted warrior standing front, head left, resting on spear and holding shield. T SCIIO
[V NTIS] within beaded border.
70 BAL-11 1982, topsoil, SF <2906>.
2.32 g. AE. Slightly worn. Almost uncorroded.
Obv: As No. 69, but design, although little worn, is spidery and seems to be from a poor standard
of die. CV N[OB].
Rev: As No. 69, again rather poor die-cutting. T SCIIO V [NTIS].
These are the first coins of this type recorded from Baldock. Besides these, about 95 are known, 19
unprovenanced. Within a twenty-mile radius are: Puckeridge (7); near Braughing (1); „near Ware‟
(4); Verulamium (6); Ashwell (2); Royston (1). In Beds: Sandy (3); near Biggleswade 91). Barrington,
Cambs (1); at Harlow, Essex: temple (28), elsewhere 93). Beyond a twenty-mile radius are Odell,
beds (1). In Bucks: Saunderton 91) and Haversham (1). In Oxon: near Bicester (1): Wendlebury (1);
near Abingdon (2); near Dorchester (1). Colchester, Essex (6); Silchester, Hants (2); Canterbury,
Kent (1); East Kennet, Wilts (1).
Mack 246
71 BAL-1 1982, F445, SF <4017>.
2.40 g. AE. Fine, almost unworn. Uncorroded.
Obv: Short-haired, beardless bust right. CVNOBE LINVSREX impinging on sparsely pelleted
border.
Rev: Bull with halter or yoke around neck and long sinuous tail pawing ground right on exergual
line, Pelleted border impinges on TASC below exergual line; C cut as G.
Lettering on both faces rather irregular.
72 BAL-12 1982, unstratified, SF <4769>.
2.47 g. AE. Slightly worn. Obv. rather corroded, rev. slightly so.
Obv: As No. 71.
Rev: As No. 71 SC of T SC slightly corroded; form of C unclear.
73 BAL-1 1982, F473, SF <4284>.
2.18 g. AE. Considerably worn, especially rev. Somewhat corroded.
Obv: As No. 71. CVNO[BE LINVSR]EX. Design rather off flan.
Rev: Bull pawing ground right. Slight trace of pelleted border. Other detail worn away.
There are four already known from Baldock (Stead & Rigby 1986, 95 Nos 32-5) and besides these
seven, there are now about 64 specimens, fourteen unprovenanced. Within twenty miles of Baldock
are Puckeridge (3) and Skeleton green, Puckeridge (2); „near Ware‟ (2); near Braughing (2);
Verulamium (1); Cow Roast, Northchurch (1). In Beds: Biggleswade 91); Sandy (1). In Essex:
Harlow temple (13) and other Harlow sites (5); Great Chesterford (1). Beyond this area, Colchester,
Essex (9 or 10); Huntingdon area (1); Duston, Northants (1); in Oxon: Alchester (1); Bicester (1);
Dorchester (1 or 2); near Wantage (1); Silchester, Hants (2).
Mack 248
74 BAL-2 1982, F301. SF <3541>.
131
 2.59 g. AE. Very slightly worn. Slightly corroded.
Obv: Winged head left, with bobbed hair and no beard. Wavy line ornaments before and behind
neck, respectively horizontal and vertical. CVBO BELIN within beaded border.
Rev: Smith seated right in backed chair, hammering out footed vessel, on exergual line as floor.
T SCIO within beaded border.
75 BAL-13 1982, unstratified, SF <3903>
2.16 g. AE. Slightly worn. Somewhat corroded.
Obv: As No. 74, but inscribed C]V O BELI[NI.
Rev: As No. 74, but fine detail obscured by corrosion.
There are four coins of this type already recorded from Baldock (Stead & Rigby 1986, 95 Nos 36-9)
and besides these six, there are about 102 provenanced and 31 unprovenanced examples. These
include: Braughing (3); near Braughing (1); Puckeridge (5); „near Ware‟ (5); Verulamium (5);
Moneybury Hill, Pitstone (1); Tring (1); Cow Roast, Northchurch (4). In Beds: Sandy (1); near
Biggleswade 92); Leagrave (1). In Essex: Harlow temple (40) and other sites (2); Great Chesterford
(2). Beyond a twenty-mile radius are: in Essex: Colchester (7); Great Wakering (2); Fingringhoe
Wick (1). Near Cambridge (1); Over, Cambs (1). In Bucks: Saunderton (1); near Wavendon (1).
Odell, Beds (1). In Oxon: Alchester (1); Dorchester 92); Abingdon (1); Garford (1); Swalcliffe 91). In
Northants: Irchester 91); Little Houghton (1); uncertain 91); Longthorpe (2). Ariconium, Heres (1);
Chichester, Sussex (1); Dorset (1).
Mack 249
76 BAL-13 1983, SF <4774>.
2.51 g. AE. Somewhat worn. Rather corroded.
Obv: CV NO. Pegasus prancing right within pelleted border.
Rev: Victory right sacrificing crouching bull with pendulous tail. T SCI beneath. Pelleted border.
77 BAL-2 1981, silt surface of Roman road, SF <1471>.
2.35 g. AE. Slightly worn. Somewhat corroded.
Obv: CV] NO. As No. 76.
Rev: As No. 76.
There are six coins of this type already recorded from Baldock (Stead & Rigby 1986, 95 Nos 40-5)
and besides this total of eight, there are c 101 provenanced and 19 unprovenanced examples.
These include: Braughing (3); near Braughing (2); Puckeridge (1); Skeleton Green, Puckeridge (1 or
2); „near Ware‟ (10); Welwyn (1); Verulamium (6). In Essex at Harlow temple (50); Holbrooks site (2);
near Saffron Walden (1); elsewhere 91). In Beds: near Henlow 91); Leagrave, Luton (1). Beyond a
twenty-mile radius are: Berkhamsted (1); Wiggington Common (1). Odell, Beds 92). In Bucks:
Walton Court (1); Caldecote (1); Fenny Stratford (1); Thornborough (1). Bradfield-on-the-Green,
Northants (1), Colchester, Essex (1). In Oxon: Dorchester 92); Abingdon (1); Bicester (1). Silchester,
Hants (1); „Thames at Kew‟ (1).
Mack 260
78 BAL-2 1982, F212, SF <3057>.
2.43 g. AE. Very worn. Slightly corroded.
Obv: Female sphinx crouching right. CVNO within beaded border.
Rev: Partially-clothed male figure standing left, holding human head in right hand and staff in left.
Altar at right. In field, CA M. Beaded border.
This is the first example of this relatively uncommon type (Mack 260, 260a) from Baldock. Skeleton
green, Puckeridge (1 or 2) and Harlow temple, Essex (7) have produced examples fairly close by.
Others come from Colchester, Essex (10); Thistleton, Rutland (1); Canterbury, Kent (1); Chichester,
Sussex (1). Five lack a provenance.
CORIELTAUVI
Coritani Uninscribed D, Type Y. Mack 453A.
79 BAL-13 1983, unstratified, SF <4773>.

132
 1.08 g. AR. Very worn. Slightly corroded. Folded over along c 25% of circumference, obscuring part
of reverse.
Obv: Plain. No trace of boar.
Rev: Rather stylised horse prancing left. Large pellets-and-dot rosette, pellets smeared out,
above; ring-and-dot above rump; ?pellet below tail. Rest of design obscured by fold.
This type, defined by Allen (1963, Nos 348-51) is fairly uncommon. There are three from
Peterborough and one from South Ferriby, Lincs, all in Corieltauvian territory, plus two
unprovenanced. This worn coin must have been in use over a considerable time. It is another
example of a coin acceptable beyond its nominal tribal area.
DUROTRIGES
Durotriges Uninscribed C. Mack 318.
80 BAL-3 1981, F162, SF <2043>.
4.12 g. AE. Slightly worn (obv. die worn). Slightly corroded.
Obv: Crude, stylised part of laureate head of Apollo.
Rev: Very crude disjointed stylised horse to left; 12 pellets above; lentoid ornament to right.
This is an outlying example of the very common copper alloy version of the silver Durotriges
Uninscribed A (Mack 317) derived from the British A (Mack 28) gold stater.

Discussion
These thirty coins from the 1980-83 excavations form an addition to the fifty already reported on (Stead &
Rigby 1986, 89-99). Further groups are to follow and the coins as a whole will be discussed in due
course, but a few interim comments may be made here.
Eight types out of the twenty here represented are found in the earlier Baldock publication and a further
four have close similarities. On the whole, the distribution of types are roughly complementary as might
be expected.
The coins are largely unworn, only eight being rather or very worn.
The die-cutting varies considerably in standard; for example, the Mack 244, No. 70, is much more spidery
and generally of lower standard than No. 69. Also of interest are variations in the standards of lettering.
This is often poor and possibly some die-cutters were not literate; or perhaps occasionally indifferent
inscriptions were added by a second craftsman to a well-executed basic design by a first. For example, in
the case of Nos 65-8, Mack 243, Nos 65 and 67 have poorly-formed inscriptions, but No 66 is more
carefully done. An N on the obverse of No 65 is reversed. So is the N on Mack 248, No. 75, a rather poor
obverse die altogether, whereas it is not on No. 74, which is of generally higher quality.
It was noted above that two of the „ornaments‟ on the Andoco... coins, Mack 200, Nos 61-2, are in fact a
rather poorly-formed C and O, making the inscription not ND but NDOCO, as on Mack 199. Here
again, there is a suspicion that the die-cutters were not particularly familiar with Latin script. We may at
the same time remark here than Andoco... does not link his name with Tasciovanus, as do Rues... and
Diasu..., despite similarities in the style of the coins.
Plate 20: Iron Age coins

Copper Alloy

Brooches
D F Mackreth [1990, revised 2006]

Introduction
The present collection indicates a very strong pre-Conquest presence, especially in the first century BC. If
those published by Stead and Rigby (1986) are included, the number can be doubled. Both collections
show that the early occupation continued unabated to AD c 100 when there is a falling off in the number
of brooches. Both collections betray the same characteristics overall and while they may be added
together to increase numbers, it would not matter if only one were to be studied.
Compared with the period AD 1-50, there are far fewer brooches from the century before that, but
numbers alone cannot be used to demonstrate intensity of occupation, unless other factors are taken into
account. There may have been a smaller population then; or a smaller proportion of people wore
brooches, the fashion for wearing them gaining ground from c 20-10 BC; or scrap metal recovery was
becoming less efficient. All three factors may have acted together to produce the spectrum which
133
survived to be recovered from the soil, bearing in mind that there would have been a progressive loss as
brooches, from the earliest times to the present, were found and removed.
The writer is inclined to think that brooch-wearing became more popular from the later first century BC
and that scrap metal recovery was more efficient before the Conquest than after. This being so, one can
read the figures as meaning that the population grew in the 50 to 75 years before the Conquest, but
brooches cannot be used to calculate the actual growth. Not only that, the burials at the King Harry Lane
cemetery, St Albans (Stead & Rigby 1989) suggest that many individuals had more than the two
brooches which might be thought to be a reasonable maximum to wear at any one time. Even so, while
losses would have increased with more people, few of the brooches in both Baldock collections could be
described as being negligible in size and anyone seeing a substantial fragment by chance would have
picked it up and this would have tended to maintain some kind of equilibrium in the quality of the
assemblage already in the soil. Therefore, whatever combination of factors is chosen, and however the
figures may be interpreted, the abiding impression remains that the site became progressively more
intensively settled during the 50 to 75 years before the Conquest.
A comment can be made about the relative popularity of Rosettes and Langton Downs in the King Harry
Lane cemetery and at Baldock coupled with Skeleton Green (Partridge 1981). At the first site, Rosettes
slightly outnumbered Langton Downs, but, at the latter two, there are far more Langton Downs than
Rosettes. The determination of whether this is due to different preferences, or to something in the source
of supply, would require evidence from other classes of material to elucidate.
One feature of both Baldock collections calls for specific comment: the dramatic fall in the numbers of
brooches from AD 100, if not slightly before. Considering that Baldock lies well inside the homeland of
those Colchester Derivatives developed in the heartland of their parent, there is a remarkably small
collection of developed Derivatives. There is an even smaller one of Plate brooches of undoubted
second-century types, and there are seemingly no Headstuds or Trumpets. These should have occurred
had occupation been as intense as it had obviously been up to the latter part of the first century.
This apparent falling off in activity is detectable in the period plans given by Stead (Stead & Rigby 1986,
figs. 38, 39) and is also referred to in the text (ibid., 86). There are developments assigned to the period
after c 140 (ibid., fig. 39A) which show an apparent increase in activity, but they do not indicate how
densely the site was occupied. Stead suggests that production of brooches, presumably at Baldock,
stopped about AD 100 (ibid., 125), but brooch-wearing continued commonly until near the end of the
second century and it seems unlikely that the population of Baldock, had it remained at anything like its
earlier level, would have given up the fashion unless the resumed activity is to be dated two decades or
so after c 140 by which time the bulk of British bow brooches had ceased to be made, but this still does
not explain the general absence of second century Plate brooches which would have continued in use
until the end of that century at least.

Late La Tène, part I

Except for the external chords of Brooches 1-3 and 5, all the surviving springs have or had bilateral four-
coil-internal-chord springs: those with three or more than four coils form only about 6% of all with this type
of spring system.
1 BAL2 1982 F409 (2) SF <4410> The chord is external. The profile of the bow had once been more
or less straight below the bend at the top. The upper bow has an oval section down to the three
mouldings on the front, the middle one being broader than the others. The lower bow has a
rounded section and tapered to a pointed foot. The catch-plate had a single large piercing in it.
Forged from rolled or folded sheet metal.
2 BAL-2 1982 F212 (1) SF <3009> The bow is narrow with a rounded front above a set of mouldings
like those on Brooch 1. Beneath these, the bow tapers to what had been a pointed foot, and has a
groove on each side. The profile has a continuous curve. The catch-plate has the remains of a
single large piercing. Forged.
3 BAL-1 1980 F30 (1) SF <817> Iron. The top of the bow has a circular section down to what had
been a version of the ornament on Brooch 1. Below that, the profile of the bow is straight. The
catch-plate has a triangular hole.
4 BAL-45 1988 [3896]/[3904] SF <B368> Iron. The chord is internal. The spring is hidden behind the
expanded head of the bow which otherwise is thin and, as far as the condition allows, seems to
have a circular section. The profile has a sharp bend at the top down to at least one moulding and
is then straight down to the pointed foot. The catch-plate has a large triangular piercing.
5 BAL-1 1984 [2154] SF <7644> Only the pin and spring are present. The chord is external. The
overall length is 81mm. Forged from rolled or folded sheet metal.

134
6 BAL-1 1980 (2) SF <185> Only the bottom of a catch-plate with the return survives. There had
been a single large piercing the bottom edge of which has a small peak in it.
7 BAL-17 1980 R12 (1) SF <27> Now distorted. The spring has a stout axis bar. The distorted bow
has an almost circular section above what is left of the catch-plate which had a single large
piercing. On the back is a groove along the front and top edge. Forged.
8 BAL-45 1988 [3904]/[3896] SF <B367> Iron. Now in many pieces, the bow has a thin circular
section. The top of the bow has a well curved profile, but the rest is now so fragmentary that its
shape cannot be reconstructed. The only fragments which can be assigned to the catch-plate
suggest that it had been an open frame.
The relationship between Brooches 1-4 is self evident, although the trumpet head of 4 needs to be
considered separately. 5 is included here on the basis of its external chord, 6 because of its obviously
framed foot and 7 because it is the only representative of the parents of the other brooches in the family
grouped here under the umbrella heading of Late La Tène. Typologically speaking, the external chord is
earlier than the internal one, deriving as it does from sprung-pin La Tène I and II brooches. Although a
note of caution has been sounded about automatically assuming that the external chord must be earlier
(Stead 1976a, 410), it is an undoubted fact that virtually all, where the evidence survives, have a fully
framed catch-plate. The exceptions have fretting with very thin bars whose horizontal members are
conjoined alternately facing Cs (e.g. Fox 1958, pl. 40A; Stead 1976a, fig. 3, 3). The debt of this variety to
the La Tène II brooch shows in bold skeuomorph collars and a line scribed up the side of the bow from
the piercing in the catch-plate to these and suggests that they should be placed early as the latter feature
is not found in brooches later in the sequence. The peak at the base of the catch-plate of Brooch 6 is not
exclusive to any particular variety, but is found on brooches with external chords of the present general
type (Bulleid & Gray 1911, 192 fig. 42, 3) and also on later types (see Brooch 49).
The chronology of the whole group is not easy to set out as there is a lack of closely dated examples.
Perhaps the best way of approaching the problem is to define the date of the chief successor types, the
Nauheim and the Drahtfibel of which 7 is certainly an example and 8 probably one. The most recent
comprehensive review of the dating was undertaken by Feugère (1985). The Drahtfibel is his Type 4c1,
although the version with an external chord is assigned to Type 2. The Nauheim is his Type 5. The
Nauheim appears at the end of the second century BC or at the very beginning of the first and is in
general use from c 70/60-30/20 BC (ibid., 225-6). The Drahtfibel with the slack profile to the bow, Type
4c1, is not specifically mentioned, but 4c2, which has a marked bend at the top, is given by him to the
period 70-30 BC (ibid.). The temptation is to see the slack profile as being early, but that would be a
determination belonging more to northern Europe than to southern France, and there is more to say
about the possible significance of the form of the profile when we come to look at the brooches in the next
group to be considered. If we turn to Type 2 with its external chord, Feugère‟s preferred date is c 75-25
BC although one not certainly of this type is earlier than 100 BC (ibid., 189). The impression is strong:
definitely the middle years of the first century BC with the Nauheim beginning possibly at the end of the
second. The derivative form of the Nauheim is hardly found, but one is placed in his Type 4 as variety 4a2
which he is inclined to place in the first century BC (ibid., 203).
The group which contains the closest parallels to Brooches 1-3 is Feugère‟s Type 8 which he, again,
places in the middling years of the first century BC (ibid., 238), but the spread of dates runs later and this
illustrates the problem arising from a small number of dated specimens: outside southern France, the
Nauheim tends to have its end-date defined by residual examples. However, the group of brooches in
Britain to which 1-3 belong, if the mouldings alone are taken without differentiation, and without looking at
other features such as style of catch-plate, profile, head of the bow and the internal or external chord, has
a long life.

135
Figure 59: Late La Tène Part I brooches, 1 (actual size)
The outcome is that the external chord should be placed generally earlier than the internal chord, say in
the first half of the first century BC to be conservative, but overlapping with the internal chord which, when
combined with an open-framed catch-plate, should be safely between 75-25 BC. Therefore, Brooch 1
should be earlier than 2 and 3. This should also mean that 5 is earlier than 7 and 8 with 6 possibly
belonging more with the two following brooches than with 5.
136
At present, the best indication that all these brooches should be associated lies in a single deposit at
Foxholes Farm, Little Amwell, Herts. (Partridge 1989). Here, there was a major later Iron Age ditched
enclosure, F1, which produced not only a group of brooches, but also stratified groups of pottery. The
brooches came from the middle layers of the ditch, L2 and L3. Most came from L2 but the two from L3
are of interest: although the actual types are unknown, their springs had external chords. None of these
occurred in L2 which had a brooch related to Brooches 1-3 here (Mackreth 1989c, fig. 76, 1), one almost
certain and one possible iron Drahtfibeln (ibid., fig. 76, 3, 4), two continental brooches of Feugère‟s Types
7 and 10 (ibid., fig. 76, 7 and 6 respectively) and one decorated Nauheim Derivative (ibid., fig. 76, 5). The
abundant pottery contained nothing related to the early groups at Skeleton Green (Partridge 1989, 15)
which should mean that the group closes at about 30-20 BC. This carries the brooches with it and
provides a valuable check on the dating provided by continental evidence. Brooch 4 can also be related
to the Foxholes Farm assemblage, if the expansion at the head of the bow is looked at. Two brooches
from that site (ibid., fig. 76, 1, 2) have expansions, but in neither case can they be described as trumpets:
one has a slight swell around the beginning of the spring, the other expands laterally.
Two from the King Harry Lane cemetery (Stead & Rigby 1989, phase 1, g.270.4; phase 3, g.124.4) had
finely fretted catch-plates and this detail may have a bearing on the present example which does not.
Typologically, one would expect the open frame to be earlier than fretting. For the dating of the phases
from this site, see the Introduction.
9 BAL-2 1982 u/s SF <3222> The bow is thin, wide at the top and tapers to a pointed foot. Down
each side of the front is a groove and these meet in a point at the top of the catch-plate. Although
now bent, the bow profile had probably been straight below the head. Forged.
10 BAL-2 1982 F305 (4) SF <3645> Similar to the last, the sides of the bow are curved. The change
in inflection at the top of the catch-plate is probably not entirely due to distortion. Forged from rolled
or folded sheet metal.
11 BAL-1 F473 SF <4241> Only the very top of the bow of the same design as the previous two
survives. Forged.
12 BAL-1 F571 (1) SF <4552> The bow is broad at the top and tapers to a pointed foot. The section is
a shallow triangle with a groove down each side and a buried median ridge. The profile is in a
continuous curve beneath a kick at the head. Forged.
The first three belong to the same pattern. Simple though that is, it may represent the output of a
particular group of artisans as, although found all over south-eastern England with a very few outliers to
the north-west, does seem to be more common in and immediately around Hertfordshire and immediately
contiguous areas than elsewhere. The dating is difficult, but the group, including Brooch 12, is, with
others, part of the logical successor of the Nauheim. The standard Nauheim has a wide upper bow which
tapers fairly rapidly to the top of the catch-plate. The decoration is frequently made up of a line down each
side with another down the middle.
Feugère illustrates no fewer than 49 designs (Feugère 1985, fig. 10) many of which occur in this country
and of which his No 12 is the present pattern. Of particular interest is his group 45-49 in which a stamp
notched to give a short row of square marks is used either in a straight form or a curve. The style is the
peculiar mark of a group of British Nauheim Derivatives (e.g. Atkinson 1916, 33, pl. VII, 6; Olivier 1988,
36, fig. 17.3) which lie in and around Berkshire and scattering thinly further afield. This group should be
basically pre-Conquest although the presence of two at Wroxeter shows that it could survive in use to c
55/60 (Rowley‟s House Museum, 48, B426). However, the real sign of pre-Conquest Nauheim Derivatives
should be a relatively wide bow at the top and a version of the Nauheim style, often with lines across the
base of the main decorative panel (Feugère 1985, fig. 10, 17-22, 40, 41, 45, 48, 49: e.g. Hattatt, 1987, 66,
fig. 25, 823; Mackreth 1978, 280, fig. 10. 26, 19; Cunliffe 1975, 199, fig. 109, 2).
The example from Foxholes Farm, Little Amwell, Herts. (Mackreth 1989, 132, fig. 76, 5), which can be
dated to before 30-20 BC, has an incised line down each side with a line of rocker-arm ornament down
the middle. This is a classic Nauheim design and should show that the earliest derivatives came into
being before the last of their parent had passed out of use. The full date-range, however of the four under
review here should not be restricted to the earliest possible date as some versions, such as those with
square punch marks, could remain in use to perhaps c 60. However, if a distinction is needed, those with
broad triangular decorated bows should be placed in the first century BC, perhaps running into the
earliest first century AD, while those whose bows are much narrower, no wider than 9 and probably more
like 10 or less, belong essentially to the first half of the first century AD. Similarly, the wide ones with slack
profiles should be earlier than those with a high kick at the head of the bow. This is only a tentative model
because of the shortage of relatively closely dated groups and the single example from the King Harry
Lane cemetery (Stead & Rigby 1989, g.317.4), dating to phase 1, has Feugère‟s pattern 26, but is narrow
at the top of the bow and has an uncharacteristic profile. For the dating of the phases from this site, see
the Introduction.

137
Figure 60: Late La Tène Part I brooches, 2 (actual size)
13 BAL-2 1982 F248 (1) SF <3395> Now distorted, the bow is a thin triangle with a pointed foot.
Forged, probably from bar.
14 BAL-1 1983 F484 (9) SF <6203> The same as the last brooch and forged from rolled or folded
sheet metal.

138
15 BAL-1 1982 u/s SF <4655> A bundle of scraps including a fragment of bow from a brooch similar
to the previous two. These pieces may have been wrapped up with a piece of bar to prepare them
for melting down. Forged from rolled or folded sheet metal.
16 BAL-11 1980 topsoil near Wallington Road SF <58b> A brooch very like the previous examples
but for the bow being narrower in proportion to its length and for having a projecting foot. Made in
the same way as the last brooch.
17 BAL-1 1980 F15 (1) SF <291> The bow is narrower than that of the last brooch, but is still has a
recognizably rectangular section. Forged, possibly from bar.
18 BAL-10 1983 F792 SF <7056> The same as the last brooch, including the method of manufacture.
19 <1524> A repeat of the last two brooches, except for being forged from rolled or folded sheet metal
and having a slightly projecting foot.
20 BAL-10 1983 [1577] SF <7174> The section of the bow is slightly more rounded than that of the
last brooch and has the same kind of foot. Forged, like Brooch 19.
21 BAL-4 1981 F184 SF <2273> A diminutive brooch whose bow has a circular section. The profile
has a slight recurve in the lower part.
22 SF <479> A larger version of the last brooch with a definite point of inflection at the top of the
catch-plate. Forged.
23 BAL-1 u/s SF <7425> The bow has a thicker bow than the previous two and its section is oval.
There is a projecting foot.
24 BAL-1 F460 SF <4185> The bow has a circular section. The profile recurves to a definite foot-knob
projecting below the bottom of the catch-plate. Forged from bar.
25 BAL-9 1983 F687 SF <6016> The bow has a roughly oval section and was forged.
26 96.1982 Now distorted and without its spring, the section of the bow is rectangular with rounded
corners. Forged from bar.
27 BAL-2 1982 F212 (6) SF <3065> The bow is relatively broad at the top and tapers to a pointed
foot. The section has a flat back and a rounded front. Forged from rolled or folded sheet metal.
28 BAL-2 1982 u/s SF <3003> Iron. The brooch is in poor condition and although the pin-fixing
arrangement is missing, the shape of the top of the bow suggests that it had had the same spring
system found in the rest of this group.
All of these fall into limbo when compared with the two previous groups: few show definite signs of
favouring either the Nauheim or the Drahtfibel as its parent. None bears decoration and the only mark of
distinction which any of these offers is a projecting foot on 16, 19-24, but only the last has a knob possibly
betraying influence from the Aucissa family in use between 25 and 65 AD. Brooches like these could
have survived to almost the end of the first century AD, but how many of the ruck to which the rest belong
were actually made at the same time as recognisable children of the Nauheim and Drahtfibel is beyond
knowing. However, some should be expected to occur before the Conquest and it will only be the date of
their contexts which will demonstrate the fact: there is next to no possibility that such plain brooches could
ever be divided into satisfactory groups, unless it is the profile which offers aid. So many of the examples
reported on here were flattened or distorted that there is no chance that any seriation could be proposed
on the basis of profile. One feature which does not belong to post-Conquest brooches is the high kick at
the head with an almost straight profile beneath (e.g. Stead 1976a, 410, fig. 4, 3; Hull 1961, 167, fig. 29,
4). These appear to be the marks of Augustan-Tiberian times. A note of caution, however, should be
sounded. Slack profiles belong to earlier Nauheim and Drahtfibel Derivatives and possibly to some early
Derivatives but any such divorced from their contexts, will be impossible to separate from late examples
which also tend to have slack profiles.
29 F123 SF <1978> The bow has a circular section and the catch-plate was formed by bending the
bow back and down to form the return and then up to clasp the bow by hammering out the end to
form a collar with two grooves round it. Forged.
This is a La Tène II in construction, but its associations in Britain demonstrate that it has no chronological
connection with the La Tène II period: nearly half those recorded by the writer come from undoubted
Roman military sites: Richborough, three examples (Bushe-Fox 1949, 107, pl. XXV, 1, 2; Cunliffe 1968,
77, pl. XXVI, 1); Chester, two examples (excavations, T J Strickland, to be published; Hull & Hawkes
1987, 181, pl. S2, 4545) ; Wroxeter, two examples (Webster 2002, 97 fig. 4.4, 6, 7). The two examples
from London (British Museum 1954, 95, fig. 99; Hull & Hawkes 1987, 181, pl. S2, 2938, 3077) are unlikely
to predate the foundation of the Roman site there. The date, despite the lack of examples from proper or
published contexts, can be assessed: in Britain, the type arrives with the army and survives in use to at

139
least 55/60 as those from Wroxeter show. The Chester examples may take the date as late as 65/70, but
could have derived from a military site earlier than the foundation of the fortress.

Figure 61: Late La Tène Part I brooches, 3; Rosettes, 1 (actual size)

30 BAL-1 1982 F470 SF <4304> The pin and half the spring and internal chord. Forged.
31 BAL-2 1982 F225 (4) SF <3332> A repeat of the last item. Forged from rolled or folded sheet
metal.
32 BAL-1 1982 F470 SF <4304> The pin and part of the spring with a distortion suggesting that it had
come from the same a spring system used in this group of brooches. Forged.

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Late La Tène, part II
All, unless otherwise described, have a separately-made bilateral spring trapped in a case formed by
folding over the edges of two thin flanges forged from the head of the brooch.

Rosettes
33 BAL-3 1983 spoil heap SF <6202> The spring is mounted in the Colchester manner (see Brooch
54). The wings appear to be under the spring. Each is decorated with a pair of grooves. Two more
grooves form a saltire under the head of the bow. The hook is short and widens towards the front
until it is almost as broad as the bow. This has a very slight taper down to the fracture, two ridges
down each side and three down the centre, the middle one distorted by alternate circular punch-
marks to form a wavy line. Cast and then forged to its final shape.
The form of the complete brooch is assured: what survives is part of the well-arched upper bow. This ran
down to a disc, usually decorated, behind which sprouted the lower bow which was bent down below to
form a foot behind which lay the catch-plate. However, one feature is of particular interest: the decoration
on the wings. Ornament is normally intended to be seen and this could only have been achieved by tilting
the spring until the surviving part of the bow becomes horizontal. Only one basic form of the Rosette
designed to be like this is known to the writer and is best known from the representation of its profile on a
range of Gallo-Belgic gold staters with the name CRICIRV on them (Allen 1972, pl. 27) and has been
related to a particular type of particular rarity which has no guard or set of wings (ibid., fig. 1, 2a, 2b). The
depiction of the brooch, because of its scale, is crude and all that can be said is that it has a spring, a
highly arched bow and a plate mounted on the bow set well forward of the foot behind which was an
elaborately fretted catch-plate. The actual form of the bow, disc and foot is open to question, but what
ever they were, they must have included a bow like that on the present piece.
The type of spring arrangement at the head of the bow on Brooch 33 is the earliest stage of the
development towards the standard spring-case containing a separately made spring (see Brooches 34,
36, 38-40). The next stage is to make the wings separately and to fit them over the beginnings of the
hook and spring. The hook is sometimes made separately and then riveted in position. These changes
must have been accompanied by the shift in the relationship of the bow and the wings in profile so that
the latter lie on either side of the bow. The sheet wings gradually mask the top, bottom and sides of the
spring. The date by which the spring is made separately is hard to establish, but had happened by the
last decade of the first century BC (see Brooches 33 and 35).
The coinage is the best guide to the dating of the brooch shown on it and is thought to have come to an
end in 57 BC. Allen‟s discussion of the likelihood of this concluded that, although the lighter weight gold
coins may represent a later and hurried striking, the better weight gold coins should be earlier than 57 BC
(ibid., 127-128). All this only provides a rough period, c 57-51 BC, for the brooch type surely had come
into being before 57 BC for Allen comments on the degree of wear on the better weight gold coins (ibid.,
126), but would not have ceased to be made just because a political event did away with the coinage. A
date-range from at least 65 to 40 must apply, and the changes which mark the main line of Rosette
development leading to the chief Augustan-Tiberian types (see Brooches 36-38) were probably in train
before the last quarter of the first century BC.
34 UWC Survey Area 6 SF <1113> The front of the spring-case is divided into two panels outlined by
sunken flutes. Across the top of the bow in the lower panel is a series of slightly diagonal lines. On
each side is a triangle defined by flutes. The upper panel has is a line of triangles rising from the
lower border. The bow has two beaded mouldings across the top and four broad flutes below with a
bead-row down the three central ridges. On each side are two mouldings. The disc is small and
carries a curved step above and below which is a raised chevron. The foot has a repeat of the
design on the bow, but with one ridge on each side. In the catch-plate is an elongated piercing
divided by a dog-leg bar. Forged into the finished form from a cast strip with the disc lying at right
angles to it.
35 BAL-1 u/s SF <4634> A much smaller version of Brooch 34, whose disc is round, the bow, now
missing, rising from the upper part and not from the middle like that of Brooch 34. Each of the two
full points of the chevron on the disc has a median line. The foot is a fantail with three ridges down
the front with a broad flute down the swell between each one. The catch-plate has a single
elongated hole. The brooch was made in the same way as Brooch 34.
These two brooches mark a considerable advance over the type represented by Brooch 33. The spring-
case is now fully formed and the reeding on both bow and foot is of the familiar type, but the disc is not
yet part of a plate shaped to be both a foot and a disc/lozenge and frequently fails to show any sign of
there having been a plate trapped between the disc and the foot. Five with the plate were found in Phase
1 burials in the King Harry Lane cemetery, St. Albans (Stead & Rigby 1989, fig 124, g.199.3; fig 128,
g.206.2; fig 136, g.242.3; fig 146, g.287.4; fig 157, g.325.9), as opposed to one from Phase 3 (ibid., G397.
7), and one without from Skeleton Green was dated to the last fifteen years of the first century BC

141
(Mackreth 1981, 133, fig. 70, 40). Phase1 at the King Harry Lane cemetery was noted as possibly starting
as 15 BC, but is conservatively dated AD 1-40 (Stead & Rigby 1989, 83-4). The general absence of
Colchester Derivates save for one (ibid., fig 1253, g.316.4), the very few Aucissas (ibid., fig 116, g.158.2,
fig 127, g.205.3, fig 163, g.362.2), no Hod Hill save for an early type related to it (ibid., fig g.233.3) and
the lack of samian (ibid, 112-3) are the best evidence that the terminal date for the cemetery is at least
fifteen years too late. The start of Phase 1 should therefore be assumed to predate our era and en end
date of c AD 25 would be much more appropriate. The sparse evidence for the dating of this type of
brooch favours the end of the first century BC, possibly running into the earliest years of the first century
AD for those surviving in use.
36 UWC 1982 near BAL-2 F364 SF <3875> The spring-case has three vertical grooves at each end
overlapping the bottom two of a set of four steps across the case. On the bottom step is a line of
punched dots and the top of the third has small cross-cuts. In the panel is a series of incised lines
radiating from the bow which has two beaded mouldings across the top and four flutes down it. The
ridges between are corroded down the middle. The disc and foot are parts of a single plate nearly
reaching the spring-case. The disc has two sunken beaded ridges round its edge. In the middle is a
slightly raised area with, on it, five raised points depending from the bow. Around the edge of the
raised area is a series of punch marks almost certainly related to the fixing the inner edge of an
applied pierced repoussé plate. The foot has the same decoration as the bow. The corrosion on
both bow and foot is highly selective and may have been related to applied decoration on the
ridges. The only type known to the writer is beaded enamel strips, but enamelling does not
normally result in this kind of corrosion. The catch-plate has an almost square piercing. Cast and
forged.
37 SF <2902> The spring-case and top of the bow are missing. The bow has a repeat of the ornament
on Brooch 36 but with a minimum of six flutes and a bead-row down the middle of each ridge. The
rest of the brooch is again a single plate, the disc being replaced by a lozenge which has two
sunken ridges along its border. In the middle is a semi-circular slightly raised area with a repeat of
the points and the markings round the edge found on the last brooch. The decoration on the foot
repeats that on the bow. The catch-plate is pierced like that of Brooch 34. Cast and forged.
38 BAL-13 1983 topsoil SF <6200> A small version of the last. The spring-case has three grooves at
each end and lines radiating from the top of the bow which has a slightly flattened profile. Down the
front are four flutes, each ridge between having a groove. The lozenge has poorly formed bordering
grooves. The raised area appears to be plain and has beaded punch marks, but there does not
seem to be enough space for these to be associated with an applied repoussé plate. The damaged
foot has a repeat of the decoration on the bow. There was a single piercing in the catch-plate. Cast
and forged.
39 SF <3595> The spring-case has a pair of grooves down each side and another across the top. The
body of the brooch is shaped into a disc and fantail and is joined to the spring-case by a short
bridging section. On the face of the plate are the substantial remains of an applied repoussé sheet.
The design over the disc has a beaded border and a face in the middle to be seen from the top
surrounded by a version of egg-and-dart ornament, the eggs having a beaded section next to the
face. The remains on the foot best suit part of a beast fighting a gladiator who would have been on
the missing portion. The catch-plate has a small hole. Cast and forged.
40 BAL-12 1983 spoil heap 2 SF <6248> Only a substantial scrap survives. The spring-case is plain,
the rest of the brooch had been like the plate on Brooch 39, but with no evidence that there had
been a repoussé plate.
41 BAL-12 1983 spoil heap 2 SF <3238> The pin is hinged, its axis bar being held in the rolled-over
head of the bow. The rest of the brooch is a plain plate in the form of a disc and fantail with a small
hole in the centre of the disc. The catch-plate return is parallel with the plate. Forged.
42 BAL-45 1988 [3889] SF <B311> The hinged pin is mounted between a pair of pierced lugs. The
body is a single sheet shaped to form a plain disc and fantail. The disc has semicircular projections
on top and on each side. There is the stem of a rivet in the centre. The fantail is damaged. The
front edges of the disc and fantail, where these are preserved, are curled up, possibly the effect of
having been exposed to heat.

142
Figure 62: Rosette brooches, 2; Langton Down brooches, 1 (actual size)
These seven brooches cover the main and later stages of the Rosettes. 36-38 are standard full-blown
examples, 39 and 40 belong to a later stage which was much easier to make while 41 is the latest form
and even easier to make. Dating for any brooch type whose floruit falls mainly before the Conquest is
difficult and, in this case, may be best approached by looking at the available evidence for the latest stage
of the Rosette in this country because of the clear cut-off provided by the Roman Conquest. Three in the

143
King Harry Lane cemetery came from one grave belonging to Phase 2 (Stead & Rigby 1989, fig 99,
g.67.2-4) and one from a Phase 3 grave had excrescences around the disc (ibid., fig 126 g.203.6).
Another from Bagendon was dated 43/45-47/52 (Hull 1961, 184, fig. 36, 7) and two from Hod Hill must
date to before 50, and could have come from the underlying hillfort (Brailsford 1962, 8, fig. 7, C27, C28).
The range indicated belongs to at least fifteen to twenty years before 55/60, bearing in mind the probable
end-date of the King Harry Lane cemetery (see the Introduction). The distribution, lying as it does well
within the Fosse Way line apart from Bagendon, suggests that this is highly probable. Two examples of a
variant fit this determination: Colchester, 49-61 (Hawkes & Hull 1947, 325, pl. XCVIII, 166); Chichester,
50-60 (Mackreth 1978, 288, fig. 10.48, 6).
Those Rosettes like 39 should, typologically, be earlier than 41. The distribution over Phases 1, 2 and 3 in
the King Harry Lane cemetery provides some light: Phase 1, a large specimen (Stead & Rigby 1989, fig
106, g.109. 2); Phase 2, six examples (ibid., fig 96, g.53. 3; fig 100, g.73. 204; fig 131, g.218. 5; fig 161,
g.353.4); Phase 3, eleven examples (ibid., fig 89, g.14. 3; fig 90, g9.8, 9; fig 91, g.15.4; fig 99 g.68.3; fig
103, g.86.3-5; fig 109, g.18.5; fig 165, g.370.6-7). This suggests a range from very early in the first
century to 30/35; those in Phase 3 should represent specimens being discarded at the end of their main
use. They should, however, not really be expected to be still in use as late as the hinged type. This leaves
the standard Rosette whose floruit should be regarded as having come to an end c 40, although one or
two may have lasted a little longer. Their start date has not been established: much depends on the
earlier stages of development.
43 BAL-45 1988 [7004] SF <B495> The spring-case and the top part of the bow are missing. The rest
of the bow forms the fore-quarters of a lion with out-stretched paws. There is a well marked waist, a
large mane marked on each side by three curved grooves, a pair of stubby ears and an up-turned
nose. The lion is riveted through a pierced applied plate and a lozenge plate into the top of the
fantail foot. The pierced plate has a repoussé broad border ridge pierced by a series of lenticular
holes each outlined on the outer side by a groove. The lozenge plate itself has a border of triangles
arranged to produce a raised chevron between them. The fantail foot is obscured by corrosion
products, but has three main flutes each of which seems to have had a narrow groove between.
The catch-plate has a roughly made piercing.
The best British dating comes from the King Harry Lane cemetery (Stead & Rigby 1989): Phase 2,
g.66(S), g.218 (two examples both S), g.348 (late example).
Those with separate plates (S in the preceding list) should be equated with those Rosettes which have
the same feature (see the Introduction) and the detail that a typologically late example occurs in the same
phase should indicate that the other two are probably survivors-in-use after manufacture came to an end.
For the dating of the phases on this site, see the Introduction.

Langton Downs
44 SF <1061> The six-coil spring is mounted like that on the Colchester (see Brooch 54). The hook is
very broad at its end. The plain bow has an almost straight profile, a squared top and bottom and
almost straight sides. The catch-plate is triangular and has a piercing of the same shape except for
a concave top. Forged.
Although not decorated or having the spring-case of the main Langton Down type, this brooch, with its
very wide and straight-sided bow, fits typologically into the same place that Brooch 33 occupies in the
typological sequence of Rosettes. The writer knows of none at present having a sheet metal guard for the
spring fitted over the start of the hook and spring. This may be due to the very small numbers of this form
known. The dating evidence does not, however, clearly support such an early date as that of 33. None
occurs at Augst (Riha 1979) and of the three decorated ones illustrated by Feugère, none is dated
(Feugère 1985, pl. 91, 1198, 1199, 1204). The British dating is sparse: Wheathampstead, ?50-25 BC
(Wheeler & Wheeler 1936, 150, pl. LII, 1); Braughing, three examples, c 25 BC-AD 45 (Olivier 1988, 37,
40, fig. 17, 18, 20, 21). Others come from later contexts, but can safely be discounted as the full form had
developed by 10 BC (see below).
45 SF <3315> The spring-case has, at each end, two sunken ridges joined by a flute. Across the front
above the square-topped bow is a line of slightly diagonal incised lines. The bow has a step across
its squared top and a very slight curve in its profile. Down the front are four beaded ridges
separated by single plain ridges. The catch-plate has a four-sided hole. Cast and forged.
46 UWC SF <1076> The spring-case is plain. Only the squared top of the bow is present. It has a step
across the top and five ridges down the front, the central one having a groove down it. Cast and
forged.
47 UWC SF <1062> Only the lower bow survives. There is a pair of ridges down each side and a
groove down the middle of the broad central ridge. The catch-plate had a large piercing. Cast and
forged.

144
48 BAL-13 school playing field SQ6 Only the lower bow is present. The reeding on the bow is the
same as that on the last brooch, but with only a single ridge down each side. The catch-plate has
three small circular holes. Cast and forged.
49 BAL-1 1984 under N spoil heap SF <7247> The spring-case has a buried ridge at each end and
another across the top. The head of the bow is arched and splayed, with a buried cross-ridge, and
the profile has a recurve. Each edge of the bow is slightly concave. Down the front are five flutes.
The catch-plate has a single large piercing with a peak at the bottom and with the top edge parallel
with the edge of the catch-plate. Cast and forged.
50 UWC survey 3 SF <1087> The spring-case is a repeat of that on Brooch 49. The lower bow is
missing. The top of the bow is, again, arched, with a step across the top. The front of the bow is
curved in section with a step down each side and a central ridge relieved on each side by a flat
face having a line of rocker-arm ornament. Cast and forged.
51 BAL-1 1982 F519 (1) SF <4484> The spring-case has a pair of grooves at each end and one of
the plates sealing the ends still survives. The bow has a moulding across the top and a lozenge
section. The whole of the front of the brooch is tinned or silvered with a poorly executed Vitruvian
scroll carried out in niello inlay. The catch-plate is framed with a flange on each side of the top.
Cast and finished by hand.
52 UWC SF <414> The spring-case has two buried ridges at each end and a line of rocker-arm across
the top. In the panel so formed are three relief ornaments, a truncated triangle with three circular
pits in the middle and, on each side, an arm ending in a loop splaying out from the head of the bow.
This has a beaded ridge across the top and a shallow triangular section. On each side is a ridge
with another down the middle. On each side of that is a thin line of rocker-arm decoration. The
catch-plate is framed with a carefully made dog-leg bar across it. The dog-leg tapers in section
towards the back. Cast and finished by hand.
53 BAL-2 1982 F319 (1) SF <3832> The spring-case has a line of rocker-arm ornament across its
front. The bow is thin and bent. Down the front are two flutes with a groove down the centre. The
catch-plate has a small circular hole. Cast and forged.
Strictly speaking, only Brooch 49 is a Langton Down as originally defined (Wheeler & Wheeler 1932, 71-
4), but this is only a variety, albeit an important one, of a type whose form is invariable: a spring-case
above a basically broad straight-sided bow. It is not easy to place them in any typological order on the
basis of their decoration, but one from Dangstetten (Fingerlin 1972, 217 Abb. 8, 3) has beading and dates
to before c 10 BC, and it may be significant that the only two standard Langton Downs with beading from
the King Harry Lane cemetery came from a Phase 1 burial (Stead & Rigby 1989, fig 146, g.287.5, 7) and
of the other eight plain examples, four also come from burials of the same phase (ibid., fig 100, g.71.3, 4;
fig 152, g309.5; fig 173, g.413.3). Comments made on the dating of Phase 1 at King Harry Lane (see
Brooch 35) suggest that the initial date of 15 BC should have been used and the terminal date adjusted
backwards to account for the anomalies in the collection. Square-headed bows can also be early as a
beaded one from Skeleton Green shows, c 10 BC-AD 20 (Mackreth 1981, 133-134, fig. 71.43), and one
comes from Phase 1 at King Harry Lane (Stead & Rigby 1989, 346, fig 146, g.287.6). Fragments like 46
and 47 can be difficult to place, but the circular holes in the catch-plate in the latter should point to a late
date in the range, but the reeding is better than that on 53 which is possibly the latest brooch in this
group. The difficulty is that there are, as yet, not enough dated pieces for proper individual date-ranges to
be certain and this means that, although brooches like 49 can be taken back to the end of the first century
BC, they are found frequently in deposits which cover the years 40-50/55 of the first century AD. Items
like 50 are difficult to place, but may not be early in the range.
The remaining three are distinguished by their manufacturing technique. The previous ones may have
been cast as blanks, but had been heavily worked up into their finished form, but these three, especially
51 and 52, were cast very nearly in their final form and then hand finished. 52 is a Nertomarus (Behrens
1950, 3-5, Abb. 3, 4) and can be distinguished from other Langton Downs by the use of relief ornament
on the front of the spring-case. An example from Eccles, Kent (excavation, A P Detsicas, to be published)
is well enough preserved for the fine finish and sharpness of the detailing to suggest that it had been cast
in a metal mould. The present example has the common form of bow, but a fully reeded one comes from
an unphased grave in the King Harry Lane cemetery (Stead & Rigby 1989, 334 fig 132, g.234.2). Dating
for the Nertomarus is generally poor, but seems to favour a date after c 30. The flange across the top of
the catch-plate on both 51 and 52 is found on some early Colchester Derivatives (see Brooch 66). As
both occur with framed catch-plates, these Langton Downs should have been the source and a late date
would be suitable in this context. The use of niello and a silvered finish on 51 is also a sign of a date after
c AD 25 and this would suit a Phase 2 brooch in the King Harry Lane cemetery (ibid., 314 fig 116,
g157.4). The last brooch, 53, has the marks of being late: it is insubstantial, has a circular hole in the
catch-plate and a line of plain rocker-arm ornament on an otherwise plain spring-case. Again, dating is

145
difficult principally because examples are uncommon. One, however, from Wroxeter should not have
arrived at the site before 55/60 (Webster 2002, 98 fig 4.5, 11).

Figure 63: Langton Down brooches, 2 (actual size)

Colchesters
All have bilateral springs issuing from the back of the head of the bow. The external chord is held by a
forward-facing hook also rising from the back of the bow.
54 BAL-45 1988 [3904]/[3896] SF <B367> Iron. Now in ten pieces, the spring had at least six coils.
The wings appear to have been plain, but the corroded surface could have resulted from shallow
mouldings. The profile of the bow was straight and the section seems to have been round and very
thin. The catch-plate is almost complete. It had three dog-leg cross-bars.
55 BAL-1 F519 (3) SF <4400> The spring has six coils. The hook is broken. The plain wings are both
short and narrow. The plain bow has a rectangular section, is narrow and tapers to a pointed foot.
The profile has a curve in the upper part and straight below. The catch-plate is damaged, but had
been finely fretted with four rows of piercings. Cast and forged.
56 SF <1069> The spring is lost and the hook broken. The plain wings are very short. The plain bow
has a slightly indefinite section best read as having facets on the rear corners and a rounded front.
The catch-plate had two rows of piercings. Cast and forged.
57 BAL-1 F405 SF <4286> Most of the spring is missing. The distorted hook is long. The wings are
plain. The bow has a flat back, chamfered sides and a buried cast chevron down the middle. The
lower bow is missing.
58 SF <3188> The broken spring has eight coils and an axis bar through it to effect a repair. The hook
is broken. Each wing is fairly long and has a wide vertical flute and a groove next to the bow. The
bow has a flat back and a boldly curved front with a groove down the centre. The damaged catch-
plate has the remains of two circular holes, the punch used to make them leaving an annular
groove round each. There was a line of rocker-arm ornament across the top of the back. Cast and
forged.
59 BAL-1 F511 (1) SF <4553> The spring has 12 coils. The hook is missing. Each wing is very long
and has a buried vertical ridge at each end separated by a wide flute. The bow has a flat back, with
facets on the rear corners, and a rounded front. Down each side is a groove running along the

146
 beginning of the facet. The catch-plate is short, has three round holes, a line of rocker-arm
ornament across the top and another along the facet next to the catch-plate. Cast and forged.
These brooches have been arranged in a rough order. 54 and 55 are taken to be the earliest on the basis
of their profiles, thin rectangular sections and the three or four rows of fine piercings. It would have been
easier to tell how these related to the continental type had the hook been intact. Continental examples
have hooks which barely touch the head of the bow, British brooches having a longer hook returned to
run along the top of the bow. The hook tends to become longer towards the end of the series, and this
can be demonstrated from the examples in phases at the King Harry Lane cemetery, but only in general
terms which means that the actual length of the hook measured proportionately, say, with the rise over
the chord, cannot be used as a chronological indicator by its self. All the hooks here are broken, but that
on 59 should have been the longest. The proportions, profile and the size of the piercings in the catch-
plate of Brooch 56 show it to be British. Most Colchesters with decorated bows have the usual wavy line
formed by hand and the cast chevron of 57 shows that this brooch is late. 58 has three late features: the
articulation of the ornament on the wings, the groove down the bow and the circular punchings in the
catch-plate. As for 59, its shape, size and proportions in addition to the style of decoration, come at the
end of the sequence and its dating helps to fix the end of the floruit of the whole type. At the earlier end of
the sequence, dating is not so easy.

Figure 64: Colchester brooches (actual size)

Feugère in discussing his Type 14a, the continental form, summarises the dating evidence and concludes
that they were not known before the last ten or twenty years of the first century BC (Feugère 1985, 265-
6). The only useful site in Britain is the King Harry Lane cemetery and an examination of the copper alloy
Phase 1 Colchesters is revealing. There is one continental form (Stead & Rigby 1989, fig 141, g.270.3),
the only other example from the cemetery occurring in a Phase 2 burial (ibid., fig 133, g.231.5), two
British brooches with early profiles (ibid., fig 148, g.296.3; fig 153, g.312.4) and another which has early
traits (ibid., fig 160, g.346.11). These have middling to long hooks like the remaining ten brooches which
are unexceptional in profile, bow section or the kind of fretting in the catch-plate (ibid., fig 104, g.93.2; fig
130, g.215.2; fig 136, g.242.4; fig 153, g.312.5, 6; fig 162, g.359.3; fig 171, g.396.5; fig 173, g.410.2, 3; fig
175, g.424.3), save one which also has a decorated catch-plate return and uncharacteristic ornament on
147
its wings (ibid., fig 171, g.397.6). Three have decorative profiles to their hooks (ibid., fig 153, g.312.5, 6;
fig 176, g.424.3), which the writer once used to take as a sign of a late date. The only brooch which
stands out is the exceptional one with the highly decorated catch-plate and this might be later than may
appear. The outstanding feature is that the bulk of these brooches are very ordinary and could
accommodate Brooch 55 with no difficulty. Given this, and that the initial date of the cemetery could be as
early as c 15 BC, brooches such as 54 and 55 could well belong to the end of the first century BC.
We can now look at the end of the range, the dated parallels for Brooch 59 are: Skeleton Green, pre-flood
(Mackreth 1981, 136, fig. 68, 17); Baldock, 25-50 (Stead & Rigby 1986, 112, fig. 43, 64); Colchester, 43-
61 (Hawkes & Hull 1947, 310, pl. XC, 25), c 45 and after (ibid., 313, pl. XCII, 63), 49-61, (ibid., 310, pl.
XC, 28); 61-c. 65 (ibid., 310, pl. XCI, 33); Verulamium, c. 49 (Frere 1972, 114, fig. 29, 5); Hod Hill, Dorset,
before 50 (Brailsford 1962, fig. 6, C9: Richmond 1968, 117-119); Silchester, mid-first century (Cotton
1947, 144, fig. 7, 10); Verulamium, 44-58 (Frere 1984, 21, fig. 5, 17); North Cerney, Glos., 40-60 (Trow
1988, 45, fig. 21, 7); Wroxeter, not before 55/60 (Atkinson 1942, 204, fig. 36, H32); Longthorpe, Cambs.,
before 60-65, three examples (Frere & St Joseph 1974, 44, fig. 23, 2, 4, 5). Those from King Harry Lane
come from Phase 3 (Stead & Rigby 1989, fig 132, g.233.2; fig 178, g.450.5) and Phase 4 (ibid., fig 93,
g.28.5; fig 176, g.431.2, 3). Phase 4 is the last one in the cemetery and its terminal date was discussed
after Brooch 35 as being closer to 45 than 60. The outcome is that the vast majority of the type had
passed out of use by c 55 and had come into being before the Conquest. Therefore, 57 and 58 should lie
between the two extremes: c 20-35?

Colchester Derivatives
Brooches 60-68 all have or had their springs attached to the body of the brooch by means of an axis bar
passing through the lower of two holes in a plate behind the head of the bow, the chord passing through
the upper. All are cast and finished by hand.
60 BAL-2 1982 F217 (1) SF <3229> Each wing is plain and curved to seat the spring. The plate
behind the head is carried over the head to simulate the hook found on the Colchester. The bow
has a slight taper to a poorly squared-off foot. Down each side of the bow is a concave hollow
leaving a flat face with a line of rocker-arm ornament along it in the middle. The catch-plate has a
pin-groove.
61 BAL-2 1982 F212 (6) SF <3076> The bottom of a brooch precisely like the last one.
62 WF 82 u/s SQ20 SF <6239> The spring and lower bow are missing. The surviving wing has two
grooves at its end. The rest is the same as before, but with the rocker-arm ornament now on the
concave surfaces and a median groove on the central flat.
63 UWC SF <1074> This is the same as the last, but without rocker-arm decoration.
These four brooches belong to a single common type called by the writer the "Harlow". 60 is the standard
form and 61 is clearly the foot of another. The other two belong to a major variety marked by a groove
down in which the central face, the rocker-arm ornament on each was clearly optional. The distribution is
largely in the southern part of East Anglia and Hertfordshire, but fans out from there. The dating has
recently been reviewed and the conclusion was that it was made and in use from at least c 40 to 75/80
(Mackreth 1996, 306, fig 95, 27-32).
64 SF <1102> The spring is missing. The plate which once held it rises as a ridge over the top of the
plain bow, the hole for the chord set above the plain wings.
A distinctive type whose only ornament is the occasional use of rocker-arm ornament on the catch-plate
and which can be distinguished from a host of other plain brooches by its narrowness and the way in
which the hole for the chord is set directly over the wings. The distribution is in the southern part of
Northamptonshire and the nearby parts of adjacent counties, except for an extension ending in single
specimens at Wroxeter (Hildyard Collection, 192: I give my thanks to Lady Pauline Richmond-Brown who
very kindly allowed me to study the collection) and Cirencester (Corinium Museum, no number). The
dating is still vague: Quinton, Northants, 50-60 (Friendship-Taylor 1979, 135-127, fig. 63, 471). One
published example is not much to go on.
65 BAL-1 1983 F557 (5) SF <5518> The spring is missing and the wings are plain. The upper bow
has a groove running up the front of the skeuomorph hook formed by the plate. The catch-plate has
a pin groove and two piercings which were intended to have been a circle over a triangle with a
curved top, but the casting flash was not trimmed away.
The type appears to be commonest in Kent, but its distribution extends up through Middlesex into
Hertfordshire, Cambridgeshire and across into Norfolk. The apparent lack of specimens in Suffolk where
the writer has only recorded two, could be due to paucity of excavation of Roman sites, but the shortage
in Essex must be real and almost certainly due to the popularity of other types. The dating evidence is:
Quinton, Northants, probably Flavian (Friendship-Taylor 1979, 65, 137, fig. 63, 472); Fawkham, Kent,
before 100 (Philp 1963, 70, fig. 3, 3); Springhead, Kent, three examples, 80-120 (Penn 1959, 49, fig. 9, 5-
148
7); Verulamium, 80-150 (Wheeler & Wheeler 1936, 207, fig. 44, 25); Baldock, 120-150 (Stead & Rigby
1986, 112, fig. 44, 74); Springhead, Kent, 125-150? (Penn 1959, 49, fig. 9, 8); Scole, Norfolk, 100-160
(Rogerson 1977, 131, fig. 54, 3); Gadebridge, Herts, 150-325 (Neal 1974, 123, fig. 54, 12). The main
floruit is clearly from c 80 to at least 125 with survivors in use carrying on to c 150.
66 SF <8587> The spring is missing. The plate rises as a crest above the wings each of which has a
buried ridge at its end. The bow is broad at the top and has on each edge a groove with rocker-arm
ornament along the inner side. At the top, two beaded ridges combine to run as a plain central
ridge down to the foot. The catch-plate is a frame with a flange on each side at the top, the one at
the back running round the top of the return. The foot-knob is separated from the bow and catch-
plate by a flute with a slight moulding at top and bottom.
67 BAL-28 1985 [2928] SF <8620> The wings are plain. The plate forms a skeuomorph of the
Colchester‟s hook. The bow has a groove down each side of the swelled front. The foot-knob is
similar to the last but lacks the lower of the slight mouldings.
68 BAL-28 1985 [511] SF <8498> The wings and bow are plain apart from a skeuomorph hook on the
latter. The bottom of the bow has a projecting moulding. The catch-plate has a pin-groove. There is
good mark down the back of the bow representing the joint in the mould.
The features which unite these three brooches are the method of securing the spring, the appearance of
a skeuomorph hook tending to become a ridge down the bow, and a foot-knob of some form. The
parallels recorded by the writer for each of these brooches are: 66, Richborough, before 90 (Bushe-Fox
1949, 113, pl. XXVII, 27); Old Harlow (Harlow Museum, C725); East Anglia (Hattatt 1987, 90, fig. 31.
874); Verulamium (Richardson 1944, 93, fig. 4, 4); 68, Colchester, two examples (Hull 1956, 19, pl. xii, 5,
6); Canterbury, two examples (Blockley et al. 1995, 961, fig 403, 19; excavations at Church Lane, SF
<70>); Ancaster (excavations, Nottingham University); Silchester, 120-160/70 (Cotton 1947, 144, fig. 7,
13); Old Harlow, two examples (Harlow Museum, C202, C265); 68 Old Harlow (ibid., C736).
As can be seen, there is not only little dating for these specific types but also few examples. The fairly
restricted distribution is markedly south-eastern and more examples may show that it is more or less in
the area in which the Harlow (see Brooches 60-63) held sway. The two dates offer little help, but the pin-
grooves on 66 and 68 are a mark of the Harlow and not of demonstrably late first-early second-century
brooches. The catch-plate of 66 has a large piercing and a flange across the top which is probably a
reflection of the types of Langton Down to which Brooches 51 and 52 belong and, in default of other
evidence, should be a mark of early Colchester Derivatives: hardly later in manufacture than c 50/55.
Both 66 and 67 have distinctive foot-knobs which probably derive from the Aucissa, in which case, they
are likely to belong to the period during which these were to be seen fairly frequently: before c 55/60. This
leaves 68 out on a limb, but its pin-groove may not date later than c 75/80, the terminal date of the Harlow
(see after Brooch 63).
69 BAL-1 1982 u/s SF <4072> The plain lower bow of a brooch whose catch-plate has the remnants
of a piercing so large that the whole would have been a frame, had the casting flash been
removed. There is a pin-groove.
70 BAL-1 u/s SF <7369> The plain lower bow of a brooch whose solid catch-plate has a pin-groove.
The discussion after Brooch 68 dealt with pin-grooves and, in the case of 67 which seems to have a
devolved version of a large piercing set beneath a flange, the comment on these may apply here: 69
should have the same kind of date-range as 68 and 70 may be a little later than 66.
The next two brooches have or had their springs held in the Polden Hill manner: an axis bar passes
through the coils and pierced plates at the ends of the wings, the chord being retained, in this case, by a
rearward-facing hook behind the back of the bow.
71 SF <7918> Each wing has a vertical ridge at its end separated from the rest by a deep groove. The
hook behind the head is continued as a shallow ridge over the head of the bow which is otherwise
plain, except for a projecting foot.

149
Figure 65: Colchester derivative brooches; unclassified brooches, 1 (actual size)
Fairly plain brooches like this one are difficult to parallel. The proportions alone are uncommon and the
only reasonably close example known to the writer has a longer ridge ending between a pair of bulges:
Orton Waterville, Cambs. (excavations, Nene Valley Research Committee). Other fairly squat examples
with differing degrees and kinds of ornament come from Leicester (Jewry Wall Museum, 116.1962/574);
Ratcliffe-on-Soar, Notts. (Hildyard Collection; I am grateful to Lady Pauline Richmond-Brown for allowing
me to study the collection); Durobrivae, Cambs. (Peterborough Museum, L265); Thornhaugh, Cambs.
(private collection); Ashton, Northants. (excavations Northants Archaeology); Great Casterton, Rutland
(Oakham Museum, 425); Thistleton, Rutland (ibid., 13A/1077); Sapperton, Lincs. (excavations, B
Simmons); Ancaster, Lincs. (excavations, Nottingham University); Lakenheath, Suffolk (Cambridge,
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, 95.124); Scole, Norfolk, 100-175 (Rogerson 1977, 224, fig.
150
54, 1); Norfolk (Hattatt 1985, 84, fig. 36, 381). The distribution is clear: it lies in a band running from East
Anglia into the East Midlands. The dating, however, is not, but is very probably the same as that of the
type to which Brooch 72 belongs.
72 BAL-1 1982 F444 SF <4050> At 71 mm long, this is one of the largest of this type known. At the
end of each wing is a double moulding, the inner one being beaded. A beaded moulding runs up
the junction of the wings with the bow. The bow has a sunken beaded ridge running almost to the
foot. On each side of this are nine lenticular bosses, a few showing a median groove, placed
diagonally to form saltires lying across the front of the bow. The bottom two form a V beneath
which the bow is plain down to the bulbous foot-knob which has a moulding top and bottom. The
catch-plate has a tail running up behind the bow and a line of rocker-arm decoration along its
junction with the bow.
This is a member of a large family at home in the Severn Valley and the Marches, but fanning out over
the whole of Roman Britain. Although there are many decorative types, there is only one major sub group
which was made in the Southern Pennines and which has hinged pin. The dating of the whole series has
recently been reviewed (Mackreth 1996, 300-1) and the floruit of the general type runs from c 75 to
150/175.
73 BAL-1 u/s SF <7712> The pin is hinged, the axis bar being housed in the wings which were closed
round it leaving a seam. At the end of each wing is a sunken double ridge divided by a flute. There
is also a ridge down the upper part of the bow whose lower part is missing.
74 UWC SF <1071> The pin was hinged, the axis bar being housed in the wings which display no
seam. Each wing is well moulded with a pair of sunken ridges separated by a broad flute. There is
another ridge on the inside and all show poor attempts at hand-cut beading. The bow has a
square-topped ridge down the middle with traces of badly cut herring-bone nicks along it. The lower
bow is missing.
Neither can be associated with any particular group, but the seams along the back of the wings of 73 is a
feature of east Midland Colchester Derivatives.
Only the most general of dating can be suggested: later first century to c 150/175 by which time virtually
all British bow brooches had ceased to be made.

Unclassified
Both have Colchester-style six-coil spring systems with short hooks (see Brooch 54). Both were cast and
then forged into their final forms.
75 BAL-17 1980 R17 (2) SF <39> Each wing is very short. The profile of the bow is divided into an
arched bow and a straight foot. The bow has a ridge on each side, traces of a median bead-row,
and is stopped by a cross-moulding. The foot has a central arris and splays out slightly towards the
bottom where there is an inverted V made by two hand-cut grooves.
76 BAL-1 1984 [2034] SF <7360> This is a repeat of the last, but with no bead-row down the bow.
Both of these are, in effect, devolved Augenfibel. Their dating is not easy and is perhaps best explored by
considering the British evidence. The distribution of the examples recorded by the writer runs mainly from
southern East Anglia to Northamptonshire and Rutland. One comes from Derby (Mackreth 1985, 294-
296, fig. 129, 36) and another from Kingsholm, Gloucester (excavations, M Atkin), both lying outside the
main area. It is possible that the Derby specimen comes from an early fort, just as the Kingsholm
example does. The dating from Britain is: Rushden, Northants., 45-60 (Woods & Hastings 1984, 108, fig.
10. 1, 5 recte 6); Colchester, two examples, 49-61 (Hawkes & Hull 1947, 321, pl. XCVI, 120, 121);
Towcester, Northants., c 100 (Lambrick 1980, 60, fig. 12, 3); Baldock, 180-220 (Stead & Rigby 1986, 112,
fig. 42, 47). Three examples from before c 60 probably reflect the true date and would certainly suit the
item from Kingsholm. On the continent, one from Augst was found with pottery running from Tiberian-
Claudian to Vespasianic times (Riha 1979, 72, Taf. 8, 222) and two from Saalburg should date after the
foundation of the site assessed as having been 83-85 (Böhme 1972, 9, 11, Taf. 1, 13, 14). The difficulty
is, however, that the grouping of brooches from continental sites tends not to make enough of differences
in small details. We shall see that this can be a disadvantage when we come the "Aucissas". The general
dating for the present pieces is from the Conquest to c 60/65.

The "Aucissa"-Hod Hill Series

All have or had hinged pins whose axis bars are or were housed in the rolled-over heads of the bows and
kept in place by knobs on their ends.

"Aucissa"
All have or had separately-made foot-knobs sweated or brazed on to pegs at the base of the lower bow.
All have or had hinged-pins, whose axis bars were housed in the rolled-over heads of the bow.
151
77 BAL-1 1984 [2357] SF <7974> The head-plate has a sunken bead-row on either side of a groove
which has a small cut-out at each end. The upper bow has a ridge down each side and a buried
bead-row down the centre of the swelled front. The lower bow has two cross-grooves at the top
and a median arris down to the foot-knob.
78 164.1980 SF <1101> A repeat of the previous brooch, although smaller in size.
79 BAL-1 1981 (4) SF <1480> Now flattened, the upper bow is a repeat of the previous two. The
lower bow is missing.
80 BAL-1 u/s SF <4623> Part of the upper bow only, there was no head-plate and the bow is slighter
than usual and the central ridge is unbeaded.
The first three brooches are standard uninscribed brooches of the "AVCISSA" pattern. The fourth is
obviously related, but lacks a head-plate and its section is distinctly flat compared with those of the
previous three, but it may a mistake to assume that it must be a late product. This group of brooches lies
at the end of a development beginning with the Alesia (Duval 1974). This has a rolled-under head and the
earliest recognisable brooches of the "Aucissa" family still have this and had come into being by the last
two decades of the first century BC (e.g. Fingerlin 1972, 217, Abb. 8, 3-7). The rolled-over head had
developed by AD 15-25 as two examples from Skeleton Green show (Mackreth 1981, 140, figs. 71-72,
50, 52). As yet, no Aucissa of the named type has been published from a definite pre-Conquest deposit in
this country: one in the King Harry Lane cemetery came from an unphased burial (Stead & Rigby 1989,
fig. 163, g.362.2). The distribution alone of the type in Britain is enough to show that the last survivors
were entering the ground c 55-60.
81 BAL-12 1987 u/s SF <B111> The head-plate has the same design as those of Brooches 77-79,
but is more neatly made. The upper bow has four beaded ridges, there being a flute between the
outer pairs and a cast chevron down the middle. The top of the lower bow has a basic repeat of the
head-plate pattern, the bead-rows being replaced by grooves. The rest of the lower bow is narrow
with a rounded front. The profile is well arched at the top, but is slacker lower down.
82 BAL-1 F617 SF <4668> The head-plate has two buried ridges on either side of a flute, that next to
the bow being beaded, which has a small cut-out at each end. The upper bow has a wide central
flute and, in each border, a cast chevron. The bottom is stopped by a cross-flute projecting on each
side. The lower bow is very thin and ends in the usual foot-knob.
Both of these brooches belong to designs which runs parallel with the main Aucissa sequence, but which
is much less common. A precursor of 81 occurs at Dangstetten (Fingerlin 1972, 217, Abb. 8, 3) and the
basic pattern of 82 is also as early as the flute down the middle is found with beading on each side,
feather stamps on the head-plate and a rolled-under head: the feather stamps can be dated to the last
two decades of the first century BC as they are found at Dangstetten (ibid., 217, Abb. 8, 6, 7). The
problem with these two is that there are so few specimens that their full date-range is hard to see, but the
only two of this basic pattern with dates from Augst show that they were in production and use in the
period 20-50 (Riha 1979, 118-9, Taf. 25, 681, 682). One like 82 comes from an unphased grave at King
Harry Lane (Stead & Rigby 1989, fig 116, g.158.2), but should still date to before 50 (see after Brooch
35). There is also the possibility that they had ceased to be made, and therefore their survival-in-use
ended earlier than the Aucissa, perhaps no later than c 55. Feugère discusses the degree of curvature in
the profiles of brooches deriving from the Alesia. He suggests that it is only in the latest types that the
profile is well rounded (Feugère 1985, 325-8). On this basis, 81 is earlier than the named Aucissa, but
there is always the possibility that differing profiles belong to differing workshops and has little
chronological significance.
83 BAL-1 1984 [2273] SF <7823> The head-plate is reduced to the central flute and a buried bead-
row next to the bow. The bow has a repeat of the design on Brooch 81, but with the central chevron
replaced by a wavy ridge formed by distorting a straight one by alternate circular punch marks. On
each side of the bow are three small equally-spaced projections. At the top of the lower bow, which
has a rounded front, is a simplified version of the head-plate.
84 UWC SF <1056> There is no head-plate. The upper bow is reduced to a beaded border on each
side and a plain but wide ridge down the middle. On each side are 5 equally-spaced projections.
The lower bow has a cross-moulding at the top and tapers to the now missing foot-knob.
85 172.1980 SF <1072> The head-plate has been reduced to a cross-flute beneath a poorly shaped
cut-out. The upper bow has a sunken bead-row on each side of a wide flute. On each side are four
equally-spaced projections. The lower bow is missing.
These three brooches show three varying sections: that of the Aucissa, a flute down the middle and a
flute on either side of a non-beaded centre. The other feature is the series of small projections down each
side. Whether these are devolved versions of the habit of placing iron rods through the bow in order to
mount knobs (Hull 1961, 176-179) is not certain: the designs which have iron rods are all close in many
152
ways to varieties of Hod Hill, whereas those with projections are closer to the Aucissa family with very few
being definitely like a Hod Hill (e.g. Stead & Rigby 1986, 120, fig. 120, 123). In other words, it is almost as
though the majority with iron rods are later than those like the three brooches here. However, there are
members of the Aucissa family with iron bars (e.g. Hull 1961, 177, fig. 33, 2) mostly with divided bows in
which knobs are placed in the slots (e.g. Niblett 1985, 116, fig. 75, 29).

Figure 66: Aucissa brooches and variant (actual size)

At Augst, more of those with iron bars through them have dates than those without. The latter only
manage one from a Tiberian context and two from contexts whose pottery runs from Augustan times to
the fourth century (Riha 1979, 121, Taf. 28, 733-738). The former have six spanning the first half of the
first century, one being Tiberian (ibid., 122, Taf. 28, 739-751). Bearing in mind that there was a high
residual factor in the material from Augst, there is a very low one in this general group suggesting that
those dating to the middle first century are the last survivors. Feugère is inclined to give the group to the
period 10-60 (Feugère 1985, 324). The origin of the projections, whether plain or applied, may well lie in
the Alesia in which the foot was pierced to take a rod which carried a knob on each side (e.g. ibid., pl.
111, 1433, 1438; pl. 112, 1450) and there is a version of the Alesia-Aucissa sequence with a rolled-under
head, a sign of being early, which has applied knobs attached to projections (ibid., pl. 137, 1712).
The British dating for both plain projections and applied knobs on forms akin to the Aucissa is: Bagendon,
three examples, 20/25-43/45 (Hull 1961, 179, fig. 33, 2, 4, 7); Maiden Castle, 25-70 (Wheeler 1943, 262,
153
fig. 85, 30); Bagendon three examples, 43/45-47/52 (Hull 1961, 177, fig. 33, 1, 3, 5); Colchester, 43/44-48
(Hawkes & Hull 1947, 323, pl. XCVII, 139); Richborough, 50-80, but most of the pottery was pre-Flavian
(Bushe-Fox 1949, 110, pl. XXVI, 11); Colchester, the Sheepen, 54-60 (Niblett 1985, 116, fig. 75, 29);
Silchester, 65-120 (Cotton 1947, 143, fig. 7, 4); Harlow Temple, before 120 (France & Gobel 1985, 77,
fig. 39, 24). Those which are later than the mid-second century have been omitted as they are obviously
residual. The bias of the evidence is remarkably similar to that yielded by Augst: c 25 to 55-65, although
the terminal date may actually be closer to 45/50.

Variant
86 SF <399> The rolled-over head butts a beaded cross-ridge. At the top of the upper bow is a
prominent flared moulding. The upper bow has three cross-mouldings at either end of an almost
rectangular sectioned part having a buried bead-row down the middle. Through this part are the
remains of three iron rods for applied knobs, now missing. The lower bow also has an almost
rectangular sectioned part with two iron bars through it. The foot-knob is of the usual two-parts and
integral with the bow. The catch-plate has a very large piercing reducing the upper part to a frame.
The brooch was tinned or silvered.
The comment on Brooches 83-85 mentioned that the use of iron bars occurred mainly on brooches owing
rather more to the Hod Hill than to the Aucissa family. The British dating of all is: Puckeridge, Station
Road, c 25-Claudian (Mackreth 1979, 39, fig. 6, 12); Chichester, c 43 (Mackreth 1978, 282, fig. 10. 27,
40); Verulamium, King Harry Lane cemetery, Phase 3 (Stead & Rigby 1989, 334, fig. 132, g.233.3); Hod
Hill, three examples including a parallel for the present piece, before 50 (Brailsford 1962, 9, fig. 9, C59,
C66, C80); Puckeridge, Station Road, 40-65 (Mackreth 1979, 38, fig. 6, 11). A range of 30-55/60 would
cover all of these.

Hod Hills
These frequently betray their origin in the Aucissa, and the variants of that, and the sequence given here
shows how far removed from the original the designs can become. Only Brooch 109 has the separately-
made foot-knob to be found on types intermediate between the "Aucissa" proper and the full Hod Hill.
Most have versions of the original foot-knob (see Brooch 77) applied to the front of the lower bow.
87 SF <5517> The upper bow has a prominent cross-cut central spine and a ridge on each border.
The lower bow has a rounded front and tapers to a simple projecting foot.
88 BAL-1 F459 SF <4099> The upper bow has, between a cross-moulding top and bottom, a buried
bead-row down the middle and a ridge down each side. The lower bow has a rounded front and
tapers to the foot-knob. The front of the brooch is well enough preserved to show all of it was
tinned or silvered except for but that the side flutes on the upper bow.
89 UWC SF <1073> Only part of the upper bow survives. It has a broad ridge down the middle and a
smaller one on each border all beaded. There is a very small wing on each side of the top.
90 UWC SF <1067> Most of the upper bow with the head is missing. The upper bow is a repeat of
Brooch 89 with two cross-mouldings below. The lower bow has a flat front and tapers to the usual
foot-knob with an extra cross-moulding above.
91 BAL-2 1982 north spoil heap SF <3197> The upper bow has a long cross-moulding at the top
and three ordinary cross-mouldings below. Between, there is a wide central ridge and a smaller
one on each edge. The lower bow is narrow, round-fronted and tapers to the foot-knob.
92 SF <1070> The top of the upper bow is missing. The upper bow has three beaded ridges down the
middle, the beads in the middle being large, with a flute down each side and is stopped at the
bottom by a flute and then a long beaded cross-moulding. The lower bow is flat, wide at the top and
tapers to a simplified foot-knob.
These six brooches are the closest in this collection to the Aucissa. Their distribution is confined within
the early boundary of the Province except for two at Wroxeter which should not have arrived there before
55/60 and one at Corbridge (Bishop & Dore 1988, 159, fig. 76, 1). Apart from that, a terminal date of
about 60 would be appropriate.
93 SF <1068> The upper bow is narrow with a well rounded front between triple cross-mouldings
above and below. The lower bow is narrow, also round fronted and has straight sides down to the
foot-knob.
94 BAL-1 1982 SF <3268> Basically a repeat of the last brooch, the upper bow is wider and the lower
bow has a taper to the foot.
95 BAL-11 1980 topsoil near Wallington Road SF <58a> The top of a brooch similar to the last two
except for the flat front of the upper bow which has a groove down each side.

154
96 BAL-1 F537 SF <4425> The upper bow has a deep flute. The lower bow has two cross-mouldings,
separated by a waist from each other, above the foot-knob. The tinned or silvered finish is applied
only to the head, the sides of the upper bow, and the lower bow.
97 SF <8113> The upper bow has a flat front face, with a wavy line carried out in punched dots,
chamfered sides and a thin ridge across its top and bottom. The lower bow has a rounded front and
tapers to a simple foot-knob. The whole is tinned or silvered.
98 BAL-12 1983 spoil heap 2 SF <6201> The upper bow has four ridges, the two inner ones being
beaded. Attached to each bottom corner is a wing made up of a flute and a boss. The lower bow is
a flat truncated lozenge with a small cross-moulding at the top, traces of punched-dot decoration
and the foot-knob. The tinned or silvered finish was not applied to the head, the side flutes of the
upper bow and the flutes above and below the lower bow.
99 BAL-2 1982 F306 (4) SF <3623> The upper bow has four thin vertical beaded ridges divided by
flutes and tapers towards the base. Attached to each top corner is a wing, consisting of a boss
rising from a moulding, and a very small projection at the bottom corners. The lower bow has two
cross-mouldings at the top of a tapering flat plate, with a groove down one side. There are traces of
tinning or silvering.
100 BAL-23 surface find SF <1105> The squat upper bow is wide with four thin vertical beaded ridges
and may have had a wing on each side. Above and below is a cross-moulding. The tapering lower
bow is flat The foot-knob is missing.
101 SF <1473> The upper bow repeats that of the previous brooch and has on each side a wing ending
in a boss. The lower bow has an extra pair of cross-mouldings. The foot-knob is a squashed
version of the usual pattern.
102 UWC 1980 survey area 6 SF <1086> The upper bow is short and wide, has a central beaded
ridge, a wide flute between that and two ridges on each border with a short wing near the bottom
corner. The lower bow is made up of three pairs of cross-mouldings with a wide flute between. The
foot-knob has cross-mouldings above it. The brooch was tinned or silvered.
103 SF <1077> The upper bow is again short and wide. In the centre is a wavy line made by distorting
a straight ridge with a punch. On either side is a pair of plain ridges divided by narrow flute with a
wide flute running out to a thin bordering ridge. Attached to one top corner is a simple wing. Above
and below the panel is a pair of cross-mouldings. The rest is lost.
104 BAL-12 1987 [2748] SF <B112> The upper bow has a central buried beaded ridge and each side
sweeps out to a wing ending in a version of a foot-knob. Above and below are two cross-
mouldings, the outer one being prominent. The lower bow has a panel of three cross-mouldings.
The bulbous foot-knob has an extra cross-moulding above.
105 SF <1066> A simplified version of the last brooch: only the upper pair of cross-mouldings is
present, the central ridge appears to be plain and the wing on each side is narrower. The lower
bow has a rounded front and tapers to the foot-knob.
106 UWC SF <1075> The upper bow has a thin central ridge lying in a broad flute. There are traces of
cross-mouldings above. On one side is an excrescence with two vertical ridges at the bottom of
which is a small wing with a boss at the end. The lower bow has three cross-mouldings. The foot is
missing.
107 SF <3230> The upper bow splays outwards the bottom. It has a ridge on each edge and a flute
with beaded borders between that and the centre where there is a well rounded face. Above are
two cross-mouldings and three below, with the top one being beaded. There is a bossed wing with
a beaded basal moulding attached to each bottom corner. The lower bow has a rounded front and
a slight taper to the foot-knob. The catch-plate has a small circular hole with part of an annular
groove formed by the punch.
108 BAL-2 1982 F593 SF <4610> The upper bow is largely a version of the previous one, the taper
being in the reverse direction, with a flute with beaded edges on each side and the wing on the
upper corner. The point of the triangle is truncated by a horizontal panel with a central broad ridge
and a beaded border on each side. Under the panel is a shorter rounded cross-ridge above a
thinner one. The lower bow is relieved at the top, has an arris down the centre and tapers to the
foot-knob. The brooch was tinned or silvered.

155
Figure 67: Hod Hill brooches, 1 (actual size)
No Hod Hill has yet been shown convincingly as having come from a pre-Conquest context. One from
Baldock was assigned to the first quarter of the first century AD (Stead & Rigby 1986, 120, fig. 47, 112),
but this must be a mistake as it would then predate its parent. Another was found at Skeleton Green in a
context assigned to the pre-flood deposits, but which was not itself sealed by that (Mackreth 1981, 141-2,
fig. 72, 55). Although one strand appears to have continued to be made on the continent, and ultimately
became decorated with enamel, none of the Hod Hills here belongs to it. The dating of Hod Hills is best

156
shown by their distribution: they are confined to the lands belonging to the early Province up to about 60,
hardly any come from the lands taken into the Province in the early 70s and almost all must have passed
out of use by 60-70.
109 BAL-17 1980 R17 (1) SF <33> The bow has a central rounded ridge and a bold border ridge all
tapering to the separately-made foot-knob. Across the top is a prominent flared cross-moulding.
The catch-plate has a fairly large circular hole. The whole was once tinned or silvered.
The chief difference between this brooch and all the others classified as Hod Hills is that the bow is not
divided into two parts. It could have derived from the Langton Down and there is a small group which
appears to show this very clearly (e.g. Bushe-Fox 1949, 112, pl. XXVII, 21; Boon 1969, 47, fig. 6, 5; Frere
1972, 116, fig. 30, 20), but, as it shares the head-plate and the foot-knob either of the Aucissa or of the
Hod Hill itself, its dating should also be the same.

Fragments and Oddments

110 Not illustrated. BAL-1 [1040] SF <7202> Only the lower bow, with a flat front face, and the usual
foot-knob survives.
111 UWC SF <7782> The head only of a Hod Hill brooch broken above the upper bow.
112 SF <4671> A complete diminutive brooch whose pin is mounted like those above. The front of the
brooch is flat with a central groove near the top. The division between upper and lower bows is
marked by a narrowing in the sides. There is no foot-knob. The whole was tinned or silvered.
113 UWC SF <7783> Only the lower part of the brooch survives. All that is left of the upper bow is the
very bottom with no sign of how it might have been decorated. The lower bow is flat and tapers to a
bulbous separately-made foot-knob.

Figure 68: Hod Hill brooches, 2 (actual size)

The comments made after Brooch 108 apply here, except perhaps for Brooch 112, which is relatively
crude and it is not necessarily the case that it is its size which accounts for this. Whether or not it is truly a
Hod Hill or a native imitation, its date should be the same as for that type.

Plate
Brooches 114-122 have hinged pins mounted between pierced lugs.
114 SF <1112> The plate is a concave-sided lozenge each of whose points has a groove ending in a
bifurcated terminal formed of two lobes. In the centre is a circular recess in which is a beaded
annular ridge and a hole in the middle for a stud.
115 SF <1100> The plate is crescent-shaped. One point is lost, the other is bifurcated like the terminals
on Brooch 114 and there is a similar circular recess, but with an extra plain annular ridge round the
hole itself. Around the outer periphery are three equally-spaced lobes.

157
116 BAL-1 F442 (1) SF <3781> The remains of the plate are circular with a similar circular recess as
that on Brooch 114. On each side is a lobe and opposite the main broken edge is the base of a
protuberance.
117 BAL-1 u/s SF <4625> The plate is essentially circular. Around the edge are ten conjoined
semicircular lobes outlined with punched dots and with a another in the middle. The lobes rise from
a circular groove. In the centre of the plate, the circular recess has a plain annular ridge. In the
zone between the recess and the groove are three punched-dot motifs each made up of a central
line, with a pair of punched dots at the top, from whose base rise two scrolls.
These four brooches belong to a large family in which the bifurcated terminals and the annular ridge in
the sunken circular recess are the chief characteristics. The dating has recently been reviewed and the
floruit in Britain is apparently from the Conquest at least to c 60 with the possibility that one or two may
have arrived before 43 (Mackreth 1996, 319-20).

Figure 69: Plate brooches (actual size)

158
118 BAL-2 1982 F217 (7) SF <3652> The circular plate has seven of its of eight equally-spaced lobes,
each with dot-and-circle motif, surviving. In the centre of the plate is a circular plate, outlined by two
grooves, held in place by four short arms meeting four arcs rising from the outer bordering plate to
form an openwork concave equal-armed cross design. In the centre is the spike for a stud.
This brooch almost certainly belongs to the same family as the last group, and it is unlikely to have had a
different date-range.
119 BAL-1 F617 SF <4667> The circular plate has a small hole in the middle and three grooves near
the edge. Five of six equally-spaced projections survive.
120 BAL-1 F468 SF <4200> A repeat of the last brooch, but smaller and with only one bordering
groove.
These may also be related to the main family above and they are unlikely to have a different floruit.
121 BAL-10 u/s SF <7164> There is a single pierced lug for a bilateral spring. The plate represents a
beast of prey catching a smaller animal. The brooch is very small and the eyes are only slight
depressions. Both animals bound to the right and the surface is tinned or silvered. Strips of niello
inlay on the predator suggest that it was intended to represent a tiger, but those on the victim do
not lead easily to its identity.
122 SF <7589> The plate is shaped into a crescent ending in outward-facing bird‟s heads. Each beak is
a point and the eye, occupying all the head, consists of a circular depression with a small boss in
the middle. Between the heads is a circular dished feature. The face of the brooch is tinned or
silvered.
Brooch 121 can be assigned to Feugère‟s Atelier C (Feugère 1985, 388-393; Type 29a, figs. 59-60, 14b,
15-18, 20; Type 29b, fig. 61, 2-5, 7-9). The chief characteristics are the small size, the relatively careful
modelling, the silvered finish and the use of niello. The distribution of the hare-at-rest (ibid., fig. 64, Type
29a14b) suggested to Feugère that that design at least was made in or around Alesia (ibid., 389) and it
seems inherently unlikely that other designs belonging to Atelier C were made in different centres. The
dating given by Feugère to the group is the last two thirds of the first century. Dated examples in Britain
are very uncommon; Waddon Hill, Stoke Abbott, Dorset, a crouched hare of Feugère‟s Type 29a14b, c
50-60/65 (Webster 1960, 97, fig. 7, 23); Baldock, almost the same as 121, 50-70 (Stead & Rigby 1986,
122, fig. 49, 152). The general lack of examples, coupled with the kind of site from which they come, may
give a sign of what the true floruit in Britain is: Baldock, two examples (see above and 121); Canterbury
(see above); Cirencester (excavations, unpublished); Cranwich, Norfolk (private collection); Gloucester,
Kingsholm*, (excavations, unpublished); Waddon Hill* (see above); Wicklewood, Norfolk (private
collection). The two marked * came from obviously military sites, while the one from Cirencester probably
did as well. The ones in Norfolk may represent activity after Boudica‟s time, but on the whole, the lack of
overtly military sites of the first twenty years of the conquest is noticeable. There is little to go on, but no
pre-Conquest date can be proposed for any in Britain and a terminal date of 60-70 would suit the rest.
Brooch 122 is much harder to deal with. The design is unusual, but the disc may be the main feature
relating this brooch to others of different designs. In which case, a group at Augst may be pressed into
service (Riha 1979, 198, Taf. 66, 1700-1706). Only one had a reasonable date and that was 50-75 (ibid.,
No 1701): a brooch at a later date should have been larger and probably enamelled.
123 SF <2911> The sprung pin was mounted on an axis bar between two pierced lugs. The plate is
circular and recessed partly for enamel. In the centre is an empty circular cell. Around that is a
broad band of green enamel in which is reserved six dot-and-circle motifs containing green enamel
of a different tone.
124 SF <A1596> The bilateral spring was mounted on a single pierced lug. The oval plate has, around
the central raised cell containing an almost black glass gem, two zones divided by a slight ridge. In
the inner zone is a line of partly overlapping stamps. Each consists of an elongated sunken
element with rounded ends containing a small boss, down one side are three sunken triangles in a
line. The intended effect may have been to create a bound wreath of leaves. An S-shaped stamp
was used in the outer zone to form a continuous scroll. The bordering ridge has a groove along its
top edge in which there is a line of widely spaced circular punch marks. The front of the brooch is
gilded and the back tinned or silvered.
Brooch 123 belongs to a large group of brooches once fitted with applied silver trim. The designs include
the precursor of Brooch 124. The dating of the use of silver trim on Plate brooches, and of the gilded
series which derived from the general school, has recently been reviewed: the enamelled and appliqué
silver series is second century, not necessarily before 125, probably running into the early third; the gilded
series belongs to the third century and appears to have passed out of use c 250/275 (Mackreth 196, 304-
5, fig 94, 18; 320-2, fig 99, 79-81).

159
Penannulars
125 BAL-1 1983 F609 SF <5500> The ring has an oval section thickening towards the terminals. Each
of these consists of two butted pairs of beaded ridges joined by a wide flute, with an extra beaded
moulding at the end. The pin is bowed with the centre and the end being straight.
Although moulded-disc terminals are known, no coherent group emerges and only the most general
dating can be offered. In general, the period during which Penannular brooches have the most varied
designs is the first and second centuries. After then, the terminals tend to be turned back along the
surface of the ring and it is only with very late Roman and Post-Roman brooches that other patterns begin
to emerge and 125 does not belong to any of these.
126 BAL-1 1980 F5 (1) SF <410> The ring has a circular section. Each terminal is turned back along
the surface of the ring and has cross-grooves, two on one and three on the other. The brooch was
cold forged from folded sheet metal.
The terminals give little hint about the date and the fact that they are unequal shows that the number of
cross-grooves has little chronological significance. The method of manufacture is no help either as both
early and late ones could be made in this way. There is, however, nothing to suggest that the brooch
should be Late Roman and a basic date covering the first, second and part of the third century may be
appropriate.
127 SF <7975> The pin from a penannular brooch. Forged from rolled or folded sheet metal.

Figure 70: Penannular brooches (actual size)

Fragments
128 BAL-1 1981 F2 (2) SF <1409> Iron. The object is in the form of a stout bow with a marked recurve
for the foot. The other end splays out and behind is what might have been either a lug or the
beginning of a spring. Not certainly a brooch, but not obviously anything else either.
129 Not illustrated. BAL-1 u/s SF <7503> Iron. A carefully made arc with a thick section with a flange
on each side behind. One end is lost and the other end is damaged and has a lug surviving on one
side. The object can be reconstructed as a brooch having a hinged pin mounted between two lugs,
but how the point of the pin was held is not clear.
Although superficially like a brooch of Hull and Hawkes‟ Groups B and C, there is nothing quite like this in
that corpus (Hull & Hawkes 1987) and certainly not with a hinged pin.
130 BAL-1 1983 F557 (5) SF <5523> Iron. A wide strip curved in profile and tapering towards the foot
which is missing. The top of the catch-plate only is present. There is no sign of how the pin may
have been held, but the head appears to be beginning to roll-under suggesting a hinged pin.
131 BAL-1 u/s SF <6109> All that remains is the fantail foot of a brooch belonging to an unidentified
type. However, fantail feet like this are unlikely to be either earlier than c AD 50 or later than c 175.
132 BAL-1 [1159] SF <7356> Iron. Most of the bow with a thin rectangular section. The beginning of
the spring-fixing arrangement is present, but its form is uncertain without having an X-ray.
133 BAL-1 F18 (1) SF <288> Iron. Again most of the bow, but the section is a little indeterminate. What
remains of the top of the bow suggests that it had narrowed to form a spring, but this is not certain.

160
Figure 71: Fragments (actual size)
134 BAL-1 1980 F34 (4) SF <596> Iron. The lower bow and catch-plate of a brooch. The bow section
may have been round.
135 BAL-1 1980 F15 (1) SF <294> Iron. The lower bow and catch-plate of a brooch. The bow has
corroded to a point: its section is likely to have been circular.
136 Not illustrated. SF <1186> Iron. Two complete coils of a spring with no good sign of the beginning
of a pin, or junction with a bow, or the start of a chord.
137 Not illustrated. BAL-1 F473 SF <4296> The pin, seven coils and the beginning of the chord from
either a Colchester or one of its Derivatives, most probably the latter.
138 BAL1 1980 topsoil SF <48> The chord and four coils probably from a Colchester Derivative.
139 BAL-9 1983 F691 SF <6051> Part of a pin and two coils of pin.
140 BAL-13 1982 (1) SF <6235> A pin with a loop at the top. The latter is almost certainly part of a
spring. The object was forged.

161
141 BAL-9 1983 F687 SF <6015> Pin with beginning of spring.
142 BAL-1 1982 F593 SF <4614> As the last. Forged from rolled or folded sheet.
143 UWC F462 SF <4126> As the last and made the same way.
144 Not illustrated. UWC 991.1980 As the last.
145 BAL-1 1982 F518 (1) SF <4362> Pin showing by its characteristically curved profile that it had
come from a brooch. Forged.
146 BAL-1 [2172] SF <7579> As the last.
147 BAL-28 1985 [2928] SF <8619> Iron. A fragment of pin.
148 BAL-13 1982 SQ5 As the last and a piece of plate.
149 BAL-1 1980 F18 (7) SF <792> A fragment of pin.
150 BAL-2 1982 F217/F249 (2) SF <3365> A hinged pin. The loop is to one side of the main axis and
there is a projection below on the same side.
151 BAL-1 SF <7437> As the last.
152 BAL-4 1981 F184 (4) SF <2393> As the last but with a damaged projection.
153 BAL-10 1983 F712 SF <6098> Another hinged pin but with the head hammered out to one side
with the hole at the top and the edge of the plate spaying out before returning to the pin.
154 BAL-2 1982 F341 (1) SF <3801> As the last, but very small.

Objects
155 Survey area 6 SF <1085> In the form of a hollow square dome, there is a hole in the middle and a
flanged stamped border. The stamp consists of an annular groove. The front was gilded. Fairly
obviously a fitting of some kind, there is no guarantee that this is Roman. The gilding and the use
of stamps are reminiscent of Brooch 124.
Although no other object which could be associated with the workshop producing these relatively
common Romano-British brooches are known to the writer, it is unlikely that a craftsman would have
confined his output to a single class of objects. If the association is correct, this item may be dated
basically to the first half of the third century.
156 BAL-13 u/s SQ6 A plate, with a bordering groove, has a triangular cut-out on each side creating a
rectangular panel at one end. At the other end are two strong cross-mouldings divided by a flute
beneath which is a pendant tipped by a nib. Behind the main plate are two studs, one above the
other, and a projecting plate, curved in plan, behind the cross-mouldings. Probably a piece of
Roman military equipment dating to the first century.
157 BAL-1 [1363] SF <7765> Iron. A piece of bar with a rectangular section: part of a nail?

Figure 72: Miscellaneous objects (actual size)

162
The brooches from BAL-15 and BAL-48
D F Mackreth [1990, revised 2005]
All are of a copper alloy, unless otherwise stated.

Colchesters
Both had or have the bilateral integral spring and external chord held by a forward-facing hook typical of
the type.
158 BAL-15 1989 [8016] SF <A5018> Very heavily corroded with almost all the surface lost, enough
survives for the ornament on the wings and bow to be assured, as well as the section of the latter.
The hook is broken. Each wing was fluted, these lying parallel with the sloped sides of the
hexagonal-sectioned bow which had a recess down the middle. In this lay a ridge distorted by a
punch to produce a wavy line. The damaged catch-plate retains traces of two rectangular piercings.
159 BAL-15 1986 [4221] SF <9951a> The hook is moderately long with a concave recess in its profile.
The end of the hook has two grooves. Each wing is long and finely grooved vertically. The bow is
covered with corrosion products. The catch-plate is small and had two small circular holes.
These two brooches appear to stand at or near the opposite ends of the Colchester sequence: Brooch
159 can be shown to be at the very end, and it is the profile and general size of Brooch 158 which points
to the earlier end. The use of ornament on both wings and bow is unusual, these two being almost
invariably mutually exclusive. All those noted by the writer are large. The only really reliable dating comes
from the King Harry Lane cemetery (Stead & Rigby 1989): phase 2, G42.2, G231.4; phase 3, G205.4,5.
The other dating available to the writer is limited: Bancroft, mid-late first century (Mackreth 1994, 287, fig.
131, 5); Verulamium, c 50-75 (Wheeler & Wheeler 1936, 207, fig. 44, 20); Colchester, 54-60 (Niblett
1986, 116, fig. 73, 10, M3, C4). One feature which may have a bearing on the date is the presence on a
few of a cast wavy line, or chevron, in place of the hand-formed one (Butcombe, Som, excavations P J
Fowler; Market Deeping, Lincs, private collection; Salisbury Museum, 32.50; Scunthorpe Museum, Rom.
30). The tendency in manufacture runs from one in which the whole brooch is basically forged from a
blank to one in which the basic brooch is produced in a mould and then hand-finished. This can be
detected in gross terms, but there is little guidance over when the change may have begun. The brooch
from Grave 42 in the King Harry Lane cemetery noted above has, according to the illustration, a cast
chevron and that may be a valuable pointer: it could show that the introduction of proper moulds lies in
the period 20-40 which may mean that the older practice of forming wavy lines by using a punch was on
its way out in the same period. But, of course, this is the indication from a specialized environment, the
other dated examples assembled above suggest that such brooches should go on in use to the third
quarter of the first century.
The published dating of the phases in the cemetery is not entirely secure. While the earliest likely date for
the cemetery is admitted to be 15 BC (Stead & Rigby 1989., 83), the authors preferred a more
conservative scheme: Phase 1, AD 1-40; Phase 2, 30-55; Phase 3, 40-60; Phase 4, 60+ (ibid., 84). Over
half the burials should therefore be statistically later than the Roman conquest. However, the samian
report (ibid., 113) says that it is surprising for there to be only six vessels: three are earlier than 25, none
date to 25-50, two are dated 45-65 and the last is much later. Looking at the published dating, it is also
surprising is that there is only one Colchester Derivative (G316,4) and no fully formed Hod Hill, both types
well represented in Verulamium scarcely 500 metres away. If the dating is, however, taken back to 15
BC, most of the problem is removed and the following ranges are suggested: Phase 1, 15 BC-AD 30;
Phase 2, 20-40; Phase 3, 35-50/55; Phase 4, 45+. Most of the burials would then become pre-conquest.
The end-date of 50/55 for Phase 3 was arrived at by using general evidence for the dating of Colchesters
and is generally applicable to the present brooches as they would be subject to the same rules of
residuality governing all material not melted down or otherwise removed from a normal site assemblage.
This appears in the dating given for parallels to Brooch 158. In the case of such a specialised collection
like that from King Harry Lane, the writer would be happier with a terminal date for Phase 3 of 40/45. This
should mean an adjustment in the phases before then, but no suggestions are made here.
Another aspect of the dating in the King Harry Lane cemetery could perhaps be looked at with profit. Most
of the pottery was either of the native grog-tempered fabric or was of imported wares of largely pre-
conquest traditions. The small amount of samian raises few difficulties, but the development of what may
be described as romanising wares can raise chronological problems. Two may be mentioned: kiln-fired
silty wares and very sandy wares characteristic of the Verulamium Region (ibid., 192-200). The first can
be defined as being both earlier than the second, given as beginning c 55 (ibid., 195, 197-198), and the
probable precursor of that. The impression is that the ware is always post-conquest (ibid., 194) and,
therefore, the brooches found with it should be a valuable guide as to what was still available for
deposition. The brooches occurring with the silty wares, all as it happens of Phase 3, are: G14, a
standard Augustan-Tiberian Rosette; G37, two Colchesters and the foot possibly of a late Langton Down;
G106, a large iron Colchester; G135, an iron Colchester; G117, two more Colchesters, and a Langton
163
Down; G153, a strange brooch reminiscent of a kind of brooch with a disc on the bow and a head like a
Hod Hill; G203, a flat plate Rosette; G315, a Nauheim Derivative; G460, an iron penannular. There are no
surprises here. Assuming that the time span is 45-55, the earliest type is the standard Rosette of which
there are so many in Phases 1 and 2. The larger number of Colchesters could almost be predicted. The
number of Langton Downs in relation to the full Rosettes conforms with other indications suggesting that,
on the whole, examples of the type lasted longer than the Rosette. The example in G203 is a late
Rosette. If the graves with Verulamium Region pottery are looked at, there are only two with brooches
and these are the late, small Colchesters: G28 and G431. This is a marked contrast with what has gone
before. Although activity in the cemetery had obviously fallen to a low ebb, only these two brooches occur
and we can turn to look at the evidence elsewhere to point to the time they were passing out of use.
Late Colchesters are marked out by their fairly standard proportions – long wings, short bows, and the
character of the catch-plate, the features which Brooch 2 here shares with the group. The dating of such
brooches is: King Harry Lane, Phase 3, 25-45 (ibid.,, 386, fig. 178, 450.5); Baldock, 25-50 (Stead & Rigby
1986, 112, fig. 43, 64); Skeleton Green, before 43 (Mackreth 1981, 136, fig. 68, 17); Colchester, 43-61
(Hawkes & Hull 1947, 310, pl. 90, 25); Colchester, after c 45 (ibid., 313, pl. 92, 63); Verulamium, c 49
(Frere 1972, 114, fig. 29, 5); North Cerney, Glos, 40-60 (Mackreth 1988, 45, fig. 21, 7); Verulamium, with
Claudian pottery (Wheeler & Wheeler 1936, 207, fig. 44, 23); Kelvedon, mid-first century (Rodwell 1988,
57, fig. 44, 18); Verulamium, 44-58 (Frere 1984, 21, fig. 5, 17); King Harry Lane, Phase 4, three
examples, 45-60 (Stead & Rigby 1989, 282, fig. 93, 28.5; 382, fig.176, 431.2, 3); Colchester, 49-61
(Hawkes & Hull 1947, 310, pl. 90, 28); Braughing, 55-100 (Olivier 1988, 42, fig. 19, 35); Canterbury,
Neronian (Frere et al. 1987, 185, fig. 65, 9); Longthorpe, Cambs., two examples, before 60/5 (Frere & St
Joseph 1974, 44, fig. 23, 4, 5); Colchester, 61-65 (Hawkes & Hull 1947, 310, pl. 91, 33); Baldock, mid-late
first century (Stead & Rigby 1986, 112, fig. 43, 63); Leicester, mid-late first century (Mackreth 1993, 139,
fig. 73, 3); Colchester, 61-c 65 (Hawkes & Hull 1947, 310, pl. 91, 32); Alton, Hants., early Flavian (Millett
1986, 64, fig. 25, 1); Wroxeter, Flavian (Atkinson 1942, 20-4, fig.36, H32). If these are arranged as a bar
chart by the initial date, 60-65 is the most likely time when late Colchesters had passed out of use. The
one at Wroxeter should not have arrived there before 55/60. Therefore, if such brooches are going out of
use in the period generally before 70, and possibly before 65, Brooch 158 should not have survived much
beyond 55 at the latest.

Colchester Derivatives
160 BAL-15 1986 [4575] SF <A56> The head and the catch-plate are missing. The bow has a flat
back, squared sides and a central flat front face relieved by a concave face on each side. At the
top, there is the end of a ridge on the central face.
Despite the lack of either the head or the catch-plate, the associations of this brooch are certain. It is a
member of a major group which was the direct successor of the Colchester in the home territory of that
type, although outliers are fairly numerous. There are few decorative varieties and there is some evidence
that it was produced in standard sizes. The few variations are bead and reel wings; one or two grooves
down the central phase in place of rocker-arm ornament; the hook continued as a ridge to the foot with, or
without, rocker-arm ornament on each side; a step down each side with a rounded centre having a
median groove.
The dating is: Verulamium, King Harry Lane cemetery, phase 3 (Stead and Rigby 1989, 354, G316.4);
Skeleton Green, probably before 43 (Mackreth 1981, 137, fig.69, 25); Colchester, 43-50/55 (Crummy
1983, 12, fig.6, 50), 43-61? (Hawkes & Hull 1947, 311, pl.91, 37), 49-61 (ibid., 310, pl.91, 36);
Verulamium, 49-60 (Frere 1972, 114, fig.29, 6); Kelvedon, mid-late first century? (Rodwell 1988, 57,
fig.44, 21); Bancroft, mid-late first century (Marney & Mackreth 1987, 129, fig.41, 10); Weekley,
Northants, mid-late first century, two examples (Jackson & Dix 1987, fig.23, 13, 14); Verulamium, before c
50 (Wheeler & Wheeler 1936, 207, fig.44, 22); Colchester, c 50/55 (Crummy 1983, 12, fig.6, 48); Baldock,
50-70 (Stead & Rigby 1986, 112, fig.44, 79); Derby, c 55-80/5 (Mackreth 1985, 281-3, fig.123, 1);
Verulamium, c 55-61 (Richardson 1944, 91, fig.4, 3), 60/61 (Frere 1984, 23, fig.6, 21); ; Colchester, 61-c
65, two examples (Hawkes & Hull 1947, 311, pl.91, 38, 39); Verulamium, 60-75 (Frere 1972, 114, fig. 29,
8); Baginton, Warks, 70-80 (Hobley 1967, 109, fig. 19, 6); Baldock, 70-90 (Stead & Rigby 1986, 112, fig.
44, 77); Nettleton, c 70-120 (Wedlake 1982, 125, fig. 52, 46); Chichester, Flavian (Mackreth 1978, 279,
fig. 10.26, 7); Springhead, 70-100 (Penn 1959, 48, fig. 9, 3); Fishbourne, c 75-80, two examples (Cunliffe
1971, 104, fig. 39, 31, 33); Verulamium, 75-95 (Frere 1984, 23, fig.6, 24); Harlow, before 80, four
examples (France & Gobel 1985, 78, fig.40, 50, 52, 57, 60); Richborough, 80-100 (Bushe-Fox 1926, 43,
pl. 12, 2), 80-120 (Bushe-Fox 1932, 77, pl. 9, 10); Gorhambury, first century and late first-early second
century (Neal et al. 1990, 118, fig.122, 31, 32); Chichester, late first century (Mackreth 1989a, 185, not
illus.); Leicester, late first-early second century (Buckley & Lucas 1987, 101, fig.42, 9); Baldock, 90-120
(Stead & Rigby 1986, 112, fig.44, 73); Chelmsford, 90-120/130, two examples (Drury 1988, 94, fig. 62, 7,
8); Verulamium, before c 125 (Stead & Rigby 1989, 17, fig. 10, 18). Any later than the early second
century have been omitted as they were clearly residual in their contexts. The dated examples arranged
as a bar chart show that the type should have come into being at or just before the conquest and are
164
progressively entering the ground until near the end of the first century. As there is a significant step in
the dating after c 85, it may be that that marks the true end of those which can be classified as survivors
in use.
161 BAL-15 1986 [4640] SF <A80> Burnt and distorted, the fragment almost certainly had a sprung pin
mounted on a pierced plate behind the head of the bow, the axis bar passing through the lower of
two holes, the chord being housed in the upper. A ridge at the top of the bow is part of a
skeuomorph Colchester hook (see Brooch 159). The bow has a flat back, parallel sides with a
bordering ridge, the centre is raised to form a triple ridge. The foot, with the catch-plate, is lost.
The basic section of the bow, along with the lack of a marked taper, married to the short and apparently
plain wings, place this brooch fairly close to the group to which the last one belongs. As there are no
useful close parallels, the same dating may be suggested, but with a shift forward at the beginning of
about ten years: the style seems unlikely to have lasted in use in to the second century.
Late La Tène
162 BAL-15 1989 [7944] SF <A4985> The broad head of the bow is covered with corrosion products
and hides the lugs for the hinged pin. The bow tapers to a point and has a central ridge with
another on each border and rounded faces between them. The catch-plate is solid,
Ostensibly belonging to Feugère‟s Type 7a, but for the hinged pin (Feugère 1985, 232-3), the way in
which the pin-fixing arrangement is hidden forms a useful connecting factor. Feugère dates the sprung-
pin type from the second half of the second century BC to about the third quarter of the first century BC
(ibid., 234). The proper type 7a brooch lacks decoration such as this which is much more closely related
to the Alesia end of the Alesia - Hod Hill sequence. The Alesia (Duval 1974) is the first brooch made north
of the Alps to use the hinged pin as a consistent feature, with the exception of the false spring system in
Iron Age Britain. The form of the Alesia‟s bow is very like that of the present example, but the foot turns
forward and is pierced to carry beads. Although that element is missing here, the decoration shows clear
signs of the emerging varieties ending with the Aucissa. The Alesia is dated from the middle to the latter
part of the first century BC (Feugère 1985, 306), by then the successor varieties were being made and it
may be doubted if any Alesia remained in use at the beginning of the present era. This suggests an
overlap between these two main types allowing items like the present one to evolve. All this, however, a
typological argument. The writer has come across no parallel and failing any other evidence, the use of
this kind of argument would tend towards a date in the second half of the first century BC.
Brooches 163-167 have or had integral springs with four-coil-internal-chord springs.
163 BAL-15 1989 [7842] SF <A5140> The spring was broken in antiquity and the loose part mounted
on an axis bar through the coils. The bow is broad at the top and tapers to a pointed foot. There is
a groove down each side and the catch-plate is solid.
164 BAL-48 1988 [6132] SF <B932> A repeat of the last, except for the spring which is missing.
These two brooches are Nauheims, but for the lack of a framed catch-plate: they both have the broad top
and triangular shape of the main type and both bear decoration, all be it minimal. Both are smaller than
the true Nauheim, and this may be relevant. The genuine Nauheim tends to have a slack profile and both
of these are basically straight. That alone points to the general style of brooches belonging to Augustan-
Tiberian times. While these two are correctly Nauheim Derivatives, they are difficult to date, as four-coil-
internal-chord brooches run on to near the end of the first century AD, by which time it can be difficult to
tell whether bow sections are either rectangular or rounded. There should be little doubt that there was a
continuous development, and the lack of good dating shows that most of it should be pre-conquest, the
difficulty is in demonstrating this.
The essence of a true and immediate descendant should be the presence of decoration on the bow, even
as simple as that here. Therefore, looking only at those with decoration, the dating is: Fox Holes Farm,
Little Amwell, Herts, N, 80 - 20 BC (Mackreth 1989c, 132, fig. 76, 5); King Harry Lane cemetery, N, Phase
1 (Stead & Rigby 1989, 354, fig. 154, G.317.4); Canterbury, 15-43 (Frere et al. 1987, 185, fig.65, 2);
Baldock, N, 25 - 50 (Stead & Rigby 1986, 109, fig.40,15); Chichester, pre-conquest, (Mackreth 1989a,
186-8, not illustrated); Durrington Walls, N, probably pre-conquest (Wainwright 1971, 324, fig. 105, 2);
Colchester, 43/44 - 48 (Hawkes & Hull 1947, 308, pl. 89, 5); Chichester, Claudian (Down 1978, 280,
fig.10.26, 17); Richborough, Claudian (Cunliffe 1968, 78, pl.27, 10); Chichester, 44 – Flavian, two
examples, one decorated as here (Down 1989, 186-8, not illustrated); Hod Hill, before 50, six examples
(Brailsford 1962, 7, fig. 7, C21-C25: Richmond 1968, 117-9; B.M. Guide, 16, fig.8.2); Weekley, Northants,
N, mid - late first century (Jackson & Dix 1974, fig. 22, 6); Baldock, 50 - 90 (Stead & Rigby 1986, 109, fig.
40, 17); Silchester, before 60 (Boon 1969, 47, fig. 6, 3); Chichester, pre-Flavian (Down 1989, 186-8, not
illustrated); Verulamium, pre-Flavian, two examples (Stead & Rigby 1989, 14, fig. 10, 1, 4); Richborough,
pre-Flavian (Cunliffe 1968, 78, pl. 26, 4); Fishbourne, 43 - c 75, eight examples, (Cunliffe 1971, 100, fig.
36, 4-6, 8, 9, 11-13); Chichester, Flavian, three examples, one N (Down 1978, 280, fig. 10.27, 21, Down
1981, 2567, fig.10.1, 7, and not illustrated); The Lunt, Baginton, before 70/75 (Hobley 1967, 111, fig. 19,
165
11); Gussage All Saints, before 75, four examples (Wainwright 1979, 111, fig. 86, 3014, 3032, 3046,
3055); Harlow, before 80 (France & Gobel 1985, 75, fig. 39, 1); Fawkham, Kent, N, before 100 (Philp
1963, 69, fig. 3.2). Those marked N have designs which are recognisably like those on the parent type.
Most are before 50 and two at least are pre-conquest. The one from Fox Holes Farm is important as it
probably shows that the first stage in the production of “derivative” brooches began by not bothering to
pierce catch-plates of small “Nauheims”, thus removing the one feature which marks the parent.
Otherwise, the dating is consistent: very few date after 75 and, allowing for the residual factor, almost all
had passed out of use before then. The group from Hod Hill could easily have derived from the Iron Age
occupation underlying the fort and those from Gussage All Saints also stand a good chance of being
much earlier than the assessed terminal date of the site. The present examples could, therefore, date to
the first half of the first century AD, if not to the last decades of the first century BC.
165 BAL-15 1989 [5995] SF <A3934> The lower bow is lost. The narrow bow has parallel sides, a flat
back and a rounded front with a groove down it.
Without the foot, there is little to be said: the groove down the centre is not a good diagnostic feature and
there is no real group with which this brooch can be associated. The date is, therefore, problematical in
the light of the comments made about the previous two. The brooch is better made than is usually the
case with those which can be placed after the conquest, but there are no grounds for making it, therefore,
early. A range from the earlier part of the first century AD into the latter part may be suggested.
166 BAL-15 1986 [4072] SF <9945> The spring is lost. The bow has a narrow rectangular section and
tapers to an almost pointed foot. The catch-plate is solid.
167 BAL-15 1986 SF <8961> The foot and catch-plate are missing. The bow is a piece of wire with a
squat oblong section.
These two brooches offer even less guide to close dating than the last one and the same range would be
appropriate.
168 BAL-2 1982 F312 L(1)/(2) SF <3507> Iron. In many bits, the catch-plate and bow are guaranteed.
The remaining pieces left over after re-assembling the bow and catch-plate, and their shape, point
to a spring system like that on the previous examples. The bow has a rectangular section. The
catch-plate has two piercings divided by a thin bar.
169 BAL-2 1981 F134 L(1) SF <1659> Iron. The foot and catch-plate only of a brooch. The bow has a
an almost square section. The catch-plate has four piercings arranged vertically and divided by thin
bars.
170 Not illustrated. BAL-1 1983 F602A SF <5897> Iron. Only the lower bow and catch-plate survives.
The bow had been broad, tapering to a small rounded end. Only the junction of the catch-plate with
the bow survives and shows traces of piercings arranged as those in Brooch 169.
These three brooches, all in iron and all showing elaborately pierced catch-plates, are almost certainly
pre-conquest, even if only one of them has a pin-fixing arrangement which can be tentatively identified.
An integral four-coil-internal-chord spring on Brooch 168, coupled with the type of rectangular section,
should place this brooch in the late first century BC into the earlier first century AD. A view of the iron
brooches with catch-plates similar to those of Brooches 12 and 13 in the King Harry Lane cemetery may
be the best guide to their dating: Phase 1, C ?G75,4, C? G123.3, G123.3, C G211.2, C G235.2, C 249.2,
2 x Stead G270.4,5, C G296.4; Phase 2, G143.4,5 (DD), C G420.4; Phase, 3, C G108.2, Stead G124.4.
For the dating of the phases, see after Brooch 159. In this list, “C” indicates a Colchester, and “Stead” the
kind of brooch associated with the Aylesford/Welwyn Cultures (Stead 1976). Phase 1 contains most of
the specimens: nine against two each in Phases 2 and 3. Therefore, the chances are that two at least of
the three brooches here should date to before AD 30 and the third to before AD 40. The case for Brooch
168 being before 25 is good and the straight profiles with the consequently narrow catch-plates of the
other two would also be better placed before then than after.
171 BAL-15 1989 [5962] SF <A3882> The separately-made spring is housed in a case formed by
closing round it two flaps cast on the head of the bow. The front of the case has two grooves on
each side. Between these are lines rough radiating from the bow which is separated from the case
by a cross-moulding. The bow has a shallow curve in profile and four pairs of ridges, separated by
flutes, down the front. There is too much corrosion accretion to see if there is any beading. The
bow is set off from a small elliptical platform in the middle of the disc at the bottom by a short, plain
bridge. There are two crescentic bands of beaded stamps round the base of the platform and,
outside these, the stumps of the usual pierced applied repoussé plate, the outer edge is damaged.
The fantail foot is lost, its outer edges marked on the back of the disc by grooves.

166
Figure 73: Brooches from BAL-15 and BAL-45, 1 (actual size)
This is a standard Augustan-Tiberian Rosette: the radiating lines, the fluted or reeded bow, the repoussé
plate, and the fantail foot being in one with the disc. Again, there is only one site which offers any useful
dating, the King Harry Lane cemetery (Stead & Rigby 1989). The following list includes those with a
lozenge-shaped plate in place of the disc, there seems to be little real difference between them until the
hinged pin arrives, when it is the circular disc which tends to be dominant: Phase 1, B G109.2; Phase 2, B
G53.3, G73.2-4, G218.5, G353.4; Phase 3, G14.3, B G9.8,9, B G15.4, G68.3, B G86.3-5, G118.5, B

167
G370.6,7. For the dating of the phases, see after Brooch 159. The message is clear, the form begins in
phase 1 and becomes increasingly common up to Phase 4 which, as there are so very few burials
assigned to it, not too much can be made of this. However, the numbers in Phase 3 show that it is then
that the type is actually going out of use. Very few should have remained in use after c 50, otherwise a
date before 45 in a cemetery may be better (see after Brooch 159 for the suggested real terminal date for
Phase 3 at King Harry Lane).
172 BAL-15 1986 [4172] SF <9915> The foot of a Langton Down brooch, there are remains of three
flutes separated by narrower ones with creased bottoms. The main ones have a deposit in them
which contrasts with the clean and polished patina in the rest. The catch-plate has the bottom of a
piercing.
There is no reason to suppose that this is not the foot of an ordinary reeded Langton Down and, again,
only the King Harry Lane cemetery (Stead & Rigby 1989) provides the necessary framework for
discussion. The dating of the phases was discussed under Brooch 159. The occurrence of the ordinary
Langton Down there: Phase 1, G71.3,4, G413.3,4; Phase 3, G41.3, G47.4, G68.5, G156.2-5, G184.2,
G370.5. The analysis was carried out using the published drawings: those with obvious beading have
been omitted as they are demonstrably earlier than the plain reeded type, therefore, the three brooches
listed as being in Phase 1 may be beaded, only the detail does not show in the drawing. Apart from that,
there is again an emphasis on Phase 3 and their apparent absence from Phase 2 is instructive: the ones
listed in Phase 1 should probably not be there, even so, the plain reeded version is late in the sequence.
There is a suspicion that the type continues beyond the date-range of the Rosette and it should be
worthwhile looking at the rest of the British evidence.
These will have been subjected to all the ordinary hazards of residuality and their dating is: Braughing, c
20 BC-AD 45, two examples (Olivier 1988, 45, fig.19, 37, 41); Baldock, 1-25 (Stead & Rigby 1986, 113,
fig. 45, 87); Colchester, 10-43, two examples (Hawkes & Hull 1947, 319, pl. 94, 94, 96), 43/44-61, two
examples (ibid., 319, pl. 94, 98, pl. 95,102), after c.48 (ibid.), early Claudian, three examples, (Hull 1942,
61, fig. 1, 51); Hod Hill, before 50 (Brailsford 1962, fig. 7, C29: Richmond 1968, 117-9); Colchester, 49-
61, two examples (Hawkes & Hull 1947, 319, pl. 94, 99, pl. 95, 101); Chichester, mid-first century
(Mackreth 1978, 286, fig. 10.28, 50); North Cerney, Glos, mid-first century (Mackreth 1988, 46, fig. 22,
15); Colchester, 54-60 (Niblett 1985, 116, fig. 74, 13, M3, C5); Prestatyn, 70s-160 (Mackreth 1989b, 97,
fig. 39, 22); Leicester, c 130 (Clay & Mellor 1985, 69, fig. 38, 6); Park Street, mid-second century (O'Neil
1945, 64, fig. 8, 3); Skeleton Green, 130-180 (Mackreth 1981, 141, fig. 71, 45); Shakenoak Farm, c 150
and later (Brodribb et al. 1968, 82, fig. 27, 6); Chichester, probably second century (Mackreth 1978, 286,
fig. 10.18, 51). The picture is remarkable: there are the few which can be demonstrated to be pre-
conquest, there are the many which occur in early Roman deposits ending c 60, and then there is a break
with a few occurring at ill-defined dates somewhere in the second century. All those which came from
later contexts have been ignored. The other feature here is that virtually every site has demonstrably
important pre-conquest occupation, therefore there is a high chance that many of those dated generally in
the range 43-60 are actually residual, having been transferred from earlier contexts by major works in that
period. The terminal date of 55/60 given to Phase 3 at the King Harry Lane cemetery on the basis of
Colchesters from other sites is very strongly supported by exactly similar evidence from other Langton
Downs.

Unclassified
173 BAL-2 1982 F464 (2) SF <4222> Iron. The axis bar of the hinged pin was housed in what is
probably the rolled-under head of the bow. The roll extends beyond the bow to form short wings.
The bow has a plan rectangular section. The foot and catch-plate are missing.
174 BAL-1 1982 F422 L(2) SF <3891> Iron. The axis bar of the hinged pin is housed in the rolled-over
head of the bow which is separated from the bow by two small and stubby wings. The bow is broad
at the top, with chamfered sides, and tapers to a pointed foot. The catch-plate was solid.
Both are of iron and have hinged pins. Normally, the head is usually rolled-under for the axis bar, but
Brooch 173 has a rolled-over head, it also has wings and that, along with its general form, show that it is
unrelated to the Strip type, which Brooch 174 is. The hinged-pin as such is at home in the south-west, but
is not at all common in the south-east or eastern parts of England. They do, however, occur in early
contexts, as two at the King Harry Lane cemetery show: Phase 2, G95.4; Phase 3, G179.2. For the dating
of the phases see after Brooch 159. Neither is a particularly close parallel for either of the present
specimens. The closest brooch to 173 recorded by the writer is one in copper alloy from Welton Wold,
Yorks (to be published), which is similarly sturdy with a rolled-over head, but has wings formed by the
projection of the head on either side of the bow. There is a bead-row across the top and the front and
catch-plate are heavily decorated. There is no date, but the fact that it has tinning or silvering probably
places it after the conquest. Otherwise, there is the occasional hinged-pin brooch like another, undated,
from Baldock (Brooch 2, above); another also from Baldock, without wings in a much cruder style, dated
50-70 (Stead & Rigby 1986, 120, fig. 48, 129); and yet another from Baldock, this time with a foot-knob
168
and without wings, dated 120-150 (ibid., 120, fig. 48, 127). Brooch 174 is too simple to be assigned
satisfactorily to any particular horizon, even though iron brooches on the whole tend to be pre-conquest.

Trumpet
175 BAL-15 1986 metal detector find The head is lost. The knob has the usual petalled form and is
separated from the lower bow by three cross-mouldings. The lower bow has a groove down each
side and an arris down the middle. The foot-knob is made up of three cross-mouldings.
Without the head, it can only be suggested that this fragment belongs to a standard Trumpet. The head
should have been plain, apart from a groove around its top, and the spring mounted on a single loop
behind the head. The dating of the type has recently been reviewed (Mackreth, forthcoming IN
COTSWOLD SMALL TOWNS) with results which show that it came into being between 50 and 75, and
no earlier as far as the evidence allows. Thereafter, the type in its various manifestations carried on in
production until the third quarter of the second century, the bulk of examples having been consigned to
the ground before 175. After then there is a dribble dating into the early third century and it is a moot point
as to how many of these were not residual and any dating to after c 225 must be residual. Of the 20
Trumpets from Castleford, all but 3 are dated and of the balance only three are later than c.200. The rest
fall as follows in general terms: 7 before 100, 4 are 100-140, 2 are 100-250 and 1 is 140-90. That 11 out
of sixteen should fall before 140 is surely enough to confirm the bias of the dating from the rest of the
(
country I give my thanks to Dr Hilary Cool, who very kindly sent me copies of the drawings and of her
report prior to publication).

Hod Hills
All have hinged pins whose axis bars are housed in the rolled-over heads of the bow.
176 BAL-15 1989 [6555] SF <A4301> The upper bow has a beaded ridge down the middle separated
by plain ridges on the borders by flutes. The lower bow is plain, flat-fronted and ends in a simple
foot-knob. The lower bow and head are tinned or silvered, but there is none on the upper bow.
177 BAL-15 1989 [6862] SF <A5012> The upper bow has a beaded ridge on either side of a flute. the
lower bow is like that of the last brooch, but with a rounded front.
178 BAL-15 1989 [5939] SF <A3852> The upper bow has broad bead-rows down the middle between
pairs of narrow ridges and is stopped top and bottom by three cross-mouldings. On each side are
two arms forming a voided triangle with a boss at the apex. The lower bow is plain, flat-fronted and
tapers to the normal two-part foot-knob.
179 BAL-15 1989 [5929] SF <A3851> The upper bow is made up of three beaded ridges divided by
broad, rounded faces. On each top corner is a wings made up of two or three mouldings. The lower
bow is separated from the upper by three cross-mouldings, the middle one beaded. The lower bow
has a cross-flute, then a moulding, another flute and finally an arris, the last flute having concave
ends. The rest of the lower bow has convex borders and a median arris. There is the usual two-part
foot-knob.
180 BAL-15 1986 [4183] SF <9947> The upper bow is made up of cross-mouldings basically two
groups, in which the middle one is bulbous and the outer ones arris, separated by two flutes and an
arris. The lower bow is flat with a groove down each side and tapers outwards towards the bottom
which is missing. The brooch was tinned or silvered.
No Hod Hill has been convincingly published from a pre-conquest context, although it is almost a matter
of chance that this has not happened, as the brooch arrived fully formed, and in great variety, with the
army of conquest. One example from Skeleton Green may have been pre-conquest, but it was not
unequivocally sealed beneath the flood (Mackreth 1981, 141-2, fig. 72, 55) and another from Baldock was
assigned to the first quarter of the first century AD, which must be incorrect as it would then predate its
parent (Stead & Rigby 1986, 120, fig. 47, 112). The Hod Hill is not present in the King Harry Lane
cemetery; in fact, its precursors are hardly there either. The distribution of the type shows convincingly
that it was passing out of use between 60 and 70, very few surviving in use to be taken north with the
army. Brooches 176-179 display the two-part design of the Aucissa, its parent, and all these designs can
be paralleled in conquest-period forts. There is, however, one strand which continues on the continent
where it gave rise to a group of enamelled versions which then developed further on in the second
century. Brooch 180 has a complex design which is conceivably part of this late strand, but this is not
pressed here.

Unclassified
181 BAL-15 1989 [7438] & [7445] SFs <A4834> & <A4836> There is a Colchester spring system (see
Brooch 158). The hook and wings are short and plain. The bow has a border ridge and a swelled
front with a buried bead-row down the middle. At the point of inflection in the profile is a narrow

169
 cross-moulding. The foot is broad with a slight taper outwards to a rounded foot. There is an
incised inverted V at the bottom and a trace of a border groove on one side.
Essentially an Augenfibel without the augen, the distribution in England includes rural sites as well as
forts and towns, so much so that, despite some of the dating, it cannot really be solely associated with the
arrival of the army. The limited English dating is: Rushden, 45-60 (Woods & Hastings 1984, 108, fig. 10.1,
5, recte 6); Colchester, 49-61, two examples (Hawkes & Hull 1947, 321, pl. 96, 120, 121); Haddon,
Cambs, late first - early second century (French 1994, 133-4, fig. 72, 7); Towcester, c 100 (Lambrick
1980, 60, fig. 12, 3). All dating after 100 has been omitted. The bias seems to be towards an end-date of
about 60/65: the break between then and the two later ones is an almost certain sign that they were
residual in their contexts.

Figure 74: Brooches from BAL-14 and BAL-48, 2 (actual size)

Plate
182 BAL-15 1989 [6512] SF <A4204> The pin is hinged. The plate has a central recess in which lies a
beaded annular ridge and a boss, fitted with a blue glass bead, riveted through. The edge of the
plate is made up of four equally deep concave arcs, the points between ending in bifurcated
terminals turning out in small scrolls.
The chief features of the family to which this brooch belongs, and which unite a whole range of designs,
are the use of either bifurcated terminals, or a circular recess with a raised annulus in it, both often
appearing together, as here. Scribed circles, niello inlay, punched dots and the use of turned bone
bosses also occur. The dating is, omitting those later than 100: Bagendon, 20/25-43/5 (Clifford 1962, 184,
fig. 36, 6); Bancroft, mausoleum, Late pre-Roman Iron Age-late first century (Mackreth 1994, 295, fig.
134, 29); Colchester, 43-48 (two examples) and 43-61 (Hawkes & Hull 1947, 325, pl. 98, 170, 177, 179);
Lockleys, Welwyn, Claudian (Ward-Perkins 1938, 352, fig. 2, 2); Longthorpe, Claudian-Neronian (Dannell
& Wild 1987, 87, fig. 21, 11); Braughing, 45-150 (Olivier 1988, 49, fig. 21, 70); Colchester, four examples,
49-61 (Hawkes & Hull 1947, 325, pl. 98, 165, 172-174); Hod Hill, three examples, before 50 (Brailsford
1962, 13, fig. 11, F2, F3, F5: Richmond 1968, 117-9); Stoke Abbott, 50-60 (Webster 1981, 61, fig. 25, 6);
Colchester, 61+ (Hawkes & Hull 1947, 325, pl. 98, 171); Richborough, pre-Flavian (Bushe-Fox 1949, 109,
pl. 25, 6); Wroxeter, Flavian (Atkinson 1942, 208, fig. 36, H86); Castleford, two examples, 74-80 and c

170
85-100; Colchester, before 100 (Crummy 1983, 17, fig. 14, 85). The picture is clear, made before the
conquest, members of the family arrive with the army of conquest and had virtually all ceased to be used
by 65/70, but the two from Castleford suggest that caution is needed, as neither should have arrived there
before c 74.

Zoömorphic
183 BAL-15 1987 SF <A1808> The bilateral spring had been mounted on a pierced single lug. The
plate is in the form of a hare about to spring to the right. The ears stand up, are separated by a
groove, and the profile is marked by a slight concavity. The eye is indicated by a circular stamp.
There are no cells for enamel and the plate may have been tinned or silvered.
The way in which the pin is mounted shows that this is a British product. The hare is a relatively popular
subject and is usually enamelled in common with virtually all zoömorphic subjects. There are occasions
when it is not entirely certain that a hare, as opposed to a hound, is being shown: both may have long
ears laid back, but it is assumed that hares always have short tails. There may even be a suspicion that
there was sometimes a standard model and that hounds were converted into hares by the simple
expedient of docking the tail. Dating is practically non-existent and the best guide is perhaps the presence
or absence of enamel. Enamel was almost certainly always used in conjunction with applied white metal
trim and a recent review of the dating of this (Mackreth 1996, 322) suggested very strongly that the
technique was to be seen between about 125 and 225. The technique will have been evolved before, but,
as is common with brooches, it took time before numbers became great enough for there to be a
reasonable chance of examples entering the ground. Similarly, brooches continued to be worn after
manufacture had ceased, therefore, those coming from early third-century contexts may have been
survivors in use. As far as the present item is concerned, the fact that it is plain suggests that its
decorative effect was enhanced by a silvery finish and this is a mark of brooches from the middle of the
first century, but it may be suspected that this brooch is unlikely to be earlier than the last one or two
decades of that century.

Fragments
184 BAL-15 1986 [4493] SF <A30> Four coils and part of the external chord from a Colchester or a
Colchester Derivative. The end of the chord shows the characteristic form of a chisel cut: scrap
metal and not a casual loss.
185 BAL-15 1986 [4024] SF <9763> The four-coils and internal chord of either a Nauheim of a
Drahtfibel Derivative.
186 BAL-15 1989 [7532] SF <A4893> Apparently complete bilateral spring system, obviously not
integral with the body of the brooch. There are five coils next to the spring and only two on the
other side. Either the pin broke in antiquity, making it necessary to refashion the spring to create a
new pin, or, as it is the wrong side which has been shortened, the spring was housed in a spring-
case like those found on the Rosette of Langton Down types (see Brooch 14).
187 Not illustrated. BAL-15 1986 [4575] SF <A57> The remains of a spring with an external chord
apparently held by a hook. The spring and hook sit on a plate and this does not conform with any
readily identifiable type, unless the hook is facing to the rear. In that case, the type would be a
Colchester Derivative, but not enough is present to tell whether the type was a Rearhook or a
member of the group with Polden Hill spring systems.
188 Not illustrated. BAL-1 1983 F557 L(5) SF <5555> Iron. Apparently the end of a pin.
189 Not illustrated. BAL-1 1983 F557 L(1) SF <5645> Iron. Part of a pin.
190 Not illustrated. BAL-1 1982 F435 SF <4000> Iron. A rod with a bend at one end and a taper
towards what may have been a point: possibly the pin from a brooch of unidentifiable type.
191 Not illustrated. BAL-9 1983 F702 SF <9055> Iron. Strip with parallel sides whose profile might be
related to a brooch: type unknown.
192 Not illustrated. BAL-1 1983 F557 L(5) SF <5959> Iron. Corroded to a sherd, the fragment is like
the last.

Other objects
193 Not illustrated. BAL-1 1982 F436 SF <3722> Iron. A strip broad at one end and tapering to almost
a point at the other, it is bent at the broad end to look like a hook, the other end curls as though
beginning a loop. There is no evidence here that the item had been a brooch.

Analysis of the metal from the California pyre débris pit

M D Stevenson [1991, revised 2005]
171
Altogether, some 657.8 g of metallic débris was recovered from the pyre débris pit F95 in the California
Iron Age major burial enclosure, with about 60.6 g of iron and 597.5 g of copper alloy. Apart from traces
of gilding on one of the copper alloy items (no 39), no other metals were represented. The assemblage
was catalogued according to form; fourteen categories were chosen and the material assessed visually.
The categories were: mail, stud, nail, tack, pin, clasp, spring, tube, bar, band decoration, edge/rim, sheet,
fragment and droplet. The variety is immediately apparent from Figures 000-000. The débris was sorted
into these categories, assigned a catalogue number (cross-referenced with the context information and
small find number). The weights and materials of the items by category were then determined (Table 35).
Category Iron Copper Alloy Total
a Mail 48.1 g 48.1 g
b Stud 22.6 g 22.6 g
c Nail 0.5 g 0.5 g
d Tack 0.5 g 0.5 g
e Pin <0.1 g <0.1 g
f Clasp 1.0 g 5.2 g 6.2 g
g Spring 1.3 g 1.3 g
h Tube 1.0 g 1.0 g
I Bar 0.3 g 6.1 g 6.4 g
j Band decoration 0.5 g 0.5 g
k Edge/rim 15.9 g 15.9 g
l Sheet 54.2 g 54.2 g
m Fragments 9.2 g 25.0 g 34.2 g
n Droplets 1.2 g 1.2 g
Totals 60.4 g 597.5 g 657.8 g
Table 35: Weights of metallic débris by functional category
Predictably enough, a large proportion of the material consisted of unrecognisable fragments, which is
particularly the case with the bronze material. The ironwork was dominated by the mail category;
excluding the mail, which did not occur in bronze, then the iron group was also dominated by fragments in
a ratio of about 3:1, while the bronze was dominated by a ratio of about 5:2. Assuming that those items
classified as fragments or droplets approximate to the ratio of recognised items from which the fragments
may have been derived, it is possible to calculate the approximate proportions of material according to
function (Table 36).
Category Iron Copper Alloy Both
a 94.1% 30.8%
b 12.6% 14.5%
c 0.9% 0.3%
d 0.3% 0.3%
e <0.1% <0.1%
f 1.9% 2.9% 4.0%
g 2.5% 0.8%
h 0.6% 0.7%
i 0.6% 3.4% 4.1%
j 0.3% 0.3%
k 8.9% 10.2%
l 71.0% 34.7%
Table 36: Proportions of metallic débris by functional category

172
Figure 75: Metalwork from pyre débris pit F96, 1 (actual size)

173
Figure 76: Metalwork from pyre débris pit F96, 2 (actual size)

174
Figure 77: Metalwork from pyre débris pit F96, 2 (actual size)
Apart from the clasp and bar categories, the two metal types form mutually exclusive assemblages. The
spring fragment may have derived from a brooch and the copper alloy bar could also be a remnant of the
same item, while the clasp elements were probably from strap or buckle fittings. It is possible that the
comparatively large quantity of bronze material was a reflection of a large proportion of organic items with
metallic surface decoration suggesting prestige rather than purely functional goods. In particular, an
example of the kind of decorated wooden or leather items that may be represented would be objects
covered with sheet bronze held in place by dome headed studs, perhaps as a substitute for a solid metal
item of similar form and appearance. The only likely exception would be item 36, a copper alloy ring that
clearly belonged to a metallic vessel of some description, the body of which had been destroyed in the
cremation process. Some of the copper alloy or copper alloy covered items were evidently gilded, as item
39 retained a trace of gold, to give the impression the object being made of gold.

Analysis and metallography of melted bronze from the pyre débris pit, F95 BAL-1
Peter Northover [?]
A small bronze droplet from pyre débris pit F95 was submitted for analysis. Approximately 2 mm were cut
from the end of the piece with a small razor saw, hot-mounted in a copper-filled acrylic resin, Analysis
was by electron probe microanalysis with wavelength dispersive spectrometry using the Cameca
SEMPROBE® in the Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, in the University of
Oxford. Operating conditions were an accelerating voltage of 25 kV, a beam current of 30 nA, and an X-

175
ray take-off angle of 62°. Eleven elements were analysed; counting times were 10 s per element and pure
element and mineral standards were used. Detection limits for most elements were 100-200 ppm, with
the expectation of 300 ppm for gold and 0.10% for arsenic. This last is the result of compromises made to
avoid the well-known interference between the strongest lines of the lead and arsenic X-ray spectra, the
arsenic Kα and lead Lα lines. For lead it was possible to use the relatively strong Mα line but for arsenic
only the weak Kβ line was available – the stronger Lα line was inaccessible because the high
accelerating voltage makes the corrections too large to be safe. Routines exist to provide a more
sensitive analysis for arsenic but this was not thought necessary here. A metallographic study was also
made (Plates 00 and 00).
Three areas were analysed on the sample, each 30×50 μm; the individual compositions and their means
are given in the accompanying table, normalised to 100%. All concentrations are in weight %.
The droplet derived from a leaded bronze alloy. The analyses given in the table are all very much affected
by corrosion, with the tin contents in particular being greatly enhanced. An examination of the
microstructure suggests that the true tin content must be in the range 12-14%. The measured lead
content has probably also been enhanced by corrosion, with the true value being nearer 4%. This is
supported by the absence of obvious lead particles in the microstructure other than trapped in the αδ
eutectoid. Reference to the ternary equilibrium diagram for the copper-tin-lead system (Briesemeister
1931), shows that the alloy lies outside the miscibility gap in the system and thus be treated as a pseudo-
binary alloy. The liquidus temperature (i.e. that at which the metal is fully molten) is approximately 975° C;
for areas of the object which might have a higher lead content this temperature would be nearer 925-950°
C. The solidus temperature for a 12-14% tin bronze is in the area of the peritectic temperature for the
copper-tin system, 799° C; at this temperature, of course, the fully segregated lead would be molten.
The metallographic examination (Plates 00 and 00), shows the sample to be very heavily corroded,
although there are still substantial areas of the α solid solution phase extant. Corroded αδ eutectoid
occurs as a coarse, irregular network throughout the sample area. Within the eutectoid the α phase has
mainly been removed by corrosion leaving the light grey δ phase. The eutectoid does not have the
regular, periodic distribution that would be expected if it had formed interdendritically at even moderately
slow cooling rates, as in air. It is very possible that the structure formed during slow cooling from the melt
in a hearth, furnace or pyre, but an alternative proposition is that the metal has been reheated to above
the solidus temperature.
Prolonged annealing just below the solidus temperature would result in homogenisation of the bronze
matrix with the disappearance of the eutectoid. Raising the temperature above the solidus would result in
partial melting and the phase reactions on cooling could also produce a network of eutectoid such as that
observed in this sample. If the sample area had been exposed to an oxidising atmosphere in the hearth
one would expect to see some internal oxidation of the solid, or decomposition of the melt, taking place
with the formation of cassiterite and cuprite. This was not observed but the surface areas where it might
occur are mainly destroyed by corrosion.
The composition of the bronze also gives some indication of the date at which the alloy was produced.
Much of the Iron Age bronze in southern Britain is lead-free, leaded bronzes only beginning to return in
any quantity at the end of the first century BC and the beginning of the first century AD (Northover
1989a). For the Romans leaded bronze was the alloy of choice for many small and large castings such as
statuary and bronze vessels. However, the impurity pattern with antimony, nickel, cobalt, sliver – and
arsenic although this was not detected in the analysed areas, is characteristic of Iron Age rather than
Roman metalworking. Within a scheme of metal groups devised for the Iron Age (Northover 1989b).
Examples are known from Maiden Castle, Hengistbury Head (casting waste and horse-bit), Danebury,
Hunsbury and Snettisham. The occurrence at Snettisham points to use of this metal in middle years of
the first century BC, and this seems to be an appropriate date for most of the other material, with some
spread into the first century AD. Thus a date in the late first century BC or very early in the first century
AD would match all aspects of the Baldock composition. It is probable that the metal had its ultimate
origin in Alpine or central Europe; Bronze Age analogues of this composition are common in the Swiss
Late Bronze Age.
Fe Co Ni Cu Zn As Sb Sn Ag Bi Pb Au S
R463a 0.27 0.13 0.06 72.80 0.00 0.00 0.18 21.88 0.05 0.00 4.54 0.00 0.08
R463b 0.29 0.16 0.11 64.65 0.01 0.00 0.30 29.47 0.10 0.00 4.79 0.07 0.06
R463c 0.30 0.08 0.10 40.87 0.02 0.00 0.56 47.81 1.13 0.01 8.72 0.00 0.39
R463 0.29 0.12 0.09 59.44 0.01 0.00 0.34 33.06 0.43 0.00 6.02 0.02 0.18

Table 37: analysis of copper droplet from the pyre débris pit

Iron

Iron mail
Mark D Stevenson [1991]
176
The context for the mail indicated that it was of Iron Age origin, deposited in a pit associated with a burial
dated c 50-20 BC. There is a possibility that it was older than the burial with which the pyre debris pit was
associated, as mail has been found in a late Middle Iron Age cart burial at Kirkburn, Yorkshire, the oldest
so far identified. It dated from the third century BC and accompanied an inhumation, laid upside down and
the wrong way round over the individual who was lying on his side and was in turn laid on top of the two
wheels that were lying flat in a deep rectangular cut pit. The Yorkshire mail was in a very poor condition
and so detail could only be seen using x-rays. The Baldock mail was in small portions but having been
through a fire before burial had survived in very good condition. Mail has also been found closer to
Baldock in the form of material from the Lexden tumulus and the more recent discovery of the mail from
St Albans.

Baldock Kirkburn Lexden tumulus Folly Lane, St Albans

Pyre debris Burial Burial Pyre debris
Fragmented Complete Fragmented Fragmented
Good condition Poor condition Good condition Good condition
One size of link Two sizes of link One size of link One size of link
(6 mm diameter) (8 mm and 8-10 mm on (7.0-7.5 mm) (7 mm)
shoulder pads)
Two types of link One type of link Two types of link Two types of link
(welded and riveted) (butt) (punch ring and rivet) (butt and riveted)
Each linked to four Each linked to four Each linked to four Each linked to four
Solid wire Solid wire Solid wire Solid wire
No trace of fabric Traces of two types of No trace of fabric No trace of fabric
textile
c 50-20 BC Third century BC c 15-10 BC AD c 45

Table 38: comparison of Iron Age chainmail

A comparison of the data shows that the Folly Lane material provided the closest parallel and was also
the closest geographically, while the Lexden material was also similar. The good condition of the material
other than that from Kirkburn can be attributed to the burning of the ironwork during the cremation
process. However, that from Baldock was the only type to have some of its rings riveted rather than
butted. This arrangement is similar to that used for the Roman body armour known as lorica hamata, in
which alternating welded and rivet rings of 5 to 7 mm diameter were used. The earliest chainmail of this
type is found in Gaul during the third century BC and was adopted by the Romans during the later
Republic, when it was worn by better-off soldiers, who had to supply armour at their own expense. It was
perhaps the commonest form of armour worn in Europe during the late first millennium BC and early first
millennium AD.

Fragments of a mail garment

Brian Gilmour (Royal Armouries, Tower of London) [?]
The fill of a cremation pyre debris pit F95, were found to include 23 fragments (Figure 75), of a mail
garment ranging in size from a piece which when flat would measure approximately 60 × 40 mm, down to
the remains of one or two rings fused together by corrosion.
All the rings are of much the same size and the fragmentary nature of this deposit compared to that found
at Folly Lane, St. Albans (Niblett 1999), may suggest that part of the mail garment was cut up and the
pieces added to the funeral pyre before it was lit.
One effect of the fire has been to leave the mail, after cleaning, with a shiny black or dark grey surface
layer of iron oxide in which is preserved much of the original detail such as the overlapped and riveted
ends of alternate rows of rings (Figure 78), the intermediate rows of which were made with butted rings.
Subsequent burial has left much of this dense black surface replacement layer intact but has caused the
iron underneath to decay which in some places has left the once solid iron wire of the rings showing up as
a hollow tube (Figure 00). Projection radiography of one fragment of mail (Figure 00), showed the tubular
nature of the surviving mail rings. This fragment of mail was quite badly damaged in part although the
surface of some places the hollow insides of some of the rings showed up. In other places the hollow
(corroded), cores of the rings had become filled with more powdery iron corrosion products.

177
 Figure 78: Reconstruction of the chainmail from pyre débris
pit F96
All the fragments of mail were examined using a magnet as well
as being radiographed in an attempt to find any iron that might
have survived but none was found which meant that no
metallography could be attempted. The dense dark shiny material,
which preserved much of the surface detail of the rings so well,
responded to the magnet (although not as strongly as iron), and
therefore appeared to consist largely of magnetite (Fe3O4). The
rivets also had become hollow in a similar way to the rings.
In terms of the size of the rings, the mail was of a very fine type.
The rings were mostly circular apart from the elongation caused by the spreading of the ends of the rings
that had been riveted. These elongated rings measured approximately 6.3 mm on average lengthwise.
The alternate rows of rings had welded ends and the diameter of these rings plus the diameter of the
riveted rings, measured crosswise, was 5.1 mm on average.
The wire of the rings was mostly nearly circular in cross-section, and did not vary greatly in thickness,
with an average diameter of 1.3 mm. Some of the wire of rings was more flattened in appearance in
places – possibly as a result of wear (Figure 00).
It is not clear to what sort of garment these mail fragments belonged but a mail shirt similar to the late Iron
Age (first century AD), example recently excavated in St. Albans (and now in the Verulamium Museum),
would seem to be a good possibility. The construction with its alternate rows of riveted and butted rings
shows up particularly well and has been reproduced here diagrammatically (Figure 78).
Thanks are due to Peter Liepens of Guy‟s Hospital Medical School, X-Ray Unit for kindly carrying out the
projection X-Rays and to Simon Metcalf of the Royal Armouries for commenting on the construction of the
mail.

Iron nails
By Keith J Fitzpatrick-Matthews and Mark D Stevenson [1991, revised 2005]
Nails have received little attention in the archaeological literature, even in cemeteries, where their
frequent presence as part of coffin furniture renders analysis desirable. At Kelvedon, Kirsty Rodwell
(1988, 31) used nails as a means of reconstructing the construction of coffins, but did not comment on
their presence in cremations, nor did she include information about the types or lengths of nails. Quita
Mould (2004, 271) has commented on the material from Brougham, Cumbria, where she proposes that
those found in cremations derive from decorations, the construction of wooden objects and the
construction of biers.
Bill Manning (1985, 134-7) devised a typology of Romano-British nails based on those in the collections
of the British Museum, which has been used here (Figure 79). A catalogue of the nails accompanying
burials was made, listing details of head style and diameter, shank style and length, and whether or not
the nail was part of an in situ coffin or included in a collection of cremated bone.

Figure 79: Nail typology

178
Wallington Road
Altogether, 501 nails were recovered from burials in the cemetery, of which 195 (38.9%) were incomplete
or fragmentary, so the statistical analysis excludes these. Two inhumations were contained in nailed
coffins, and sixty-nine collections of cremated bone also contained nails. Table 39 shows that most nails
were iron with square-sectioned shanks and flat round heads (Manning 1985, 134 Type 1b); 97 (19.4%)
had pyramidal heads (Manning 1985, 134 Type 1a). These are the two commonest types on Romano-
British sites. The main variation observed was in the length of the nail shank, with nails varying between
only a few millimetres to over 60 mm in length.
By plotting the lengths of nail shank, a frequency distribution with a polymodal curve is obtained, in which
four main clusters can be identified (Figure 80). Firstly, a group of small nails (10.3 ± 2.1 mm) consist of
hobnails; a group of nails about an uncia of 24.67 mm in length (25.0 ± 4.0 mm), a group clustering
around 35.9 ± 4.9 mm and a much less well-defined group over about 45 mm in length (54.7 ± 5.7 mm). If
the sample were random, then it would possibly reflect the reuse of worked timbers in the funeral pyre.
However if pyre goods (from shoes to coffins) were involved, then the resulting nail size frequency would
show peaks at particular lengths. Slight peaks in the frequency distribution curve around 12/13 mm, 24/25
mm, 39 mm and 50 mm suggest the possibility of a rough standardisation of sizes related to unciae, with
the spread resulting partly from poorly controlled manufacturing techniques.
Category (Manning 1985) Complete Incomplete Total
1a 22 75 97
1b 244 101 345
3 1 2 3
5 4 2 4
7 12 4 16
Category not known 306 195 501
Table 39: nail frequency by type, Wallington Road cemetery

14

12

10

0
1 5 9 13 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 45 49 53 57 61 65 69 73 77 81

Fig 80: shank lengths at Wallington Road, with a moving average (period=5)
The clustering of nail lengths within individual cremations was generally much tighter, with nails having a
shank length clustering around one or two sizes, occasionally with just one or two nails not fitting these
clusters, which may suggest that the nails derive from only one or two objects. It therefore may be
possible to guess the former function of the nails (Table 40: an asterisk denotes the presence of
decorative studs in the nail assemblage). If the nails do indicate the presence of items deliberately placed
on the funeral pyre rather than random inclusions deriving from reused timbers, it may suggest that a high
proportion of bodies were enclosed in coffins or biers when burnt. If this is the case, then those which
were dowelled and jointed rather than nailed would leave no trace; nor would nails necessarily have been
collected with bone. Comparison with nail sizes from coffins in the California Late Roman cemetery
suggests that coffin nails fall into the size range 67.0 ± 15.0 mm, so the larger nail ranges at Wallington
Road may well derive from the same source. Those in the 39.5 ± 4.9 mm cluster may have derived either
from coffins or biers, while those towards the smaller end of the range are suggested to have derived
from biers. The evident presence of small boxes made using nails less an one uncia in length burnt with
bodies on the pyre perhaps parallels the case of pottery vessels burnt with the body.
B10 Coffin or bier* 47.6 ± 5.0 mm Hobnails
B16 Coffin or bier 39.5 ± 0.5 mm
B19 Coffin? 50.0 ± 10.0 mm

179
 B24 Coffin or bier 36.8 ± 8.2 mm
B25 Coffin or bier? 43.0 mm
B31 Coffin* 56.0 ± 6.2 mm Bier 26.7 ± 2.0 mm
B36 Coffin or bier? 42.0 mm
B37 ?
B38 Box? 21.0 mm
B39 Coffin or bier 39.0 ± 10.0 mm
B41 Coffin 49.0 mm
B55 Bier 32.7 ± 4.3 mm
B56 Coffin or bier 35.9 ± 2.0 Box? 22.5 ± 1.5 mm
B57 Coffin or bier 41.0 ± 6.0 Box? 20.0 mm
B58 Hobnails 12.0 mm
B58A Coffin or bier? 44.5 ± 11.5 mm
B60 ?
B62 Coffin? 62.0 mm
B67A Coffin? 50.0 mm
B68 Coffin or bier 38.7 ± 6.1 mm
B70 Bier 33.7 ± 5.3 mm Box 20.3 ± 1.2 mm
B73 Coffin or bier 37.3 ± 2.9 mm
B74 Bier 28.7 ± 5.0 mm Coffin? 63 mm
B76 Bier 24.0 mm
B78 Coffin or bier? 39.5 ± 15.5 mm
B79 Bier 26.1 ± 3.8 mm
B80A Coffin 48.4 ± 4.6 mm Box? 22.5 ± 1.5 mm
B80B (Coffin or bier?)
B85 Coffin or bier? 42.0 mm
B86 Coffin or bier 42.3 ± 4.1 mm Box 24.7 ± 1.2 mm
B88 Coffin or bier 37.4 ± 6.5 mm
B93 Box 22.0 ± 1.0 mm
B96 Bier 24.4 ± 3.8 mm
B101 Coffin or bier 38.0 ± 6.0 mm
B106 Coffin 59.0 ± 1.0 mm
B108 Bier? 28.0 mm
B112 Bier? 28.0 ± 1.0 mm Coffin? 56 mm
B113 Coffin? 58.0 mm
B114 Coffin? 58.0 mm
B116 Coffin or bier 43.5 ± 6.5 mm
B119 *(Coffin or bier?)
B121 Coffin or bier? 50.0 mm in situ box nails 22.2 ± 9.0 mm
B124 Bier 29.0 ± 5.4 mm
B126 Bier 28.5 ± 5.5 mm Box? 15.5 ± 2.5 mm
B128 Coffin 56.5 ± 3.5 mm
B136 Bier 24.9 ± 9.2 mm + 2 residual 62 mm, 55 mm
B137 Box? 21.0 mm
B139 Coffin? 60.0 mm
B145 Box? 22.0 mm
B147 Coffin? 43.7 ± 14.3 mm + 2 residual 84 mm*, 18 mm
B149 Coffin 57.5 ± 6.1 mm Box 18.5 ± 1.1 mm
B151 Coffin 48.7 ± 5.3 mm
B152 *(Coffin or bier?)
B154 Coffin or bier? 43.0 mm
B158 Coffin* 52.0 ± 4.4 mm
B160 Coffin or bier? 34.0 mm
B163 Coffin or bier? 43.0 mm
B165 Coffin or bier 43.0 ± 5.0 mm
B173 ?
B177 Hobnails
B178 Hobnails
B180 Hobnails
B181 Box 21.0 mm
B182 Coffin 54.5 ± 10.5 mm
B183 Coffin 55.0 mm
B184 Coffin 48.4 ± 8.0 mm Box 21.7 ± 4.9 mm
B187 Hobnails
B187A Hobnails
B190 Bier 35.0 ± 9.0 mm
B191 Coffin? 54.0 mm
B192 ?

Table 40: possible sources of nails form burials at Wallington Road

California Late Roman cemetery

The California Late Roman cemetery produced 879 nails from burial related contexts, of which 372
(42.3%) were hobnails deriving from grave goods. Of the 507 remaining nails, 168 had incomplete heads.
The remainder were represented by three head types: 419 were of type 1b with circular heads, 7 were
type 1b with rectangular heads and 13 were of type 3. Out of the 507 nails, only 214 (42.2%) had
180
measurable shanks, and of the 275 that were definitely from coffins, only 180 had complete shanks. The
frequencies of the shank length represented by the 214 nails are shown in Table 41.
0 - 10 mm 1
11 - 20
21 - 30 1
31 - 40 3
41 - 50 10
51 - 60 49
61 - 70 73
71 - 80 41
81 - 90 26
91 -100 8
101 - 110 1
111 - 120 1

Table 41: Nail lengths, California Late Roman cemetery

Discussion
It has been suggested that the occurrence of nails in cremations is of ritual significance, perhaps relating
to confining the dead („fixing‟ them in the ground) and that the numbers of nails recovered may have a
magical significance (Black 1986, 223). The assemblage form Wallington Road appears not to support
this: the inclusion of nails seems to have been related to containers for the dead and to grave goods
provided with them. Moreover, virtually all of the burials were subject to post-depositional damage,
usually by ploughing, therefore no guarantee that the number of nails recovered is the same as the
number of nails deposited. Nor was there any indication that the nails were deliberately positioned in the
urns. The urn contents were excavated, wherever possible, under controlled conditions by Kit Westaway,
who kept detailed notes of the positions of all bones, nails and stones recovered. Where relatively large
numbers of nails were present, these were randomly distributed throughout the urn; the 173 nails present
in urns had the same distribution of shank lengths as the overall distribution pattern (Table 42).
Studs Nails %
0 - 10 mm 2 12 7.3
11 - 20 6 21 12.8
21 - 30 1 51 31.1
31 - 40 38 23.2
41 - 50 23 14.0
51 - 60 15 9.1
61 - 70 4 2.4
9 164 100%

Table 42: Stud and nail lengths, Wallington Road cremations

Wallington California Lankhills

Road
** % % %
0 - 20 mm 19.475 0.47 0.255
21 - 40 50.9362 1.87 2.670
41 - 60 25.8426 27.57 18.891
61 - 80 3.3700 53.27 33.881
81 - 100 0.3740 15.89 28.337
101 - 120 0.93 12.115
121 - 140 1.437
141 - 160 1.643
161 - 180 0.821

Table 43: Comparison of nail lengths, Wallington Road, California and Lankhills (Winchester)

181
 60

50
Wallington Road
40
California Late Roman
30
cemetery

20 Lankhills, Winchester

10

0
0 - 20

81 - 100
21 - 40

41 - 60

61 - 80

101 - 120

121 - 140

141 - 160

161 - 180
Figure 81: Distribution of nail lengths, Wallington Road, California and Lankhills (Winchester)
The nail frequency graph (Figure 81) shows the Winchester and Wallington Road distributions in marked
contrast. The shape of the curves was clearly different (as reflected in the standard deviations of 22.88
and 15.05 respectively) and the ranges were centred on different sections of the axis. The data from
California, on the other hand, was closely similar, if a little shorter on average than the Lankhills nails, the
mean being some 11 mm less. There was therefore a statistically significant difference between the
inhumation and cremation cemeteries at Baldock, and a similarity between the inhumation cemeteries at
California and Lankhills, Winchester, suggesting that the nails were used in different types of construction
according to the burial rite. In other words, if coffins were used in cremation burials, they were of slighter
construction than those used for inhumations, an unsurprising conclusion. Nearly 20% of the cremation
sample was less than 20 mm in length, which may indicate the use of small boxes for clothing and other
personal items to be cremated with the deceased
Clearly, there was a cost implication related to each option associated with burial. If there was parity in
burial cost between inhumation and cremation, then expenditure in effort and materials would be reflected
by the two forms of burial. The cremation would require fuel for the pyre for which there would be a cost
that could be offset by cutting back on other areas such as the coffin. The inhumation had a cost in terms
of the excavation of a substantial hole but was clearly not so costly as the pyre as the coffins were
generally constructed from substantial timbers as reflected by the length of the nails. Such coffins may
have been highly decorated, while the slighter coffin used in cremations could still be painted and carved,
so there would appear to have been little visible difference between the coffin types used in the two burial
rites. 16 studs were found at Wallington Road, while there were none from California, suggesting that
coffin or box decoration was a detail that was employed to enhance a cremation burial. It is also possible
that the difference in date between the two cemeteries indicates a change in the nature of coffin
construction and decoration.

The metalwork from BAL-15 1994

Catherine Holgate

Introduction
A total of 212 metal items were retrieved from the excavations, a small number recovered through the
professional utilisation of metal detectors across certain features and across all the spoil deposits. Further
metal finds were recovered from the cremation assemblages. The majority of the items received 'small-
finds' numbers, however, single iron nails and indeterminate fragments of iron were not assigned such
numbers. Also at times during the excavation certain iron assemblages were recorded in groups under
single small-find numbers. These groups have all been identified in the quantification registers.
Metal Number of objects
Iron 115
Copper alloy - (coinage) 10
Copper alloy- (other) 75
Iron and Copper 1
Lead 9

182
Silver 2
Table 44: metalwork by category
All metalwork was sent off to be stabilised and, where necessary, x-rayed soon after the excavation
phase.

Post-excavation Methodology
All metalwork recovered from site was assigned a small-find number and recorded three-dimensionally in
situ. Copper alloy objects, coins and precious metalwork was separated from the iron work and identified
where possible. The iron-work was sent for x-ray. All other small finds (except pottery) were sent for
conservation.
Each object was identified as far as possible prior to conservation. A description, including appropriate
measurements and weights, was recorded on pro forma sheets. The nature of the contexts associated
with the small finds was analysed so determine whether there was any correlation between types of
feature and types of find (e.g. it was discovered copper brooches were frequently associated with
unurned cremations).

Brooches

Nauheim Derivatives
Nauheim derivatives are simple one piece, bilaterally sprung brooches. There are a number of variations,
but the examples recovered from Clothall Common in 1994 had four coils, a solid catch plate, an internal
chord and a gently curving, undecorated bow, tapering at the foot.
The derivative forms of the Nauheim type Camulodunum, are actually quite different to Nauheim
brooches. Nauheim derivatives resemble the continental 'soldier's brooch', and many have been found on
military sites such as Bohme 1972. Nauheim derivatives have also been found in civilian contexts both on
the continent and in Britain. The type, which was developed by people to the north of the Alps during the
Hallstatt period, is viewed typically as the poor man's brooch. On the continent, they would be classified
with Ettlinger type 4, Riha type1-6, and Feugère type 6.
SF no. Context Feature Description
<69> 645 Cremation Copper alloy, 63 mm long, quite corroded, in 3 fragments, flat bow
<96> 313 Grave Copper alloy, 42.5 mm long, good condition, flat bow on inside, slightly
rounded on the outside
Table 45: Nauheim derivative brooches
Many examples of this type have come from Baldock (Stead & Rigby 1986, 108 fig 40 nos 23-44;
Mackreth, above). Two came from the mid first century AD, but are not pre-Claudian. Evidence indicates
that Nauheim derivatives were relatively common from the first century BC to 25 BC and between 25 BC
and AD 50, they reached their numerical peak. None were recovered from contexts dated AD 50-70 or
AD 90-120. There was an upsurge in numbers from contexts dated to the period in between those two
dates. Nauheim derivatives were recovered from continuous contexts dating from AD 120 - 220 (Stead &
Rigby 1986, 124 histogram C). Such brooches are not, therefore, diagnostic of a particular date.
Verulamium provided seven examples of the derivative forms of the Nauheim type. The most similar to
Small Finds <69> and <96> (Frere 1984, 29 fig 5 nos 12) was recovered from a black layer, across the
street to the north of the Forum, and was dated to AD 150-160.
The King Harry Lane Iron-Age cemetery yielded six Nauheim derivative brooches, of which one closely
matched the characteristics of Small Finds <69> and <96> (Stead & Rigby 1989, 88 fig 48 A1).
Other variations of the Nauheim type were retrieved from Skeleton Green, the King Harry Lane Roman
Settlement, and Colchester.

Aucissas
Aucissas are characterised generally by a long wide bow, thin in section, with moulded decoration. They
are highly arched; almost semi-circular in profile. The bow tapers towards a short foot which is on a
returned curve. A foot knob is usually applied. The head of the bow forms a flat rectangular plate, and is
curled over to form a hinge. The head is sometimes inscribed with the word 'AUCISSA'.
Aucissas were widespread, and were known well throughout the Roman provinces, from the Augustine to
the end of the Claudian period. They ceased soon after 60 AD, in Britain, in favour of British made
brooches. Brooch <111> was unlike native British copies of the style and was more comparable with
examples from Provence and the former Yugoslavia (Hattatt 1987).
SF no Context Feature Description
183
 <111> 1215 Grave within CA, 50 mm long, This was a traditional form of Aucissa with a curled
well forward hinge. There was no inscription on the hinge head, and the pin
appeared to be hinged on an iron bar. The bow gently tapered towards the
junction with the leg. The foot knob, at the base of the leg was a separate
piece which had been applied. The head had two lateral knurled ribs. The
bow had a common form of decoration; a medial knurled rib. The upper
part of the leg was decorated with horizontal, moulded grooves, and the
lower part was plain.
Table 46: Aucissa brooches
Twelve other examples of Aucissa brooch are known to have come from previous excavations at Baldock
(Stead & Rigby 1986, 117 fig 46; Mackreth, above). One of these brooches came from a pre-conquest
context. Of four Aucissa brooches retrieved from the King Harry Lane Iron Age cemetery, one appeared
to be pre-conquest. One Aucissa brooch, dated AD c 50-100, was obtained from the Colchester
excavations (Crummy 1983, 9 fig 5 nos 19). Skeleton Green excavations produced five Aucissa
brooches, but these were all in a style which appeared to represent a transition between the Aucissa and
the Hod Hill type.

Thealby type
Thealby type brooches are related to Headstud brooches. Headstuds are native British, and were the last
descendent from the Colchester type. Headstuds are very distinctive in that their decoration is profuse
and often applied. Thealby type brooches lack the headstud, and their decoration is more restrained.
Moulded decoration includes lengthwise grooves on the bow and vertical grooves on the wings. Thealby
brooches are mostly hinged with solid chain loops, prominent foot knobs, catch plates which extend to
over half the bow length, and short wings.
Thealby type brooches were unusual in the south of England. Over 80% of them have been found to the
north of the River Humber. They have been mostly concentrated in Yorkshire and Humberside, with more
outliers to the north than the south. However, Hattatt (1987) cited an example from Dorset.
No other examples of Thealby type brooches are known from Baldock, or from Skeleton Green,
Verulamium, King Harry Lane or Colchester.
SF no. Context Feature Description
<3> 201 Solution Appears to be made from copper plated iron. 40 mm long, including the
hollow chain loop. The suspension loop was cast in one piece with the brooch. It
had rectangular wings, each with three moulded, vertical ridges. The
hinged pin was suspended on a copper rod. The catch plate which was
mostly missing, was half the length of the brooch. A small, round button,
quite different to the stud on headstud brooches, was located on the upper
part of the bow. The head of the brooch was plain. A knurled ridge ran
lengthwise up the centre of the bow, between two grooves, from the foot
knob to the button. Just before the foot, there were three lateral moulded
ridges, the central one of which was much thicker than the others. The foot
was very prominent.
Table 47: Thealby type brooches

Hod Hill type

Hod Hill brooches (Camulodunum type XVIII) typically have a wide, flat bow with comparatively slight
curvature. Some of the brooches have lugs. The leg and foot tend to be about half the total length of the
brooch, and the catch plate, which is leg length, is vertical and triangular, occasionally bearing a circular
perforation. The bow often diminishes to an integrally cast foot knob. Most of the decoration is in the form
of moulded grooves and ribs (which may be plain or knurled) on the bow and leg. There is usually simple
moulding at the junction with the leg. Any tool work, generally in the form of punch marked dot patterns, is
found on the leg. Applied decoration may include surface tinning, and niello inlay.
Towards the end of the first century AD, there was a transition from Hod Hill to hinge headed enamelled
bow brooches. Side knobs, groove and rib decoration, tinning and niello inlay died out, or became rare.
SF <31> appeared to be pre-transitional despite the missing side lugs. Some Hod Hill type brooches
filtered in prior to the Roman invasion, but most arrived afterwards. The absence of Hod Hill type
brooches from York, or any Agricolan site implies that those in post Neronian levels in the south and in
the Midlands are either survivals, or residual on urban sites. Hod Hill types are therefore thought to have
had a short life, ceasing around 60-70 AD.
SF no. Context Feature Description
<31> 508 Ditch fill Copper alloy, tinned surface. 34 mm long. This brooch was categorized as
a simple Hod Hill brooch (Camulodunum XVIII;A). The hinge head was
rolled forward, indicating its continental origin. The head was wide with an

184
 iron axis bar. Little curvature defined the flat bow. The leg, which was 16
mm long, tapered to an integrally cast foot knob. A triangular catch plate
ran 14 mm along the length of the leg. Decoration included a vertical
groove along the length and width of the bow. The leg was decorated with
three lateral ridges and four lateral grooves, of varying width. There were
no side lugs.
<131> 1510 Stakehole in 47 mm long, hinged pin and axis bar made from ferrous material. The main
ditch body of the bow was tinned. This was an elaborate Hod Hill type
(Camulodunum XVIII;B). It had a continental style forward rolled, wide
head, which was decorated with two horizontal, moulded, knurled ridges,
either side of a wide groove. Two side lugs protruded unevenly from the
base of the bow. The bow was decorated with four lengthwise, knurled
ridges, two of which were marginal. Hence, three flutes were created along
the length of the bow. The flutes continued over onto the side lugs. The
junction between the bow and the leg was decorated with two transverse
ridges, followed at intervals by two more. The leg tapered slightly,
culminating in an integrally cast foot knob.
Table 48: Hod Hill type brooches
Baldock previously produced five other examples of simple Hod Hill brooches without the side lugs. Three
of these were very similar to SF <31>. Three simple Hod Hill type brooches were known from
Verulamium. One in particular bore a close resemblance to brooch <31> (Frere 1984, 24 fig 7 no. 36),
and was from the upper fill of a Flavian wall trench. The fill was dated to AD 80-100. Two of the five Hod
Hill brooches from the King Harry Lane Roman Settlement site were simple. They lacked lugs, and were
decorated with moulded grooves and ridges. One was tinned. Several Hod Hill types have been
recovered from Colchester. Only one was simple. This was dated to AD c 300 at the latest.
Other Hod Hill brooches (Camulodunum type XVIII;B) were obtained from Baldock during earlier
excavations (Stead & Rigby 1986, 118 fig 47 nos 112-6). Of five examples, four were very like brooch
<131>, whilst the other was more highly decorated. One example, dated to AD 60, is known from
Skeleton Green (Partridge 1981, fig 72 no. 55). Verulamium produced a small delicate version of this type
of brooch. It was sealed below Flavian metalling, in an occupation layer dating to AD 40 (Frere 1984, 26
fig 8). No brooches of this particular type were recovered from either period of the King Harry Lane site,
although other Hod Hill types were found there. Two Hod Hill (Camulodunum type XVIII; B) examples
were found at Colchester (Crummy 1983, 9 fig 5). One of the brooches was dated to AD c 75-125.

Unidentified Brooches
SF no. Context Feature Description
<115> 1443 Ditch fill Copper alloy fragment with remains of white metalling on the head and
bow. The hinge head was rolled forward around an iron axis bar. The bow
began with three lateral ridges. The bow itself was circular with a central,
round hole, and circular moulded grooves and ridges. Lugs protruded from
the middle of the bow. The whole of the remains of the brooch had become
flattened; the hinge itself, had been squashed, and the bow had no
curvature. The metal remains were probably those of a Hod Hill type
brooch. It is possible that, when the brooch broke, it was adapted as a
different ornament.
<54> 629 Ditch fill Copper alloy fragment. This was the distorted, lower fragment of a brooch,
including some of the bow, the foot, and part of the catch plate. The bow
was 'D' shaped in section and undecorated.
<74> 644 Solution Copper alloy fragment. This fragment of pin was probably from a sprung
hollow brooch
<82> 667 Solution Copper alloy fragment with a patch of corroded iron where the remnants of
hollow the axis bar were located The object appeared to be a pin from hinged
brooch
<109> 1402 Solution Copper alloy plated iron (?) pin from a brooch, some corrosion. Found with
hollow iron fragments. The pin had a looped head typical of that of a penannular
brooch. Looped pin fixings were in use from the 3rd century BC to the 14th
century AD. They were occasionally found on some iron bow brooches,
and on some repairs in the Roman period.
Table 49: Unidentified brooches

Recommendations
It is recommended that these artefacts be examined by an appropriate specialist to confirm their
identification and date. Comparison with assemblages of brooches from other sites in Baldock and the
wider region should also be undertaken to ascertain the relative economic status of the present site.

185
Finger-rings
SF no Context Feature Description
<9> 1 Spoil heap Copper alloy 19 mm internal diameter, 1.5 mm thick, 'D' shaped
section. The ring was 'tear drop' shaped, with a single clear glass
stone. Probably modern
<41> 504 pit/ditch fill Copper alloy, 13-14 mm internal diameter, 2 mm thick, round
section. Formed from a distorted single coil, possibly a very crude
ring. One end appeared to have been cut off, the other was broken.
Undecorated.
<43> 509 pit fill Copper alloy fragment, possibly part of a hexagonal ring; the flat
section was 0.5-1 mm thick
<152> 1811 pit fill Copper alloy, 18 mm internal diameter, 1 mm thick rectangular
section, 4 spiral coils
Table 50: Finger-rings
A plain, broken wire coil, similar to SF <41>, is known from Verulamium (Frere 1984, no. 64). It was found
in a Boudican destruction deposit behind a rampart. Colchester also provided an example of a crude coil
ring (Crummy 1983, no. 1758). One end of it had been cut off, but the other was moulded into three
beads. The ring was thought to have been cut down from an armlet. It was interpreted as an early type of
ring.
Octagonal rings are generally ascribed to the middle or late empire. At Verulamium, an octagonal finger
ring was retrieved from Late Roman bog mud, beside a river (Frere 1984, no. 62). No exact parallels were
retrieved from Colchester. However, a white metal, hexagonal finger ring, thought to be from the fourth
century AD, was found there (Crummy 1983, no. 1788).
Rings made up of two or three coils are known from previous excavations of Baldock (Stead & Rigby
1986, nos 199-201). The stratigraphy indicated that these rings were early. The two coil ring was
Neronian. The earlier of the two three coil rings was from a burial which cut into a ditch dating to the first
century BC. The later three coil ring was from the first quarter of the first century AD. A three coil ring is
known from Colchester (Crummy 1983, no. 1759). One terminal was pointed, and the other ended in a
rearward facing hook. The ring was dated to AD c 60-150.

Miscellaneous Jewellery
SF no Context Feature Description
<40 509 Pit fill Copper alloy. Fragment of fine coiled wire, 0.75 mm thick, similar to
stretched and flattened spring. No parallels found
<80> 667 Doline Copper alloy bracelet, possibly once tinned. Cross section oval, 4 mm
thick. One terminal rounded, the other broken. Undecorated.
<103> 475 Grave fill Circular copper alloy bead, external diameter 11 mm, hole 5.5 mm in
diameter. D-shaped in cross section, 5 mm thick. No parallels found
<129> 1773 Doline Copper alloy object, possibly an earring. Coiled metal wound anti-clockwise
for 4 turns. Diameter 10.5 mm. Hook broken off
<142> 1508 Ditch fill Copper alloy, ?bracelet. twisted wire, cross section 0.5 mm thick and 2 mm
wide. Undecorated. Distorted, terminals broken off.
<154> 1802 Doline Copper alloy, ?pendant. Circular, diameter 9.5 mm. 2 holes punched
through. No parallels found
Table 51: Miscellaneous jewellery
A possible parallel to SF <80> was found during previous excavations in Baldock . It was thought to be
quite late, dating from the fourth century AD (Stead & Rigby 1986, no. 180).
Several examples of coiled objects similar to SF 129 are known from previous excavations of Baldock.
These include numbers 202-205 (Stead & Rigby 1986); a four-coil artefact which was wound in a
clockwise direction, and three which were wound for three turns in an anti-clockwise direction. It was
speculated that these objects were earrings. Stratification indicated that they were an early type. The
four-coil earring was in a Claudian, or pre-Claudian layer, as was one of the three-coil earrings. Of the
other three-coil earrings, one was dated to the Neronian, and the other was thought to be residual in a
context which was earlier than the late second century. The King Harry Lane Roman settlement produced
one such example with four coils, and a possible earring fragment.
One possible parallel for SF <142> came from the Skeleton Green site (Partridge 1981, no. 8/930 G24
(4)). This was a twisted wire bracelet with a flattened section.
No comparable objects were found from the sources to identify SF <154> as a pendant. It is possible that
the piece was part of a rumbler bell, as recovered from Verulamium (Frere 1984, 52 fig 21 no. 195).

186
Recommendations
The finger rings and miscellaneous jewellery should be examined by an appropriate specialist to confirm
the identification and date of the objects. They should also be compared to similar assemblages from
Baldock and the wider region to try and obtain a picture of the relative economic status of the present site.

Toilet Instruments
SF no Context Feature Description
<39> 509 Pit fill Copper alloy ear scoop/ligula, 42 mm long. Shaft flat and square in section,
single medial groove down length of reverse side. Both ends flattened, one
with small hole for suspension loop, the other larger with rounded triangular
terminal.
<53> 510 Ditch fill Copper alloy ear scoop, 50 mm long, undecorated, distorted. Upper end of
shaft bent. Shaft flat, sub-rectangular in section. One end pierced for
suspension loop, broken; other a rounded bowl-shaped scoop.
<67> 645 Cremation Copper alloy ear-scoop/ligula, 47 mm long. Shaft plain, round in section. 4
lateral grooves around junction with suspension loop, broken. Terminal
scooped and rounded.
<70> 644 Doline Copper alloy fingernail-scraper, 38 mm long. Transverse neck, pierced for
suspension. Neck plain, grooves on body.
<72> 645 Cremation Copper alloy finger-nail scraper, 42 mm long. Body flattened, tapered to
broken tip. Zigzag lines decorated oval neck, on same plane as body. Head
round and pierced
<79> 667 Doline Copper alloy ear-scoop?. Broken at both ends. Shaft was rolled, hollow and
undecorated.
<121> 1403 Ditch fill Copper alloy finger-nail scraper, 40 mm long. Transverse head pierced for
suspension. Herringbone decoration on neck, body plain
<128> 1404 Ditch fill Copper alloy, ?part of toilet set, 45 mm long. Flat with leaf shaped body.
Knurled border grooves on front, back plain. 2 laterally moulded ribs at
junction between body and neck. Fluting on neck. Both ends broken off.
<164> 1290 Well fill Copper alloy, ?tweezers, 35 mm long. All that remained was an
undecorated, flattened strip of metal, 4mm wide, flaring to 5mm.
Table 52: Toilet instruments
Toilet instruments, such as ear-scoops and nail scrapers, are common from Roman settlement sites in
the region, including Baldock, Verulamium and Colchester.
The ear-scoops recovered from the present site could all be paralleled with other examples. Colchester
excavations produced an ear-scoop whose characteristics were similar to SF <39>, except for the bowl
shape of its scoop (Crummy 1983, 60 fig 64 no. 1900). This particular example was described, by
Crummy, as similar to one from a set from Gadebridge, Hertfordshire (Neal & Butcher 1974, 184 fig 62).
Similar ear-scoops to SF <53> have been recorded from Baldock, including numbers 266-274 (Stead &
Rigby 1986, 132 fig 56). King Harry Lane Roman settlement site also produced a comparable ear-scoop.
This was recovered from an occupation layer to the east of an Iron Age burial (Stead & Rigby 1989, 22 fig
14 no 89). An ear-scoop which appeared to display the same characteristics as SF <67> was found at
Verulamium (Frere 1984, 38 fig 14 no. 104). The artefact was recovered from an occupation deposit
underlying the yard of a Neronian building (AD 44-58). There were apparently two more examples, but
they were not illustrated. An ear-scoop similar to SF <79>, made by rolling a strip of sheet copper alloy,
was found at Colchester (Crummy 1983, 60 fig 64 no. 1898). It was dated to AD c 100-350.
Previous excavations at Baldock produced four comparable nail-scrapers to SF <70> from various
contexts (Stead & Rigby 1986, 130-3 fig 57 280-283). These artefacts were dated from the early third to
the late fourth century AD. The only examples of such items as SF <72>, where the neck and body were
on the same plane, came from Skeleton Green and Colchester. The nail scraper from Skeleton Green
(Partridge 1981, 105-6 fig 54 no. 14) was dated AD 15-25. The Colchester example (Crummy 1983, 58 fig
62 no. 1869) came from a stake hole dated to AD 60-80. However, there were no examples which
combined the above characteristic with a decorated oval neck, tapering body and suspension ring. In the
past, a number of nail-scrapers similar to SF <121> have been recovered from Baldock (Stead & Rigby
1986, 132-3 figs 56 & 57, nos 277, 278 & 282).
Assuming that SF <164> was a pair of tweezers, it must have broken at the loop. Excavations in
Colchester produced a pair of tweezers from a pit dated AD 320 - 450 which matched this description
(Crummy 1983, 62 fig 67 no. 1943).

Tacks, Nails and Studs

SF no Context Feature Description
<2> 201 Clearance Copper alloy tack; thin flat head, 7-8 mm diameter, 0.25 mm thick; shank 6
layer mm long, 4 sided, tapered
<35> 610 Doline Copper alloy tack; flat head, 6mm diameter; shank 4.5 mm long; object
187
 badly corroded.
<64> 644 Doline Metal uncertain; flat head, 13 mm diameter, with concentric groove; shank
bent.
<134> u/s u/s Copper alloy stud; plain domed head, 25 mm diameter; rectangular tapered
shank.
<135> u/s u/s Copper alloy stud; domed head, 21 mm diameter; shank square, bent ,
broken
Table 53: tacks, nails and studs
Two tacks identified from previous Baldock excavations were similar to SF <2> in form, having square
sectioned, tapering shanks, but they were decorated (Stead & Rigby 1986, nos 345-6). Nails with flat
heads and square sectioned shafts were found at Colchester (Crummy 1983, nos 3057-3073), although
none were of the same proportions as SF <2>. Dates for the Colchester nails were broad, ranging from
AD c 49-400+. A similar object to SF <64> was found at Verulamium (Frere 1984, no. 152). The flat
headed nail was made from thin sheet. The rim was rolled over and defined by a slight groove, along
which it had been partly cut away. This particular nail was recovered from a layer dated to AD 150-250.
A number of studs with large domed heads were known from previous Baldock sites. However none were
entirely like SF <134>. One dome headed stud was known from the King Harry Lane Roman settlement
site. At Verulamium, a dome headed stud was recovered from an occupation layer dating to AD 160-230
(Frere 1984, no. 153). Studs with domed heads also came from Colchester (Crummy 1983, no. 3173).
Two were dated from AD c 100-300. Less substantial examples of dome headed studs were already
known from Baldock. Verulamium produced a more solid example, but this came from an undated
context.

Pins
SF no Context Feature Description
<30> 508 Ditch/pit Copper alloy; bent & incomplete; 75 mm+ long; round section; tapered.
<143> 1215 Well fill Copper alloy plated iron; 37.5 mm long; round section, tapered. Head
broken off
<145> 1521 Doline Copper alloy; 23 mm long; round in section, point broken; round head.

Table 54: Pins

A fine dress making pin, found at the King Harry Lane Roman settlement site, was of a similar size to SF
<145>. There were also fragments of three other pins, also thought to be dress making pins (Stead &
Rigby 1989, 24 fig 16 nos 126-7).

Buttons
SF no Context Feature Description
<14> 1 Spoil heap Copper alloy; sub-circular c 19 mm diameter; 0.5 mm thick at edge, thicker
in centre. Post-medieval
<23> 301 Clearance machine made. Post-medieval
<24> 301 Clearance Metal uncertain; 16 mm long, shank cylindrical, flared at each end to form 2
wide, flat heads; 1 19 mm diameter, the other 7.5 mm. ?post-medieval
Table 55: Buttons
A similar object to SF <24> is known from Baldock (Stead & Rigby 1986, no. 355). This was smaller,
being only 9 mm long, and had notched decoration around the larger disc. Verulamium produced a
smaller, elaborately decorated version of the object (Frere 1984, no. 144). This was thought to be third
century, having come from the earth above some Antonine gravel metalling.

Miscellaneous Non Ferrous Metal Objects

SF no Context Feature Description
<10> 1 spoil heap Copper alloy plated object; diameter 44 mm. Circular hollow object. ?door
knob. Post medieval.
<17> - u/s Copper alloy plated object; rectangular; modern
<20> - u/s metal button, plastic coated; modern
<21> - u/s 3 copper alloy objects; ?part of horse harness; post-medieval
<36> 508 ditch/pit fill Copper alloy; hollow shaft, 16 mm long, from rolled sheet of copper; the
end hammered flat in chamfered, chisel-like shape. Undated
<42> 509 pit fill Copper alloy strip; corroded; folded along 1 edge, bent. Undated
<44> 509 pit fill Copper alloy fragment; 1 edge jagged; incised double lines on 1 side;
curved. Undated
<52> 610 solution Copper alloy fragment; 7-9 mm wide, 44 mm long, 2 mm thick; one end
hollow appears stretched and bent. Undated
<106> 1212 post hole fill Copper alloy; roughly circular, hole through centre; external diameter 21-22

188
 mm, internal 7 mm. ?copper washer. ?post-medieval
<125> 1201 surface Copper alloy; rectangular loop, 16 mm x 9.5 mm, cast in 1 piece with short
clearance projection that had snapped off. Dress or belt fitting? Post-medieval?
<126> 1246 solution Copper alloy knife sheath terminal; 61 mm long, widest point 20 mm,
hollow narrowest point 4.5 mm. Made in2 parts, 1 piece slotted into the curled
edges of the other. Terminated with a rounded bobble. Decorative grooves
ran parallel to edges. ?Romano-British
<138> 1711 ditch fill Silver spoon, approximately 145 mm long. Round bowled 'cochleare', with
a rib around the inside of the bowl; reverse conical in shape. Handle
tapered, bent. ?Romano-British.
Table 56: Miscellaneous non-ferrous metal objects
No exact matches could found for the spoon SF <138>. The closest was a bronze spoon from
Verulamium (Frere 1984, 40 fig 15 no. 121). The reverse of the bowl, however, was not conical. The
spoon was undated.

Lead Objects
SF no. Context Feature Description
136 u/s - Rectangular object, 16 mm x 18 mm, made from 2 flattened layers of metal.
Probably section of crushed tubing. Post-medieval
22 301 clearance Part of socketed tool. Undated
Table 57: Lead objects

Intaglios
M Henig [revised 2006]

1 BAL-1 1982 F614 L(1) <4649>

Iron ring, incomplete. Diameter c 20 mm. Width across bezel, 11 mm. Henig Type III.
The ring is set with an intaglio of pale cornelian (flat oval, 10 × 8 mm). It depicts (impression described)
Mercury standing to the front and facing left. In his right hand he holds his purse (marsupium) and in his
left, his herald‟s staff (caduceus); he is nude apart from the chlamys draped over his left arm. Ground line.
The type is a common one and there are numerous examples from Britain (see Henig 1978 nos 38-45;
App 32, App 95. In style it is most closely comparable with nos 40, 41; also with an example in the Dutch
Royal Collection, Maaskant-Kleibrink 1978, no. 822). The gem may be dated with some confidence to the
late first century AD.

2 BAL-2 1981 <1578>

Intaglio – pale cornelian with red agate banding (flat, oval. Form F1. 11 × 10 × 2 mm).
The device is a sitting quadruped of indeterminate species, a cow (or perhaps a deer) with a haulm of
corn behind. Ground line.
Compare an intaglio from Gloucester depicting a standing cow with a haulm in front of it (Rankov et al.
1982, 413 no. 24 pl. XL B). In addition two gems found at Xanten, Steiner 1911, nos 174 and 175
(respectively, from the Colonia Traiana and from Vetera I) and another in collection in Copenhagen,
probably from Italy (Fossing 1929, no. 1804) also show bovines with corn-stalks. (Fossing 1929, no. 1372
shows a ram with ears of corn in front of it). The device, of course, evokes the prosperity of the
countryside.
Probable date, second half of first century AD.

5 BAL-1 1982 F430 <3749>

Glass gem imitative of nicolo, with a sky blue upper surface on a black ground (Form F1. 10 × 8.5 × 1.5
mm). The intaglio is moulded, not cut.
A raven or crow stands in profile to the right.
Compare the device on a green glass intaglio from Fishbourne, Sussex (Henig 1978, no. 674 = Henig in
Cunliffe 1971, 89f no. 3); also an intaglio in the Dutch Royal Collection (Maaskant-Kleibrink 1978, no.
462; corvine not a parrot, as stated)).
In cult, the raven was sacred to the god Apollo.
First or second century AD

189
Glass

Glass from Wallington Road

Denise Allen [1985, revised 2006]

Cremation burial B55

Blue-green glass bottles were made in a great variety of shapes and sizes as containers for a wide range
of liquids. Those with square bodies were produced for longer than other forms, and are also the most
numerous (Price & Cottam 1998, 194-198). Manufacture began some time just before the middle of the
first century AD, and continued probably until the end of the second century. They occur throughout the
Roman world, in funerary as well as domestic contexts. Larger bottles were often reused as cinerary urns,
whilst the smaller were included in burials probably because their contents formed part of the grave
goods. This particular bottle, Vessel B, is small, thin-walled and quite roughly made, and is likely to be
allied to a group of similar vessels discussed with reference to two fragmentary bottles from a pit of c 160-
170 AD from Felmongers, Harlow in Essex (Price 1987, 197-9, nos. 33-4, fig. 4). Both Felmongers
vessels have a basal trade-mark comprising of diagonal cross with pellets at the centre, on the terminals
and between the arms of the cross. Identical bottles, all presumably made from the same mould, have
come from Colchester, Maidstone and Staines. The Baldock find is not identical, but is similar in size and
overall appearance, including details such as the flat, unribbed handle. In addition, the simple geometric
basal design bears some resemblance to that on the Felmongers group, comprising of two concentric
circles with the arms of a diagonal cross with pellets near the terminals protruding from the outer. Price
suggests that these small, carelessly made bottles were produced at sites in Britain to presumably supply
local demand for small quantities of substances more frequently transported in larger containers.
The colourless glass cup, Vessel C, is of a type which was extremely popular during the later second and
earlier third centuries (Price & Cottam 1998, 101-103). More than fifty vessels for example, have been
found at sites such as Verulamium and Caerleon, now in the collections at Verulamium Museum and
National Museum of Wales. The cylindrical form, with its two concentric base-rings, is closely related to a
complete cup previously found at Baldock (Westell 1931a, 275-6, no. 4828, fig. 6). The earlier find differs
slightly in having a slightly everted rim with horizontal trail beneath the rim and on the carination, rather
that the plain body and near-vertical rim of the more recent find. The earliest dated finds of the form from
Britain are four fragments from late Antonine contexts at Lullingstone Roman villa (Cool & Price 1987,
112, no. 349), and production seems to have continued to about 230 AD.
Thus both vessels represent forms in common usage in Roman Britain. The period of overlap of their
circulation was the later second century, and this is therefore the most likely date for the burial which
contained them: a larger burial group from Esch in the Netherlands which includes vessels of both these
types has been dated to the last quarter of the second century (van den Hurk 1977, 119f., grave VI, 21,
22 and 23, figs. 43-5).

Glass from BAL-15 1994

Catherine Holgate [1995]

Introduction
A total of 20 pieces of glass were recovered during the excavations; the majority are considered to be of a
Romano-British date, although one significant piece is thought to be of a Late Iron Age date. The glass
fragments represent a range of vessels, including bottles, flasks, flagons and bowls and several pieces
relate to objects of glass jewellery such as beads. The preservation of the glass was generally good in all
cases, but fragmentary.

Assemblage Assessment

Glass Beads
SF no. Context Feature Description
<97> 965 Grave Annular bead, internal diameter 7 mm, external diameter 14 mm; the
thickness varied from 4.5-6.5 mm. The bead was made from a translucent,
deep cobalt blue glass, which was quite bubbly. It was undecorated.
<98> 965 Grave Annular bead, diameter of perforation 7 mm, external diameter 18 mm,
thickness 7.55 mm. The bead was made from translucent, natural green
glass. The glass was bubbly, and there were rough, wavy striations around
the surface, indicative of winding during the production process. There
appeared to be a couple of inclusions of foreign material.
<99> 965 Grave Annular bead, diameter of perforation 7 mm, external diameter 16.5 mm;
thickness varied from 6.5-7.5 mm. The bead was a translucent, deep cobalt
blue, and had occasional bubbles. Faint rough wavy lines ran around the

190
 surface, indicating part of the winding process.
<100> 965 Grave Annular bead, diameter of perforation 7.5 mm, external diameter 13.5 mm,
thickness 4.5 mm. This bead was slightly bubbly. It was a translucent, deep
cobalt blue. Faint and wavy striations circumnavigated the bead's surface.
<196> 664 Cremation Clear, round glass bead, perforation 1mm, external diameter 3 mm, 2 mm
thick.
Table 58: glass beads from BAL-15 1994

Discussion
Annular beads are known from all the other sources investigated. However, none were deep cobalt blue.
It is notable that beads were only recovered from mortuary contexts, despite extensive sampling across
all feature types in all areas.

Glass Vessels
SF no. Context Feature Description
<33> 610 Solution Rim sherd, from a vessel with a 40 mm diameter. The glass was folded
hollow over and returned to form a hollow rim. It was translucent olive green.
<119> 1270 Well Translucent, amber, glass rim sherd, 30-40 mm diameter. Possibly from a
plate, Formed by folding the glass over.
<156> 1847 Road Translucent, pale natural blue glass fragment, could have been part of a
rim or a bead.
<170> 1007 Solution Fragment of translucent amber glass, with few air bubbles, possibly a rim
hollow sherd.
<173> 1864 Ditch Good quality, curved fragment of clear glass, possibly from the body of a
vessel
<228> 426 Cremation Fragment of clear glass, probably from the wall of a vessel
Table 59: glass vessels from BAL-15 1994

Glass Gaming Pieces

SF no. Context Feature Description
<118> 1270 Well A possible gaming piece, which was round, 16.5 mm diameter, 5 mm thick.
The object was made from porous, opaque yellow, undecorated glass. It
was plano-convex.
Table 60: glass gaming pieces from BAL-15 1994
An opaque, blue gaming counter came from previous Baldock excavations (Stead & Rigby 1986, 194 fig
84 no 898). The piece was larger than SF <118>, being 32 mm in diameter by 14 mm thick. The King
Harry Lane Iron Age cemetery yielded an opaque white gaming counter and an opaque green blue
gaming counter (Stead & Rigby 1989, 276, fig 90 nos 10 & 11).

Miscellaneous Glass Objects

SF no. Context Feature Description
<199> 658 Cremation Unidentifiable clear glass fragment with a tiny fragment of iron. Glass
dimensions were 4 × 3 × 0.5 mm.
<204> 605 Cremation Four fragments of translucent, pale, natural blue glass. One piece was
especially abraded. This effect was thought to have been caused by high
temperatures.
<211> 1785 Cremation A fragment of unidentified clear glass.
<212> 1786 Cremation Tiny fleck of translucent pale green glass.
Table 61: miscellaneous glass objects from BAL-15 1994

Recommendations
The glass should be examined by an appropriate specialist to determine, where possible, age and
chemical composition.

Pottery
Samian

The samian from Wallington Road

Brenda Dickenson [1985]

191
Most of the stamped vessels listed in the feature catalogue are substantially complete, though usually in
pieces. All seem to be used vessels, two are distorted and a few have been riveted. All the surviving
footrings, and some of the rims, show signs of wear or erosion.

The potters' stamps

The format for each entry: potter (i, ii etc. where homonyms are involved), die number, form of vessel,
reading of stamp, pottery of origin.
a. indicates a stamp attested at the pottery in question.
b. not attested at the pottery in question, though the potter is known to have worked there.
c. assigned to the pottery on the evidence of fabric, distribution etc.

Discussion
Keith J Fitzpatrick-Matthews [1989]
There are forty-five samian vessels from cremation burial groups within the cemetery, all dish and cup
forms, reflecting the use of eating and drinking vessels as accessory vessels. Many had been subjected
to heavy usage by the time of deposition; some vessels may have been used over a fairly lengthy period,
long enough to have been regarded as antiques. B121, possibly the very latest burial, contained a bowl
not less than 165 years old.
Of the forty-five vessels, thirty-three (73.3%) definitely have stamps. However, only two (4.4%) are
certainly unstamped, the remainder lacking the relevant portions of their bases. This compares closely
with Skeleton Green, Braughing, where twenty-one of thirty samian vessels, 70%, in the early Romano-
British cremation cemetery were stamped (Partridge 1981). Helen Ashworth suggests that a deliberate
attempt to provide stamped vessels was made at Wallington Road and presumably also at Skeleton
Green, although it is difficult to know the proportion of stamped vessels in use in the contemporary
communities, as most vessels were discarded after breakage.

Graffiti on samian pottery from the Roman cemeteries at Baldock, Herts.

E W Black [2005]

Abbreviations
BG Caesar de Bello Gallico
RIB II.6 Frere & Tomlin 1994
RIB II.7 Frere & Tomlin 1995a
RIB II.8 Frere & Tomlin 1995b

Wallington Road Cemetery

i BAL-11 B38 C (Fig 00)
The numeral XII is cut on the base of the foot-ring, probably pre-firing. A graffito cut post-firing
inside the foot-ring could be a carelessly-formed E. An element like an A on its side is present
attached to one end of the letter. The E and A (again on its side) are found as separate
elements, together with an X, on a flask from a cremation burial at Ospringe in Kent (Burial CLII)
(Whiting et al. 1931, Pl. LII, no. 485). On a pot from another Ospringe burial (Burial XII), the E
and A are ligatures and a bisected O occurs as a separate element (Whiting et al. 1931, Pl. LII,
no. 42). In view of these parallels, it is proposed that the Baldock graffito should be read as a
ligatured E and A.
ii BAL-11 B57 C
Numerals X and XI are cut at separate points on the base of the foot-ring, probably pre-firing.
iii BAL-11 B67 A D (fig. 00)
Inside the foot-ring are parts (about half) of two letters, probably X and X. On the exterior below
the carination are two further letters, both probably A. The outer arms are clear in both cases. A
very small part of the inner arm is just visible in one letter, projecting diagonally from right to left.
In the other letter, the inner arm is clear and projects diagonally from left to right. The latter form
of A is unusual but can be matched in RIB II.6 2494.127; II.7 2501.150; II.8 2503.93 and
2503.539 and on pots from Ospringe (Burials LXXVIII and XCI) (Whiting et al. 1931, Pl. LII, nos
269 and 310).
iv BAL-11 B71 C (fig. 00)
Inside the foot-ring is a X. At least one arm seems to have been re-cut.

192
v BAL-11 B132 A (Fig. 00)
Inside the foot-ring is a six-spoked wheel. This was originally cut as a X and two deeper cuts,
not quite aligned, were the made to / from the junction of its arms.
vi BAL-11 B133 C (Fig. 00)
X has been cut on the carination of the exterior of the vessel.
vii BAL-11 B190 D (Fig. 00)
A single letter, either a D or O, has been cut inside the foot-ring. A triangular O of this form is
found in RIB II.7 25091.20 and on a pot from Ospringe (Burial XXXVII) (Whiting et al. 1931, Pl.
LII no. 126).
Figure 82: Graffiti on samian from Wallington Road cemetery

Walls Field cemetery

Burial 2 pot <3202> (Fig. 00)
There is one arm of a letter and possibly an indication of a second arm (broken away) forming A
or V on the internal wall. This is not included in the table below.
Burial 45 pot <4585> (Fig. 00)
The symbol X had been cut on the external wall of the vessel.
Burial 46 pot <4590>
The numeral II has been cut on the base of the foot-ring, probably before firing.
Burial 59 pot <4633> (Fig. 00)
The graffiti were noted by Westell (1931a, 266). The symbol X has been cut on the external wall
of the vessel and another X inside the foot-ring.
Burial 61 pot <4644> (Fig. 00)
On the exterior wall below the carination is a six-spoked wheel and a separate single straight
line.
Burial 62 pot <4644>
The numeral XI has been cut on the carination on the exterior of the vessel. The number(s) II III
are cut on the base of the foot-ring, presumably before firing.
Burial 70 pot <4687> (Fig. 00)
Inside the foot-ring is a graffito like a rectangle lacking one short side. If this is a letter, the most
likely is perhaps O. RIB II.7 2501.139 has an O of this sort.
Burial 73 pot <4707> (Figs 00 & 00)
Westell (1931a, 270) gives the reading as ANNUS MININIATUI (?), noting “very heavy wear”. In
RIB II.7 2501.144, the reading is given as COSSSATVRNVSTA MININIATVS and it is
suggested that this is “by several hands”. The inscription is broken down as Coss(us) Saturnus
[……]ta Mininiatus. It is suggested that there are cutting errors in the second and third
elements, presumably the X between the R and N of Saturnus and the repetition of IN in the
name Miniatus. However, the drawing of the inscription in RIB contains an error. The T of the
element [……]ta following Saturnus does not exist. The strokes interpreted as a T are in fact
part of an attempt to obliterate the name Saturnus (the “very heavy wear” noted by Westell).
The X in the middle of Saturnus and the A following it can now be seen as the first elements in
the graffito. The name Saturnus has been carefully placed in relation to these letters and, like
the preceding Coss, is more deeply cut that them of the final name Mininatus. However, apart
from the different fineness of the cutting of these elements, there is no significant difference in
the letter forms (the different forms of A are recurrent, even in the same word, in Romano-British
graffiti). It is possible that the first cutting of the inscription was X or A, or X and A with
Mininatus. The addition COSSATVRNVS looks as though it was intended as a consular date.
COSS is correct for consulibus (“the consuls”) but there should then be two following names in
the ablative case. Unfortunately, the single name SATVRNVS is nominative. Nor is Saturnus
recorded as the name of a Consul in the second half of the second century AD, when the burial
was made. However, in AD 198, Publius Martius Sergius Saturninus was consul ordinarius with
Lucius Aurelius Gallus. It seems more than coincidence that the letters of Saturninus‟s name
omitted in Saturnus should be those that were added to Miniatus (giving Mininiatus). The
occurrence of the name in the nominative when it should be in a different case, here the
ablative, is a feature of Romano-British graffiti. Tentatively, it is suggested that the original
inscription should have read X A MINIATVS and that it was intended to add the consular date
COSS SATVRNINO ET GALLO. It was realised before this was finished that the letters IN had
been transposed from Saturninus to Miniatus and the dating formula was then scored over,
leaving A Mininiatus to be read.
193
Burial 96 pot <4790> (Fig. 00)
The symbol X has been cut right across the inside of the foot-ring.
Burial 107 pot <4837> (Fig. 00)
On the exterior wall above the carination is a graffito that looks like the letter A on its side with a
straight line parallel to one arm of the A. There is a second possible graffito of similar form but
this is worn and is listed in the table as uncertain. On the interior of the base are three groups of
line, all very faint. One seems to have four short parallel lines. A second has a ligatured X and
A. The third, positioned between these, seems to consist of X with other lines crossing the arms
but is classified here as uncertain.
Burial 109 pot <4843> (Fig. 00)
The letter A has been cut on the interior wall of the vessel.
Burial 121 pot <4960>
This is noted by Westell (1931a, 268) who gives the reading ?CAIMANU. In RIB II.7 2501.139,
the reading is given as COMA IV. A vertical line has been added over the final V and it is
possible that MA should be read as a ligatured MM, so giving the reading COMMIV(S), with an
additional vertical line, or COMMII, if the vertical line is taken as replacing the V.
Burial 128 pot <4983> (Fig. 00)
Inside the foot-ring is the letter A.
Burial 309 pot <5788> (Fig. 00)
Inside the foot-ring is a graffito noted as a “double-armed cross” by Westell (1931a, 290). A
parallel for this is RIB II.7 2501.855 from a well in Walls Field. This is described as a blundered
X, but both graffiti could be a ligature of X and A. A similar graffito occurs on a vessel from
Ospringe (Burial CLVIII) (Whiting et al. 1931, Pl. LII no. 507).
Burial 313 pot <5800> (Fig. 00)
Inside the foot-ring are two letters. One is an A. The other seems to be X, but an additional line
crosses the top of the letter, forming a possible ligature of X and A on its side.
Unnumbered burial pot <3272>
Westell (1931a, 281) noted the graffito SIIAVS? on the underside of a samian form 31 among
pottery from an estimated one hundred burials which could not be assigned to distinct burial
groups. In RIB II.7 2501.525 the reading is given as SVAIIS (retrograde), presumably for
Suavis, positioned below the carination.
Burial 45 pot <4586>, Burial 11 pot <4951> and Burial 123 pot <4969> may have traces of graffiti but
these are too uncertain.
Figure 83: Graffiti on samian from Walls Field cemetery

BAL-1
Neither of these has been seen by the writer and his comments are based on drawings.
F619
i On the exterior wall of a vessel in Late Pre-Roman Iron Age fabric (Fabric 2). A possible reading
is MAT with the first two letters ligatured. A number of Celtic names start with the element
Mat(…) (Cf. RIB II.6 2494.151; II.7 2501.361; 2501.363; II.8 2503.336).
ii On the inner surface of a vessel in LPRIA fabric (Fabric 2). It is uncertain whether the complete
graffito has been drawn. There are two elements, one of which is a X with an extension to one
arm. The second element may have been a smaller X or may have been part of the letter A.
Figure 84: Graffiti on pottery from BAL-1

Discussion
All the graffiti listed above (except the two on LPRIA pots) are on vessels deposited with burials in the
cemeteries of |Roman Baldock and all are on samian ware. A number of other pots and sherds bearing
graffiti have been excavated (Hassall 1986, 189-90). Most of these are names or abbreviations of names.
Because most of them do not come from graves they are not further considered here. Two samian
vessels listed by Hassall (1986, 189 nos 833 and 840 = RIB II.7 2501.377 and 570) accompanied the
same pre-Flavian burial (Clothall Road burial 7) and are considered along with the other funerary graffiti.
These are:
i a form 18 with A and the name Meleniu(s) inside the footring and X on the exterior of the footring
ii a form 24 with X and the name Vatila inscribed on the lower wall.

194
With the addition of these two, the number of vessels bearing graffiti from the Baldock Roman cemeteries
rises to 25. Two of these have numerals incised on the base of the foot-ring and are probably pre-firing.
The remaining 23 pots closely matches the 21 samian vessels with graffiti known from the cemeteries of
the similar roadside settlement at Ospringe in Kent (Whiting et al. 1931). There, a further 19 other vessels
(including two amphorae) carry post-firing graffiti and a similar proportion (c 50% of the total) might be
expected on non-samian vessels from the Baldock cemeteries, but data on these is not yet available.
Bearing in mind that the sample from Ospringe is almost twice as numerous as from Baldock, the content
of the graffiti from the two sites is remarkably consistent. The graffiti from Ospringe comprise some 74
elements (ligatured elements are counted separately and single names, abbreviated names and lines of
text where these occur are each counted as a single element, entered in the table under Name). At
Baldock, there are some 37 elements. The elements can be classified into groups as follows (Table 45).
Elements Baldock Ospringe
A 6 12
A duplicated/multiple 3 7
AN(T) 3
E 1 3
O ?2 1
Bisected O 5
O with cross 4
X 10 17
Duplicated X 2 3
Name 5 6
Trident/Gridiron 2
Wheel 2 1
Number 1 1
Line(s) 2 5
Leaf-stop 2
Uncertain 3 2
Total 37 74

Table 62: frequency of graffiti types on burial pottery, Baldock and Ospringe
It can be seen from Table 62 that the most common elements are A and X. These are sometimes paired
and can be ligatures, and sometimes they are duplicated on the same pot. A appears with a much larger
E in three out of its four occurrences. A, E and X can all appear with O. There are only two occurrences of
O at Baldock and these are not altogether certain, though this seems the most likely letter form. At
Ospringe, there is a great variety of forms; however, all but one example are bisected or contain a X. A
and X both occur on a vessel from the pre-Flavian Clothall Road burial 7 at Baldock and are also found
on inscribed vessels from a rich burial at Stanway, Colchester, probably of pre-conquest date (pers.
comm. P Crummy). X is certainly and A possibly present on a pre-conquest vessel from Feature 619 in
Baldock BAL-1. This was a residual find in a late Roman quarry at a road junction opposite a burial
enclosure of the late first century BC. Unfortunately, it is not possible to determine its original context, or
that of another pre-Roman sherd bearing a graffito found in the same feature.
At Ospringe, there are two occurrences of AN and one of ANT, with the A and N ligatured in each case. It
seems probable that AN(T) is an expanded form of the much more common A. If so, this is an important
point since it shows that A stands for a word Ant(…) and is not an “owner‟s mark” with no other meaning
or wider significance. The use of A and X, and the smaller numbers of E and O, in the sample to the
virtual exclusion of other available letters or other symbols indicated that these letters were inscribed as
appropriate to this funerary context. In view of the very early Roman, and possibly pre-Roman dating, of A
on pottery, it is possible that it and Ant… are abbreviations of a Celtic rather than a Latin term. The word
andumnos occurs in the form antumnos in a Gallic text from Larzac near the samian production centre at
La Graufesenque. It seems to gave had the sense of “very deep” and was used to mean “the Underworld”
(Meid 1994, 40). It is possible that the abbreviations inscribed on the ports from these burials stood for
this or some derivative word.
At Ospringe, we find O, bisected O and O enclosing a cross. The O occurs as a circle, trapezoid, semi-
circle and triangle. One of the possible Baldock examples if a triangle, the other a rectangle missing one
side. This is found as a graffito on a pre-Roman or earliest Roman vessel at Silchester, where a bisected
O is flanked by X and A (RIB II.8 2503.93). A graffito on a samian form 33 from a late second century
cremation burial at Skeleton Green (Burial LIX) reads: ORKI VOT(VM), “a vow for Orcus” (RIB II.7
2501.20) with Orcus, a Roman name for the Underworld, standing for the god of the Underworld. This
suggests the possibility that O is the first letter of Orcus and that it stands for the Latinised equivalent of
Ant…, either the Underworld or a god of the Underworld. The almost universal abbreviation of these
names to a single letter, A or O, indicates that there may have been a taboo against writing the name of
such a deity. At Ospringe, the O is usually bisected by a single line or divided by a X. This treatment of
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the O can be regarded as prophylactic, an additional precaution taken by those making a dedication to an
Underworld deity. A straight line was used to bisect an A on one pot from Ospringe (Burial CXLVII)
(Whiting et al. 1931, Pl. LII no. 472), where a X was also present, but it is the X which most often
accompanies the A. Where X occurs alone, it probably had the same prophylactic function. The same
may apply to so simple an element as a straight line. At Stanway, this is found on the base of a vessel in
an assemblage of graffiti full of funerary symbolism (pers. comm. P Crummy).
The rare E occurs with A on two out of three vessels from Ospringe and once at Baldock and was
presumably another abbreviated name or cult title of an Underworld deity. Unfortunately, there is no
further indication of what this might be at present.
X and A are combined with names on two Baldock funerary vessels and on one from Ospringe (Whiting
et al. 1931, Pl. LII no. 472). In all three cases (Meleniu(s), Min<in>iatus and Victorianus), the names are
in the nominative case. Since we are dealing with vota (dedications), the names are not there to indicate
possession (where the genitive would be required) or the recipient of the dedication (that would be the
dative case). These must be the names of dedicators.
If X carries the prophylactic meaning assigned to it here, it must be distinguished from “wheels” with six or
more spokes. A parallel for the two occurrences at Baldock is provided by a vessel from a pre-Roman
burial at Westhampnett in Sussex, where a single straight line (itself probably prophylactic) overlain by an
eight-spoked wheel occurs on the base (Fitzpatrick 1997, 168 Fig. 93, Burial 20253 pot 27163). Additional
examples come from the mid first century AD contexts at Billericay, where there was an eight-spoked
wheel on the base of three pots, two certainly cremation urns (Rudling 1990, 29-31 nos 1, 4 and 9). It is
possible that these wheels are sun-symbols, such as that associated with a god, probably Taranis, on the
Farley Heath sceptre-binding (Bird 2004, 166 Fig. 81). If so, they perhaps represent a more optimistic
view of the afterlife, perhaps even the belief in resurrection described by Caesar in first century BC Gaul
(Caesar BG VI 14.5).

Coarse Wares
Helen Ashworth [1990, revised 2006]

Methods
Pottery was examined microscopically at ×10 magnification and classified according to inclusions in the
vessel fabric. Most of this work was based on the fabric series devised by Valery Rigby for the pottery
from Ian Stead's excavations from 1968 to 1972. The general aims of the pottery analysis were to try to
gain an understanding of the funeral ritual used in Romano-British Baldock and to see how this related to
a wider context. Very little has been written on this subject but it has been possible to make some general
comparisons with Romano-British cremation cemeteries at Skeleton Green (Braughing), Verulamium and
Welwyn, as well as with previous cemetery excavations in Baldock.
It should be noted at this point that all dates used in this discussion are approximate dates for the
manufacture of the pottery and not probable date of burial. Dates for individual burials can be found in the
summary tables for the different cemeteries in Chapter 4 and in the catalogues found on the DVD-ROM,
where the detailed evidence for dating is given.

Pottery from Late Pre-Roman Iron Age Burials in Baldock

A large quantity of Late Pre-Roman Iron Age pottery was recovered from the series of excavations carried
out by North Hertfordshire Museums between 1980 and 1994. Much of this material is in the form of
abraded sherds from storage jars. However, there is a considerable body of definite and probable
funerary pottery. Some was excavated from in situ burials around the large and small enclosures at
California and at Icknield Way East; the remainder was apparently disturbed and redeposited in pits and
ditches during the Romano-British period. Therefore much of the pottery examined in this report is
assumed to have accompanied burials, despite not being excavated as such.
In view of these two distinct groups of material, each group was examined separately, with another
section for contemporary and later features within the California large enclosure (F95 and F13/14). A
fourth section examines the pottery from the small Late Iron Age to Early Romano-British cemetery in
Icknield Way East.

In situ burials
Most of the ancient cemeteries in Baldock show evidence for LPRIA burials. Those burials clearly
associated with such discrete cemeteries will be examined in the relevant reports. This section will deal
with the pottery from sixteen in situ burials – fifteen cremations and one inhumation. These include the
graves from the California Large Enclosure, where six satellite burials were located around the rich
central cremation; there was also a small group of burials from the linear enclosure at Mercia Road to the
south-east of the California Large Enclosure. The pottery mostly comprises locally produced grog and
196
shell-tempered vessels. There are no Gallo-Belgic wares and only one native copy of a Gallo-Belgic
import. Although this does not necessarily indicate an early date of burial, it does suggest either that the
population of Baldock were extremely poor or that most of these in situ burials belong to the period 50-15
BC. The lack of accompanying metalwork, coupled with this lack of ceramic imports does, indeed,
indicate that the burials from the enclosure belong to the mid to late first century BC. Few of the in situ
burials had survived intact. Of the satellite burials within the large enclosure, only feature F64 had
survived at all well. The remainder were represented by base fragments and undiagnostic sherds, the
result of Romano-British and later activity within the enclosure. This later activity probably also cleared
other satellite burials entirely.
At Mercia Road, the survival of the funerary groups was slightly better: two of the pedestalled vessels in
F134 and one in F312 survived to approximately half their height. The vessels in F311 were recovered
more-or-less intact, as was an urn found beneath the new Catholic Church in 1975, at the South Road
cemetery on the other side of Baldock. The relatively good survival of these outlying burials, compared
with the poor state of the pottery from the burials within the enclosure, is indicative of the amount of later
activity within this area.
As could be expected, the most popular form of ceramic grave-gift was the grog-tempered pedestalled
jar; this was usually the plain jar with quoit foot. There were four in F134 and the remains of others of this
type from satellite burials F7, F66, F80 and F81 in the large enclosure at California. The rich central
bucket burial, F106, also contained a nearly complete example of this type of vessel. It is difficult to date,
as it appeared in the late first century BC and continued throughout the pre-conquest period (Thompson
1982, 37). However it appears that the plain, quoit foot jar was the earliest type of pedestal jar found at
King Harry Lane, St Albans (pers comm V Rigby), perhaps an indication of the early date of the burial.
Two trumpet pedestalled jars were recovered from cremation F312. This form is described as being
unusual from LPRIA burials in Hertfordshire, since, apart from the example in Welwyn 'D', the remaining
examples have been recovered from satellite contexts (Thompson 1982, 65). This is probably the result
of a lack of funerary evidence rather than an actual division along the Hertfordshire/Essex county
boundary. Trumpet pedestalled jars have also been excavated from the King Harry Lane cemetery, St
Albans, (Stead & Rigby 1989, 177).
The size of the grave groups varies from one vessel, as in most of the satellite burials, to groups of two,
(F64), three (F312) or four (F311 and F134). This is common with other burials in Hertfordshire: variation
in the number of vessels in the grave group was also observed at King Harry Lane. It is possible that this
was an indication of socio-economic status, with metal vessels reserved for the very wealthiest burials.
Two LPRIA inhumations were excavated from the doline at California, F610 and F556. Inhumation F610
was the only one to contain pottery. It was possible to say, on the ceramic evidence, that this inhumation
predated the cremations, thus possibly providing a terminus ante quem for the introduction of cremation
as a burial rite in this area. Other pre-Conquest inhumations were recovered from the Wallington Road
cemetery (below) and from Stane Street. Cremation became the predominant burial rite in Baldock during
the Late Pre-Roman Iron Age, although evidence from the Royston Road cemetery demonstrates that it
was never the sole funerary ritual.
The sixteen definite burials must be only a small fraction of the original total, as shown by the amount of
LPRIA material recovered from non-funerary features, including those within the California large
enclosure.

Non-funerary features in the enclosure

The original ditch around the California large enclosure was backfilled some time in the early second
century AD. The enclosure was then used for various settlement activities, including corn drying, as
shown by the discovery of a T-shaped kiln, F13/14, cutting both the bucket burial, F106, and the pyre
débris pit, F95. The two early features, F95 and F106, produced pottery of the LPRIA and an amphora
body sherd. The later feature, F13/14, contained pottery of LPRIA date through to the mid second century
AD, including sherds from a grog-tempered jar and a shell-tempered lid-seated jar, both possibly from
disturbed burials. The ceramic evidence shows that features F95 and F106 were contemporary, probably
dating to c 50-15 BC, whilst the kiln, F13/14, was in use from the late first to mid second century AD. The
whole of this area was subject to contamination from medieval and post-medieval pottery, a result of
ploughing activity.

Pottery from the California Small Enclosure

Within the boundaries of the late inhumation cemetery there was a small, ditched enclosure. This was on
the same alignment as the California Large Enclosure. The ceramic evidence indicates that this small
enclosure was originally dug in the LPRIA, probably as a burial enclosure. One cremation burial from this
enclosure, [1292], contained a truncated Fabric 11 jar. Grave [1267], a late Roman inhumation cut across
the enclosure ditch at the western corner.
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Pottery from non-funerary features at California
The recovery of large, unabraded sherds, many with surface finish remaining, from pits and ditches
suggests that these vessels were redeposited. Their reasonable condition and proximity to the California
large enclosure suggests that they may have originally accompanied burials. In some cases, for example
the shell-tempered jar from F10, complete vessels were recovered. Valery Rigby noted that few
'complete' vessels were discarded before AD 50 other than in burials (Stead & Rigby 1986, 258),
therefore the presence of these vessels in such features argues that they were re-deposited from
contexts containing complete vessels, that is from burials. It is possible that some of the LPRIA material
from the 1968-1972 excavations in Baldock was also re-deposited funeral material but not recognised as
such at the time of excavation (pers comm V Rigby).
The date range of the probable funerary pottery from the enclosure ditches is very much the same as the
in situ burials, that is mid to late first century BC. The ditch around the California large enclosure appears
originally to have been dug in the mid first century BC and backfilled sometime in the early second
century AD. It was originally a single ditch. However, towards the end of the LPRIA and during the early
Roman period, a road ditch and agricultural ditches cut it at various times. This has meant the
appearance of later intrusive material, particularly in F5, F10 and F25, all of which run parallel to the road.
The amount of complete pottery recovered from non-funerary features plus the in situ burials suggests
the possibility of large LPRIA cemeteries originally surrounding the four (or five) burial enclosures so far
identified in Baldock. Complete vessels were recovered from the ditch around the California large
enclosure, including a small native Gallo-Belgic copy.
Sections of the ditch around the late Roman inhumation cemetery at California also produced LPRIA
pottery, including a complete butt beaker from (2414). The remains of several other probable funerary
vessels were recovered from other areas in the cemetery ditch, including fills (2038), (2116) and (3503).
In addition, most of the late Roman graves produced residual LPRIA sherds. At least fifteen recognisable
vessels were excavated from feature F619, a late Roman quarry pit to the south-west of the large
enclosure, including platters and beakers. It appears that the quarry and late Roman cemetery disturbed
burials in the possible LPRIA cemetery area.

A small LPRIA cemetery on Icknield Way East

Further LPRIA burials were discovered during excavation at Icknield Way East during the spring and early
summer of 1988. In all, fifteen LPRIA and two early post-Conquest cremations were recovered, part of
another cemetery, which was only partly explored. Later activity in the area included a mid to late Roman
cemetery, medieval and post-medieval pits and ditches and the construction of a large cess pit in the late
nineteenth century.
As with other LPRIA cemeteries in Baldock, there is variation in the number of ceramic grave-gifts,
probably a reflection of the wealth and social status of the individual. Two of the burials contained six
vessels, [3900] and [3905]. The former may have been the rich central burial in an enclosure, although it
would have been some distance from its centre. Of the other burials, one (7037) contained three vessels;
four had two vessels, ([3908], [3915], (3917) and [7008]). The remaining eight burials contained one
vessel, used as a cinerary urn.
In the richer burials, the bone was apparently placed in an organic container on the floor of the grave; in
the poorer burials the bone was usually placed in a ceramic vessel. This was also observed at King Harry
Lane, St Albans (Stead & Rigby 1989, 80-83).
In common with most contemporary burials in Baldock, the most usual jar form from the burials was the
plain quoit-foot pedestalled jar: three were recovered from [3905] and four from [3900]. Other pedestalled
forms included a trumpet pedestalled jar from [3998] and an elaborately cordoned vessel in [3905].
There does seem to have been a greater variety of accompanying vessels from this particular cemetery
than in other contemporary burial grounds, including bowl and cup forms; a pedestalled bowl was found in
[3900]. This is evidence either for better survival of the accessory vessels or that the individuals buried in
this area were of high status and were able to import exotic ceramic vessels.
At least three burials showed evidence of imported fine wares. [3995] contained part of a base from a
Terra Nigra platter; two butt beakers of Cam 113 form, imported from Northern France, were recovered
from (7037); (3876) contained a stamped Dr 18/31 bowl, following the pattern observed in other
cemeteries at Baldock, where plain forms seem to have been preferred as grave gifts.
The lack of accompanying metalwork and imported fine wares in the great majority of the burials points to
a late first century BC date for the start of the cemetery, which fits with the evidence from other LPRIA
burials in Baldock. The presence of the Gallo-Belgic base, the imported butt beakers, the thistle brooch
from [7003] and the Romanised jar in (3850) indicate that the cemetery continued in use into the early
post-Conquest period. This area seems to have then gone out of use until the late third century AD.

198
Excavation of the ditches revealed that [3930] was contemporary with the first use of the cemetery. This
may have been part of an original enclosure ditch. Pottery recovered from fills in the other ditch indicate
that this was contemporary with the late Roman use of this area.

Conclusion
The amount of LPRIA funerary vessels found in Baldock, both in situ and from later deposits, suggests
that there was originally a large LPRIA cemetery around the early burial enclosures, even perhaps on the
scale of King Harry Lane, St Albans (Stead & Rigby 1989, 80ff). The Baldock cemetery apparently started
earlier in the first century BC but the population was probably poorer. It is possible that a much smaller
cemetery existed to the south-east, around cremations F311 and F312 (recorded in the catalogue as the
Mercia Road cemetery), and including the complete jar recovered from feature R5 on BAL-17. However,
the virtual non-survival of the burial groups because of the later activity within the possible cemetery
areas has meant that much vital evidence has been lost.

Late Iron Age to Romano-British mixed-rite cemeteries

Wallington Road
Despite the difficult conditions during the excavation, approximately one hundred and sixty-four
cremations and twenty-two inhumations were recorded. Certain burials contained ceramic grave-gifts with
a wide date range. B14 is a good example, the coarse pottery dating from the late first/early second
centuries AD, but the Samian dish dates to the mid second century, and must have been in use for some
time before burial as it was mended.
Burials in this cemetery started in the Late Pre-Roman Iron Age and continued into the early fourth
century. The earliest burials were a mixture of inhumations and cremations. In only three instances did
the inhumations contain pottery. B34/35 and B7 produced a Fabric 1 jar, dating to the late first century
BC, and B118 contained a handmade shell-tempered jar of early first century AD date. In several cases, a
cremation was cut into the grave fill of an inhumation. B157 was placed over the skull of B174 and
cremation B100 was cut into grave B115. These possibly deliberate disturbances of inhumations might
suggest family relationships. Contemporary with the inhumations were several pre-conquest cremations.
B68 produced a grog-tempered urn and part of a butt beaker. Other Late Iron Age burials had been
disturbed by Romano-British cremations: B115 yielded part of a Fabric 1 vessel with mid second century
AD material.
A change in the funeral rite took place some time in the immediate post-conquest period from mixed
inhumation and cremation to cremation only. There is no evidence for later inhumation in this cemetery,
although it is not uncommon to find mixed rite cemeteries in Hertfordshire. At Skeleton Green, Braughing,
the cemetery yielded a total of fifty-seven burials, fifty-two cremations and five inhumations. However, the
inhumations were of much later date. The cemetery at Walls Field, Baldock, contained third century AD
and later inhumations with earlier cremations. It therefore appears that the Wallington Road cemetery is
unusual in that most of the inhumations predate the majority of the cremations.
Most of the cremation burials in the cemetery were urned, often accompanied by at least one other pot as
a grave-gift. The accessory vessels were all concerned with food and drink; the common grouping was
the urn, usually a reused domestic jar, flagon, dish or bowl and beaker, although one or more of these
vessels could be omitted. Of the 286 apparent vessels, 134 were cinerary urns, either reused domestic
jars or wasters. The use of such vessels to contain the remains was also noted at Welwyn. In several
cases, the urns were heavily sooted, suggesting previous domestic use. In other instances, the urn was a
'second' or even a 'waster' as is clearly shown in two cases, B117 and B92. The urns were probably
intended as domestic jars, but in their removal from the wheel their bases were cut too high and the thin
layer of clay left behind was slapped back, trapping air which expanded during firing, forcing the two
pieces apart again. B92 shows 'cheesewire' markings on both pieces where it was originally severed.
This perhaps indicates a trade in waster pots for funerary purposes.
Certain vessels also appear to have had their rims and necks deliberately broken off. Some of the
cinerary urns appear to have been deliberately trimmed down to shoulder height. The reason for this is
not altogether clear; perhaps this represents a ritual killing of the pot, as seems possible in B116, where
the broken neck and handle of a colour-coated flagon were buried under the body of the vessel. Some of
the samian vessels also appear to have been deliberately damaged before burial. More prosaically, it was
perhaps to enable the larger fragments of bone to fit into the cinerary urn. This was also noted at Welwyn
(Rook 1973).
Most of the urns were produced relatively locally. Out of the one hundred and thirty-four jars used as
cinerary urns, forty-eight were shell-tempered vessels, probably from Northamptonshire or Bedfordshire.
Forty-three vessels were grey ware jars from the Much Hadham area of Hertfordshire. Other urns came
from the Verulamium region, the Nene Valley and Oxfordshire. Burial group B186 consisted of a jar and
flagon in Fabric 16, probably from the Verulamium potteries. B184 contained the same in Fabric 20,
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probably from the Oxfordshire potteries. This pattern was repeated in groups B21, B39, B103 and B152,
showing, perhaps, the desire to give matched sets as grave gifts, where this could be done.
There are 31 identifiable flagons, making 12% of the total vessel assemblage and roughly 20% of the
accessory vessels. This high percentage of flagons is reflected in the finds form the Walls Field cemetery,
Baldock, where flagons formed approximately 24% of grave gifts. Most of them were supplied locally,
predominantly from Verulamium, although a few came from Oxfordshire and the Nene Valley. Several of
the flagons were seconds, if not wasters, again indicating the deliberate use of imperfect vessels for
funerary purposes. As with Walls Field, the great majority of flagons date to the second century AD,
implying that either the supply dried up from the late second century, or that there was a change in burial
ritual. The only identifiable flagons of later date are the colour coated vessels in B116 and B121.
Bowls and dishes were also used as grave gifts. In common with the cemeteries at Walls Field, Baldock,
and Skeleton Green, Braughing, it appears that bowls and dishes used in funerary contexts were almost
always samian. The only exception to this in the Wallington Road cemetery was B99, which included two
grey ware bowls in one burial. Perhaps such vessels were generally unacceptable in a funerary context in
wares other than samian.
Thirty-three almost complete samian vessels were recovered from the Wallington Road cemetery; of
these thirty-one were stamped. A large number of samian sherds were found associated with burials
during the excavation, some almost certainly residual. Other cremation cemeteries in Hertfordshire show
a slightly lower percentage of stamped samian vessels from burials. At Braughing the published
assemblage consisted of thirty-four vessels, of which twenty-three vessels, of which seventy were
stamped. There does seem to have been a deliberate attempt to use stamped vessels in burials in the
Wallington Road cemetery.
In most of the Hertfordshire cremation cemeteries, the samian forms consisted mainly of plain bowls,
dishes and cups, predominantly forms Dr 18, 31 and 18/31. Occasionally burials contained Dr 36 bowls
with en barbotine leaf and stem on the rim. There is one example from Wallington Road and four form
Braughing. This seems to indicate that in rural Hertfordshire decorated samian forms were not generally
used as grave gifts, presumably because they were either rare or of high value. It would be interesting to
see if this pattern is found over a wider area. One indication of the value of samian in a small rural
community is that most of the samian vessels showed signs of wear and had obviously been in use for
some time before burial.
There were seventeen colour-coated vessels found in the Wallington Road cemetery, fifteen beakers and
two flagons. Analysis of the cremated bone has shown that such beakers were associated with female or
child burials, on the other hand, the colour-coated flagon from B116 was buried with a male; the other
flagon, in B121, was in a child's burial, also containing a colour-coated beaker. The practice of burying
colour-coated beakers with children and females only has no published parallels. Group 3 from the
Grange cemetery at Welwyn contained a male buried with a colour-coated beaker, and two of the six
beakers from Skeleton Green were buried with males. Unfortunately, the bone from Walls Field was
disposed of unanalysed.
The richer burials appear to be those of children or adult females. B55, a child's burial, was the only one
to contain non-ceramic vessels and B121, also a child's burial, contained four vessels, including two
colour-coated vessels and a samian dish; B99. The burial of a mature female, yielded six vessels. It
seems to have been the custom to give more grave gifts to children and females and early evidence
suggests that this is true for St. Stephen's cemetery, St. Albans, (pers comm A Havercroft). In only one
case in the Wallington Road cemetery, B164, was an adult male buried with more than three vessels,
probably an indication of his wealth and status. Perhaps the similarity in the burial rites associated with
children and females indicates that socially they were to be held on a par. This pattern does not hold true
for all of Hertfordshire: at Braughing, several male burials contained four vessels and some had non-
ceramic grave gifts.
There is a great need to compare the findings from this cemetery with other fully excavated cemeteries in
the area. This will be possible in the light of work at St. Albans and elsewhere in Baldock. It should be
possible to see if the various funeral rites evident in the pottery from the Wallington Road cemetery had a
purely local significance or were practised over a wider area and whether there was any difference in
ritual between social classes.

Late Inhumation Cemeteries: California and Icknield Way East

Ceramic gifts from California

The late Romano-British inhumation cemetery on Upper Walls Common was in use for well over two
hundred years, from the late third century AD into the sixth century AD. Its earliest phase overlaps with
the earlier cremation cemeteries in Baldock, the earliest inhumations here being contemporary with the
latest cremations.
200
Although certain aspects of pottery in the funeral ritual continued from the cremation burials, for example
the deliberate breakage of vessels, the tradition of placing ceramic vessels in the grave seems of less
importance. Of the 139 discrete burials from BAL-1 (which includes inhumations in the nearby doline and
an enclosure on the opposite side of the road), only 17 contained identifiable ceramic grave-gifts. Much of
the ritual aspect of the funeral was apparently directed to the corpse.
Deliberate breakage of the pottery grave-gift does not appear to have taken place in at least five cases.
The beaker in grave [1318] was apparently smashed before burial and the sherds placed in the grave. In
two other cases, beakers in graves [1358] and [3630] had their necks and rims broken off; these were not
recovered, so perhaps the broken off pieces were kept by the mourners.
One of the interesting aspects of the late Romano-British inhumation burials is the number of miniature
vessels in the graves; of the twenty-one ceramic grave-gifts, eight were miniatures. Most of these vessels
came from the Nene Valley and Oxfordshire potteries, indicating a trade in such specialised vessels.
They were perhaps, as has been suggested (Young 1977), merely symbolic of larger pots, though as with
the jar in [642] layer 3, some of the pots in the Baldock burials do seem to have been used before burial –
the colour-coat on the miniature bowl in grave [1187] was very worn and there were smoke blackened
patches on the miniature cup and jug set from grave [1413], suggesting that at least some of these
miniature vessels were the personal possessions of individuals buried.
The most popular form of grave-gift was the colour-coated beaker. Out of the twenty identifiable vessels
recovered from the cemetery, nine were beakers. Of these, two were miniature versions, one in grave
[1119], the other in grave [1367]. The remainder were perhaps the personal possessions of the individual
buried. Unlike the cremation cemetery on Wallington Road, there was no evidence of colour-coated
beakers only being associated with child or female burials.
In fact, there was no apparent age or gender division in the types of ceramic grave-gift; beakers and
bowls were found in both male and female graves or child and adult. In one case, [642] layer 3, there was
perhaps an attempt to match the vessel with the individual: a miniature shell-tempered jar was buried with
a female aged 25-35. In one other case, grave [1141], an appropriate vessel was matched to the
individual, but this was the grave of an elderly male, with ante mortem loss of teeth, buried with a small
spouted feeding bottle, undoubtedly the personal possession of the person.
Unlike the cremation cemeteries, there are no large groups of accessory vessels. The richest group,
grave [3630], a child's burial, contained three vessels, including the only samian from the cemetery. This
does echo the earlier cremation burials, where the richest groups accompanied the burials of infants,
children and females. Three graves contained two vessels, [1114], [1367] and [1413]. The former
contained two individuals, both males with the latter two being female. The pottery from [1413] is unusual,
being a miniature cup and jug set, probably from the Oxfordshire potteries.
Several burials produced residual sherds of prehistoric and LPRIA date; these indicate the amount of
earlier material that was destroyed by the later Romano-British activity. Of even more interest is the
number of sub-Roman sherds that turned up in the grave fills, indicating that some of the burials in this
cemetery might well have occurred in the fifth or even sixth centuries AD.
Although the amount of pottery recovered from this cemetery – especially the amount of apparently
deliberately buried pottery – is relatively small, it has been possible to note certain similarities and
changes between the earlier Romano-British cremations cemeteries in Baldock and the late inhumation
cemetery, the most obvious change being the transference of funeral ritual from the grave-gifts to the
corpse.

Pottery from the ditches

The area of the late Romano-British inhumation cemetery was probably originally a Late Pre-Roman Iron
Age cremation cemetery. Its proximity to the California large enclosure and the California small enclosure
(which it overlay) as well as the large amount of residual LPRIA material recovered from the late graves
and the cemetery ditches testify to this. The majority of the fills from the cemetery boundary ditch
produced residual LPRIA material, including a complete jar from the junction of ditches [2335] and [2415].
Most of the sherds were abraded, but others were apparently redeposited LPRIA grave-gifts to judge from
their unabraded state. As well as the jar already mentioned, there were sherds from jars in [1284] and
[1145], and [2038] produced sherds from three identifiable LPRIA vessels.
Abraded prehistoric sherds were also recovered from the ditch fills, e.g. (1265), (2101) and (3513), all
produced sherds of grooved and Peterborough-type wares, evidence of Neolithic settlement in the area,
almost completely destroyed by later activity.
The cemetery enclosure ditch was probably contemporary with the earliest burials in the cemetery,
perhaps dug in the third century AD. Grave [1170], containing abraded sherds of first and second century
date, was cut by the cemetery ditch. At least six graves were cut into the ditch fills; from at least one of
these, [1198], sub-Roman sherds were recovered.
201
Icknield Way East: late Romano-British burials
Further Romano-British burials were discovered during excavation in the spring and early summer of
1988, on Icknield Way East. These burials were a mixture of inhumations and cremations. None of the
inhumations produced anything more than abraded sherds, ranging in date from the LPRIA to the third
and fourth centuries AD. It was the five cremations that produced the complete vessels.
Two of the cremations date to the fourth century, [7009] and [7012]. Cremation as a funeral rite is unusual
at this late date in Baldock, the prevalent rite being inhumation. Burial [7012] contained two vessels, a
grey ware jar with dished rim, used as the urn, and an unusual colour-coated folded beaker. The neck
and rim of the beaker had been broken off before burial and placed in the urn on top of the cremated
bone. This echoes the ritual breakage already observed in the earlier cremation cemeteries on Wallington
Road and Royston Road.
Samian vessels were recovered from one cremation burial, [3814], which contained sherds from three
Samian vessels; none of the vessels were stamped and all were plain forms. The samian follows the
previously observed pattern in Baldock, that is the use of plain, rather than decorated, forms in burials.
This is likely to be one of the earlier burials in the cemetery, perhaps of third century date. The vessel was
accompanied by a shell-tempered jar, reused as the urn.
There is evidence for an enclosure ditch for the LPRIA cemetery, but very little for the later cemetery. A
length of ditch was excavated, this ran parallel to, and slightly north-east of the LPRIA ditch. This cut
grave [3923], containing sherds of LPRIA to 3rd/4th century AD date, so suggests a boundary of, at the
earliest, fourth century date. Abraded material of that date was recovered from the fills.

California and Icknield Way East: conclusion

Throughout the LPRIA and Roman period in Baldock, several cemeteries were in use at the same time.
The late inhumation cemetery at California was contemporary with the late burials at Icknield Way East.
This suggests that these cemeteries were perhaps the property of family groups. There was a similarity of
ritual in the funeral rite, shown in the pottery that suggests common ritual beliefs in use over several
hundred years.

Pottery from BAL-15 1994

Helen M Ashworth [1995]

Introduction
Excavation of the ten open areas produced 13,508 identifiable sherds, weighing 141.651 kg. from all
phases. Of this total, 943 sherds, weighing 13.03 kg., were unstratified.
Most of the pottery assemblage was late pre-Roman Iron Age to late Roman in date, however, 200
prehistoric sherds, weighing 0.93 kg, were recovered from 82 contexts. The majority of these sherds were
recorded three-dimensionally on site and provide an important grouping for further analysis. The number
of post-Roman sherds was of an insufficient quantity for useful analysis. The few sherds recovered of this
date were generally found within the disturbed topsoil horizons
As most of the pottery was recovered in the form of small, abraded sherds, due caution should be
exercised with regard to their use in dating individual contexts.

Methodology
The pottery, including that recovered from the wet sieved samples, was recorded on pro forma cards,
quantification was by sherd count and weight. Where possible vessel types were paralleled with
published examples. All sherds, except small abraded scraps, were marked with the site code and the
relevant context number, bagged and boxed ready for archive storage.
Sherds were macroscopically examined to determine characteristics of fabric and form. Those sherds that
required a more detailed examination were looked at through a hand-held magnifying glass at x8
magnification. The fabric numbers given in the archive and report refer to the Romano-British fabric
series, devised for the North Hertfordshire District Council Museums Service Field Archaeology Section
(Ashworth 1990).

Assemblage Breakdown
Period Total Number of Sherds Percentage of Total Assemblage
Prehistoric 200 1.5 %
Late Pre-Roman Iron Age 6785 50.0 %
Romano-British Coarseware 6155 45.5 %
Romano-British Fine ware 334 2.5 %
Post-Roman 34 0.5 %

202
Table 63: Assemblage breakdown by period
Fabric Number of Sherds
No. 2 4896
Romano-British Greyware 1868
Shelly ware 926
No. 8 2162
Samian 151
Nene Valley Colour Coated ware 144
Table 64: Assemblage breakdown by fabric group

Discussion

General
Most of the pottery recovered during the 1994 season of excavation was in the form of small, abraded
sherds, with a high degree of residuality, making it difficult to assign definite dates to a majority of the
individual contexts, this was also noted from previous work on Baldock pottery assemblages (Burleigh,
forthcoming).
The quantity of pottery recovered from the present site is rather small, compared to previous excavations
in the vicinity. This is probably a reflection of the fact that the site was situated right on the north-eastern
edge of the early settlement. Another factor is that the majority of the burials on the present site did not
contain ceramic vessels.

Late Prehistoric Pottery

J D Hill [1995]
Large Late Bronze Age pottery assemblages are rare in Hertfordshire and other counties, although small
quantities of burnt flint tempered pottery of a Middle Bronze Age to Early Iron Age date have been found
on a number of sites. This small assemblage appears to represent a chronologically homogeneous
collection of material. Although this assemblage consists of small sherds, there is little variation in the
type of fabric recipes used to make the original vessels. Almost all of the sherds are relatively heavily
burnt flint tempered fabrics. The large size and high density of the burnt flint in most sherds points to an
early date.
There are a few sherds with fine burnt flint or sandy fabrics [contexts 321, 506, 569, 652]. Sherds from
the solution hollow in Area 10 [contexts 602, 613, 636, 680] are all in heavy burnt fabrics. An early date is
also supported by the shape of the four rims in the assemblage and the lack of any decorated body
sherds.
The rims are essentially simple rounded forms, in one case rolled and everted [context 427]. They would
all not be out of place in an early, or plain phase Late Bronze Age (Barrett 1990). The lack of body
decoration, if reflecting a real absence of decorated vessels, and the absence of typical late or decorated
phase Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age fine wares, also supports this date. As such, this assemblage
would appear to indicate settlement and/or other activities in this area during the Early Bronze Age (c
1000-800 BC, Phase 1)

Late Iron Age to Romano-British Pottery

Helen Ashworth
Of the 13,508 identifiable sherds recovered during the excavation 50% dated to the mid - late 1st century
AD (phase 2) indicating a high level of activity across the site in this period. The next largest group of
sherds, unsurprisingly, comprised Romano-British coarse wares, 45.5% of the total assemblage. Of these
the grey wares (fabrics 11 and 12) formed the largest group, though shell-tempered (fabric 4) and local,
hand-made sand-and-grog-tempered wares (fabric 8) were also represented.
Fine wares, including Samian, made only 2.5% of the total assemblage. There were only 151 sherds of
Samian, weighing approximately 735g, the majority in the form of small, abraded scraps, recovered
across the site. The Samian assemblage comprised approximately 28 identifiable vessels (the number of
diagnostic sherds) the remainder being undiagnostic sherds.
Plain sherds of Samian appear to predominate, which may be a reflection of the relative costs of plain
and decorated vessels, and consequently of the economic status of the Romano-British population of
Baldock. Five fragments decorated bodysherd were recovered.
No complete, or substantially complete samian vessels were recovered from any feature on the present
site. This lack seems unusual, given the number of cremations and inhumations excavated and may be a
reflection of the status of the individuals buried. Other cemetery areas in Baldock have produced numbers
203
of samian vessels as grave gifts. The dearth of samian, and the generally poor condition of the sherds, is
also a reflection of the land use in this part of Roman Baldock, which was probably agricultural rather than
domestic.
This low level of fine wares in particular, may reflect the fact that the present site did not touch the centre
of the Romano-British settlement

Phase 1 (pre-LPRIA)
Although few features of pre-LPRIA date were identified on the present site, enough sherds of Phase 1
pottery were recovered during the excavation to postulate a reasonable amount of prehistoric activity in
the immediate vicinity, from the late Neolithic to the Iron Age. Pottery from this phase was chiefly
recovered from the areas of the solution hollows and the pit alignments (Hill, above).

Phase 2 (1st century BC/1st century AD)

Pottery from this phase was recovered across the site, mainly wheel thrown grog-tempered wares (fabric
2, which comprised 72% of the phase 2 assemblage) but also included handmade grog and sand
tempered wares (fabrics 1, 3 and 8). Sherds from this period comprise c 50% of the total pottery
assemblage from the present site and therefore makes an important contribution to the study of the
LPRIA/RB transition.
Some of the ditches, including the road ditches in Areas 1, 3 and 9 and the funerary enclosure ditches in
Areas 9E, 9W and 10 clearly originated in this phase and have been identified for further study.

Phase 3 (late 1st century - mid 2nd century AD)

Activity continued across the site during this period. There was a noticeable increase in sherds of
Hadham greyware (fabrics 11 and 12); shelly wares (fabric 4) and products of the Verulamium region
(fabrics 16 and 20) during this phase.
The burial enclosures in Area 9 clearly continued in use into phase 3 and have been identified for further
study.

Phase 4 (mid 2nd century - mid 3rd century AD)

Hadham greywares and shelly wares continued to dominate the pottery assemblage. Fine wares, such as
Samian, colour-coated wares and mica-dusted wares, made up a small portion of the assemblage.
Pottery from the Verulamium region was noticeably decreasing during this phase.
The burial enclosures in Areas 3 and 9, continued in use into phase 4, although the ditches had
apparently silted up. The fringe settlement areas seem to have shrunk at this time, several of the pits
were allowed to silt up, or were deliberately backfilled. This merits further study.

Phase 5 (mid 3rd - late 4th century AD)

Late Hadham grey wares and Harrold shelly wares continued to predominate, though small amounts of
Oxfordshire wares (fabrics 46 and 47) Hadham oxidised ware (fabric 49) as well as colour-coated wares,
were also recovered.
One inhumation contained a colour-coat beaker, otherwise the phase 5 pottery was recovered from the
upper fills of the ditches. The lack of evidence from other types of feature indicates that settlement
shrinkage or movement had taken place by this phase.

Phase 6 (sub-Roman and Medieval)

A scattering of sherds from this phase was recovered from the topsoil and upper fills of features across
the site, all contamination from later activity.

Recommendations
The assessment of the pottery assemblage from the present site was undertaken to provide a
chronological sequence for the features on the site and to identify its significance in relation to other sites
within the Roman town and the wider region.
The pottery from the present site forms only a small part of the full assemblage from Clothall Common. It
should, therefore, be studied in conjunction with the pottery from previous excavations in the vicinity of
the present site. This should give a clearer picture as to the date and use of the present site and give an
indication as to patterns of artefact discard across the site.
The full pottery assemblage from Clothall Common should be compared with pottery from other
excavations in Baldock and other Roman settlements in the region. This should provide information on
relative site chronologies and economic status.

204
Ceramic Small Finds from BAL-15 1994
SF No. Context Feature Type Description
<51> 509 Pit Samian pottery base with stamp ' OF MONO' on the inside of the vessel.
<65> 644 Solution Samian base sherd with part of the stamp remaining ' - - PPV', located within a
Hollow circle. on the inside of the vessel.
<102> 966 Grave Complete, black slip, burnished vessel. Fabric 11/39. Rim = 40 mm radius,
Base = 25 mm, widest part 56 mm radius.
<107> 999 Grave Body sherd, fabric 2A, with off-centre perforation. 45 to 55 mm across, too large
to be a spindle whorl?
<127> 1284 Well Fragment of a perforated base sherd. Fabric 2A.The other half of this object
was assigned SF <163>. Together, their diameter is roughly 48 - 51 mm . The
perforation has a 10 - 11 mm diameter
<139> 2017 Grave Pedestal Urn. CC12. The vessel is complete except for a section of rim, which
may have been deliberately removed. Undecorated. Rim = 32 mm radius; base
= 19 mm; widest point = 40 mm radius.
<140> 1483 Ditch Body sherd, fabric 4 with off-centre perforation. Very rough, although there
appears to have been some shaping. Approximately 84 mm across, with hole
14 - 15 mm in diameter.
<163> 1284 Well See SF <127>
<165> 1290 Well Perforated body sherd fragment. Fabric 18. The partial remains of the hole was
worn around the seating edge. Spindle whorl?
<166> 1290 Well Tile fabric fragment with geometric line decoration, scratched into the surface.
Fragment measured 34 × 46 mm
<168> 575 Well Perforated body sherd, fabric 2A, with an off centre hole. The exterior was
decorated with two parallel grooves. The fragment measured 65 - 73 mm
across; the hole was 10 - 12 mm in diameter.
<188> 324 Ditch Body sherd, fabric 2A, with markedly off-centre hole. Sherd vaguely round. The
fragment measured 51 × 55 mm. Roman re-use of a LPRIA sherd as a loom
weight?
<189> 355 Ditch Body sherd, fabric 2A, with a combination of fingerprint and combed decoration.
The fragment measured 81 × 60 mm.
<190> 355 Ditch Three fragments of a base, fabric 16, with a centre perforation. The base
measures 59 mm in diameter and may have been re-used as a plant pot.
<191> 1701 Clearance Decorated body sherd, samian, measuring 61 × 60 mm across. Decoration
layer includes winding scrolls and 'heart-shaped leaves. Three parallel grooves
encircle the pot below the decoration.
<230> 1214 Well Perforated body sherd, fabric 2B. The partial remains of the hole were worn
around the seating edge. The sherd measured 50 × 65 mm.
<231> 1215 Well Perforated base sherd, fabric 2A. Spindle whorl fragment.
<232> 1215 Well Perforated base sherd, fabric 2A. The sherd is large and roughly shaped,
unlikely to be a spindle whorl.
<233> 1215 Well Terra Rubra, stamped platter base. This was decorated with two shallow
concentric grooves, with a knurled pattern in between. The stamp is partial and
illegible.
<234> 1270 Well Perforated rim sherd, fabric 3, Stead & Rigby 196, no. 190. The remains of the
perforation was rough and unworn. From a pot approximately 49 mm in radius.
<235> 1275 Well Perforated base sherd, fabric 2. The perforation was worn and 12 mm in
diameter and position centrally.
<236> 1409 Ditch Perforated base sherd, fabric 4. The partial remains of the hole was off centre.
The radius of the base measured 55 mm. Possible plant pot.
<237> 1466 Ditch Perforated rim sherd, fabric 67 (Stead & Rigby 1986, no. 472), measured 45
mm radius.
<238> 1843 Pit Uncompleted perforation of a large heavy, roughly square body sherd.
Attempted perforation was off centre.
<239> 1811 Pit A number of large body sherds, which form the majority of a large grain jar with
a perforated base. The diameter of the base was 170 mm; the hole was 35 - 40
mm.
<240> 538 Post Hole A perforated base sherd, fabric 2. The remains of two perforations close to
edge of the base for drainage. The radius of the base measured 55 mm.
<241> 662 Solution A perforated, decorated body sherd, fabric11. The decoration consisted of
Hollow parallel grooves and ridges. Hole remains partially worn.
Table 65: Ceramic Small Finds, BAL-15 1994

Building materials
Ceramic building material from BAL-15 1994
Guy Seddon and Chris Turner [1995]

205
Introduction
The ceramic building material assemblage included brick, tile and pieces of fired clay. Much of the fired
clay was very fragmentary, rendering the counting of pieces unnecessary. The fired clay fragments
appeared to relate to a range of types including daub, hearth lining and kiln material.

Methodology
All ceramic building material was separated, as far as possible, into the categories of brick, tile and fired
clay (e.g. daub). Cleaning and quantification by weight and count took place and the information was
entered onto pro forma sheets. Where possible assemblages were divided by fabric and type (e.g.
tegulae, tesserae, imbrex and brick). All material was kept, none was discarded.

Romano-British
A total of 869 fragments of daub, weighing 4 kg, and 557 fragments of tile, weighing 8.45 kg, of probable
Romano-British date, was collected during the excavations on the present site. The material was in a
fragmented state, and scattered across the site, rather than being recovered in situ. Despite the poor
condition of most of the assemblage its presence indicates structures from this period on the site.
The highest concentration of material was found in area 7, where 33.5 % of the tile and 21.7 % of the
daub was recovered from the vicinity of well [1261]. This may indicate a structure associated with this
feature, or that ceramic building material was used in the deliberate backfilling of the well and
subsequently dragged across the site by plough action.
There was an apparent concentration of daub in the ditches across the site. This indicates either the
presence of wattle and daub fencing running along the length of the ditches or, deliberate backfilling with
ceramic building material. Later plough attrition may have been a factor in the spread of material across
the site.

Recommendations
It is recommended that this assemblage be submitted to a specialist for further examination to achieve
accurate dating where possible and establish a fabric series. It is also hoped that a specialist may be able
to distinguish the possible function of this assemblage, such as whether the material was 'wasters' used
for backfilling or whether it belonged to domestic structures.

Post-Medieval
A total of 124 fragments of post medieval tile and brick, weighing 1.530 kg, was recovered from the site.
There were no identifiable concentrations in any of the excavated areas, which could have indicated
structural remains from this period. The brick and tile was located in a general scatter across the site,
mainly in the surface layers. Most of the material was abraded, which suggests that it had been
introduced to the site for the purposes of field manuring.

Recommendations
No further investigation of this material is envisaged.
Area Percentage of fragments Percentage of total weight
1 28.01 22.32
2 18.50 19.87
3 2.88 7.34
7 31.08 33.57
8 0.18 0.06
9 14.38 14.40
10 5.03 2.55
Table 66: Tile, percentage of total fragments by Area
Area Percentage of fragments Percentage of total weight
1 19.54 6.66
2 12.82 36.8
3 5.54 5.38
5 0.12 0.13
7 41.92 21.70
9 11.09 20.04
10 8.89 9.68
Table 67: Daub, percentage of the total fragments by area

206
Mortar and plaster
Anita Morrison [1991]

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the following people for the kind help and support they gave me whilst I was working
on this project, which was very much appreciated: Dr Graham Morgan in the Department of Archaeology
for his guidance; Dr Roy Clements of the Geology Department for his assistance in understanding the
local geology of Baldock; and Patrick Marsden for his moral support.

Introduction
Valery Rigby and Jennifer Foster (1986, 183) noted that the third largest category of finds from Ian
Stead‟s excavations from 1968-72 consisted of débris from demolished buildings, although none of this
“was found demonstrably in situ”. Moreover, they suggested that this débris may have been mediaeval
after comparison with another site, “but it is more likely to have belonged to a building demolished before
the end of the Roman period.”
The local geology is dominated by chalk at the surface, but there are nearby deposits of boulder clay,
glacial sand and gravels. Of interest is the use of sand and gravel in some of the mortars and plasters as
well as the expected calcareous material. This suggests that some materials were deliberately sought out
and brought on to the site. The use of calcareous clay for building is shown by the presence of burnt
daub.

Mortar
“The term mortar is used in the building industry to denote a mixture of sand or other fine aggregate and
some binding agent, used as a joining or a surface rendering material” (Collis & Fox 1985, 145). Mortar is
commonly one part lime to two or three parts sand. Fillers include crusted tile, old mortars/plasters and
stones. “The Romans often mixed pounded tile with the mortar used on the outer facing of their walls…”
(Salzman 1952, 149). This kind of material is generally referred to by the Latin name opus signinum. The
roll of these fillers is to strengthen or “act merely as inert dilutants” (Davey 1961, 120). According to
Davey, careful graduation and washing of the sand results in a good quality strong mortar. However, if the
sand is not graded carefully, and thus there is more of the fine sand than coarse or vice-versa, the result
is a weaker mortar of poorer quality. Sand is the “major constituent and so any variation in its quality will
have a considerable effect on the properties of the resulting mortar” (Collis & Fox, 145). The quality of
sand is affected by four factors: average particle size, the range of particle size, particle shape and
“impurities, particularly the clay content” (Collis & Fox 1985, 145).

Painted plaster
After applying the mortar to the wall or ceiling and allowing it to dry a little, a layer of lime wash called
intonaco was applied to prepare for the application of the painted design.
For the various colours required, the craftsmen used various natural substances, such as red and yellow
ochre, glauconite for green, and Egyptian blue which “was made by fusing lime and silica with copper as
a colorant.” (Hodges 1976, 157).

Methodology and results

The samples were examined microscopically to ascertain the nature of the material. A proportion of the
samples were not mortars, opus signinum or painter plaster. Those samples which are asterisked were
later examined further using Jedrzejewska‟s Calcite Gas Test. The remainder were not examined further
due to their being daub fragments, tile or brick.
The remaining samples were given more thorough examination, the painted plaster being examined
separately. Ten samples were not mortars, opus signinum or painted plaster and proved to be clunch,
daub or poorly-made brick.

Mortars and opus signinum samples

Eleven samples were examined more thoroughly. Special note was made of the presence of limestone or
other calcareous or soluble fillers since these will dissolve in the dilute (20%) hydrochloric acid used in
the calcite gas test.
No. Context Identification Description
1 BAL-35 TW/DJ Opus signinum Traces of white mortar on the top and bottom faces. Sand,
limestone and chalk. A pink colour due to tile dust. 40 mm thick.
2 BAL-18 Corner Opus signinum Limestone, sand, flint, tile inclusions, and chalk. One flat surface.
„B‟ off well to
2nd & 3rd

207
 house B-C
3 BAL-18 Corner Opus signinum Tile inclusions, limestone and chalk. Impressions of a wooden
„B‟ off well to beam. Possibly the corner of a room. Light pink.
2nd & 3rd
house B-C
4 BAL-18 F802 3 Opus signinum Tile inclusions, small chalk pieces, and limestone. Top face smooth.
Bottom face pitted as if made on a sandy surface. Light pink.
5 BAL-18 F800 1 Burnt material? Flint, limestone, tile inclusions, chalk and sand. Two flattish and
pitted surfaces. Light pink.
6 BAL-18 F800 1 Finer opus Tile dust, sand, limestone and chalk inclusions. Possibly an
signinum impression of wood. Light pink
7 BAL-18 F802 Opus signinum Tile inclusions, small pebbles, limestone and chalk. Light pink.
1st house, floor
level
8 BAL-1 F604 Lime mortar? Light orange and light brown. Sand, limestone, and chalk pieces.
L(1) 80/100
st65
9 BAL-18 F802 3 Opus signinum Brown sandy clay on top of a limestone infill. Grey and white silica.
13 mm thick.
10 BAL-18 F804 Opus signinum Tile inclusions, straw/grass inclusions, sand, limestone and chalk.
7030 Light pink.
11 BAL-32 TB/GT Opus signinum Sand, tile chalk and limestone. Dark pink.
(8)26
Table 68: Samples 1-11
A representative sample was taken from each of the above. These were then weighed. It is preferable for
these samples to weigh about 100 g when dry. However, the small quantity of material precluded taking a
sample for some of the material.
The samples were then dissolved in dilute (20%) hydrochloric acid. The solutions were stirred to speed
up the process. The presence of lime was indicated by effervescence in the solution. When there was no
longer any effervescence, the samples were then diluted with water and allowed to settle. The water was
then drained and the process repeated until the acid had been neutralised. The solutions were measured
by a pH meter to ascertain whether they had the ideal pH of 7. After this the samples were left to dry. It is
important for the solutions to be neutral because if they are not, they will not dry. A low pH usually
indicates the presence of calcium chloride which prevents drying.
Once dry, the residues were weighed and sieved using a stack of small soil sieves. The mesh sizes
ranged from 2.00 mm to less than 0.15 mm. If the aggregate, i.e. pieces of tile, was larger than 2 mm, it
was sieved in a larger set of sieves with mesh sizes ranging from 16.00 mm to 2.80 mm.
After this the contents of each mesh were weighed and then analysed under a microscope.
Table 00 sets out the first [total] and second [total residue] weights of the mortar and opus signinum
samples. The individual residue weights in each of the sieves were divided by the second weight and
multiplied by 100 to ascertain the percentage of residue in each mesh. The second weight was divided by
the first weight of the sample and multiplied by 100 to discover the sand/aggregate [insoluble material]
percentage to the lime [soluble material] in the sample.
The percentages of the mesh sizes greater than 2.00 mm were added together to show the percentage of
gravel in the sample, as were the percentage of the mesh sizes from 2.00 mm to 0.15 mm to show the
percentage of sand. The remainder shows the percentage of silt/silica [less than 0.15 mm]. The
percentage of soluble lime is also given. This information is given in Table 69.
In Figures 85 and 86, the individual mesh residue percentages have been plotted so that a quick
comparison can be made.
Sample First Second % Gravel %Sand %Silt % Lime
Number Weight Weight soluble
1 91.50 g 63.60 g 17 46 32 30
2 104.00 g 62.80 g 2 89 9 40
3 136.80 g 83.20 g 58 23 19 61
4 97.39 g 62.10 g 43 36 21 36
5 48.90 g 32.50 g 2 79 19 33.5
6 102.70 g 62.10 g 57 20 23 40
7 116.20 g 68.80 g 34 38 28 41
8 75.00 g 34.60 g 2 53 45 54
9 5.00 g* 0.503 g - 66 44 90
10 45.30 g 29.70 g 47 28 25 34
11 55.50 g 29.30 g 39 34 27 47

208
Table 69: weights of the mortar and opus signinum samples (*= estimated first weight), and
aggregate and lime soluble percentages of the mortar and opus signinum samples (16 mm- 2.8
mm = medium to fine gravel; 2.0 mm-0.15 = sand; less than 0.15 = fine sand, silts, and clays)

40
35
Sample 1
30
Sample 2
25
Sample 3
20
Sample 4
15
Sample 5
10
Sample 6
5
0

Figure 85: Opus signinum and mortars residue weight percentages, samples 1 to 6

40
35 Sample 7
30 Sample 8
25
20 Sample 9
15 Sample 10
10
5 Sample 11
0

Figure 86: Opus signinum and mortars residue weight percentages, samples 7 to 11
It can be seen that the eleven samples fall into three groups;
Group 1: S2, S5 and possibly S8
Group 2: S1, S3, S4, S6, S7, S10 and S11
Group 3: S9.
Limited comparison can be made between the graphs because it is assumed that the same source of
aggregate was used for mortars and opus signinum of the same period. Variations do occur within one
sand source. Moreover factors such as the risk of contamination, i.e. of surface samples. repairs to the
samples whilst they were being used, and the provenance of the samples may affect the results, so too
much importance cannot be placed on comparisons.
However, the samples in Group Two were probably made with material from the same source, and
possibly at approximately the same time. Since they are so alike, they can probably be dated to the same
period. The same applies to Group 1.
Little can be said about Group 3, which does not appear to fit into either of the other groups. It may have
been made at the same time but with material from a different source and therefore it looks very different.

Painted plaster
The painted plaster samples were treated in the same way as mortar and opus signinum. Intonaco is the
finishing coat applied before the plaster is painted. Two samples were rejected as not being plaster
No Site Context Description
12 BAL-18 F802 G/H 1st Top surface- painted pink [= brick dust or silicaceous red ochre]; with lime.
house floor About 0.3 mm thick.
Intonaco- off white lime. About 0.3-0.6 mm thick.
Next 2 layers- pinkish sandy mortar with chalk/lime lumps and flint. About
209
 14.00 mm and 10 mm thick.
13 BAL-18 SE/NW wall Top surface- shows parallel trowel or float marks. Painted pink on yellow
paint.
Paint possibly chalk gravel. Less than 0.1 mm thick.
Intonaco- sandy white. About 0.5 mm thick.
Next layer- possibly one layer about 30mm thick. Cream to buff sand mortar
with chalk or lime. When dissolved will probably= 10-20% chalk.
14 BAL-18 F802 3 Top surface- not painted. It is discoloured= Clunch.
Next layer- fine decayed chalk with chalk, lime and sand. About 1 mm thick.
Next Layer – coarser decayed chalk with chalk, lime and sand. 18 mm thick.
Possibly burnt.
15 BAL-23 TM/DM Top surface- painted red and varnished. About 0.2 mm thick.
Next layer- off white sandy mortar. Apparently burnt red colour. About 0.5
mm thick.
16 BAL-23 TV/QM SF <VI> Top surface- painted yellow. Less than 0.05 mm thick. Paint= yellow ochre.
Intonaco-sandy white. About 0.2 mm thick.
Next layer- sandy off white mortar which includes some hard chalk, grass/
straw inclusions. About 20 mm thick.
17 BAL-23 TY/Q Top surface-red on creamy yellow paint which is brighter under the surface.
About 0.2 mm thick.
Intonaco-white. About 0.1 to 0.8 mm thick.
Next layer- sandy buff mortar with chalk and flint. About 23 mm thick.
18 BAL-1 F536 SF <5008> Wattle impression in daub/clay.
Top surface- buff coloured calcareous mud on top of light orange/buff
calcareous mud.
Next layer- lime and sand= clunch? Possibly burnt; straw impressions.
Buff layer= less than 0.5 mm thick. Orange buff= about 0.5 mm thick. The
clunch is 23 mm thick.
19 BAL-23 TV/QD F IV 5 Pseudo marbling; very coarse plaster work. Red and yellow splashes on
coarsely trowelled/floated white intonaco. In between the splashes and the
intonaco appears to be a separate pale grey layer [white and charcoal].
Intonaco = 0.5 - 1 mm thick.
Next layer - off white to cream sandy mortar with chalk and flint. About 10
mm thick.
20 BAL-23 TV/QD F IV 5 Brushed white paint on flat sandy white intonaco. About 0.5 mm thick in total.
Next layer - Pale buff mortar. About 10 mm thick.
Next layer - Creamy white mortar with chalk lumps.
21 BAL-23 TY/PM 1] Brushed white paint. About 0.1 mm thick.
Intonaco – sandy/white. About 1 mm thick.
Next layer- pale buff sandy mortar with flint. About 12 mm thick.
2] Same as above. Mortar was 15 mm thick.
22 BAL-40 TP/CA 1] Top surface- Bands of dark yellow, yellow and red ochre. The dark yellow
is in fact a double coat of yellow and this makes it look darker.
Intonaco- Sandy white. Together these two layers are 1 mm to 1.5 mm thick.
Next layer- Sandy plaster which is light buff/beige and about 10 mm thick.
2] Several samples the same except for painted surface.
a] Green and red on white intonaco. Green = glauconite.
Next layer - sandy plaster. 15 to 20 mm thick.
b] Green on white; same as above.
c] Plain trowelled/floated white surface. Same as above. 20 mm total
thickness.
TO?;
Top layer- orange/brown= yellow ochre and brick dust. About 0.05-0.1 mm
thick. Possibly burnt.
Intonaco - white, sandy. 0.75 mm thick.
Next layer - brown sandy plaster [18 mm thick] on beige sandy plaster with
chalk and straw. 30 mm and more thick.
23 BAL-23 TO/DZ 1] This sample appears to have been burnt. Same red/brown ochre.
Top surface- bands of dark red, orange-red, and grey-blue paint. Orange-red
and red-brown probably, originally, yellow ochre before being burnt. Pale
grey-blue paint shows traces of Egyptian blue in acid test.
2] Same as above, except there was a much wider band of the pale grey-
blue paint.
24 BAL-23 TY/PF Several pieces which are all the same except for different paint on the top
surface.
1] Yellow paint [0.25 - 0.4 mm] on white intonaco [0.75 - 0.5 mm].
Next layer - sandy plaster 11 mm thick (1 piece=25 mm thick).
Next layer - light buff sandy mortar with chalk lumps. 12 mm thick.
2] Plain white [0.2 mm thick] on white intonaco.
3] Black stripe [11 mm wide] on yellow paint on white intonaco. Black =
carbon.

210
 4] Orange paint on yellow on white intonaco. Orange = brick dust or
silicaceous ochre.
5] Red paint on yellow on white intonaco. Red = red ochre.
25 BAL-18 F866 N/E & S/W Top layer – yellow paint = yellow ochre. Less than 0.05 mm thick.
walls Intonaco – cream colour. 0.5 mm thick.
Next layer – Coarse sandy mortar with chalk. 20 mm thick.
Next layer – very coarse sandy mortar with chalk.
Table 70: Plaster samples
A representative sample was taken from each of the painted plaster samples. These were weighed
before being dissolved in dilute (20%) hydrochloric acid.
Table 000 shows the weights of the painted plaster samples, and the aggregate and lime soluble
percentages. The samples can be seen to fall into four groups:
Group 1 – S13, S14, S15, S16, S17, S19, S20a, S20b, S21, S22a, S22b, S24a, S24b, S25a and S25b.
Group 2 – S12.
Group 3 – S18.
Group 4 – S23a and S23b.
Once again, the samples in Group 1 were probably made at the same time with material from the same
source. The three other groups may have been manufactured at the same time but they did not share the
same source of material.
Sample First weight Second weight % Lime
% Gravel % Sand % Silt
number (g) (g) soluble
12 42.10 23.02 45 34 21 45
13 91.00 32.50 12 58 30 64
14 11.00 1.61 - 52 48 85
15 4.03 2.52 5 74 21 30
16 14.00 7.37 11 13 76 47
17 22.20 12.11 8 71 21 45
18 1.10 0.29 - 26 74 74
19 1.82 0.97 - 85 15 47
20a 3.10 2.29 - 85 15 25
20b 2.69 1.23 - 88 12 54
21 26.90 19.57 9 77 14 27
22a 3.80 2.29 9 75 17 40
22b 25.90 18.17 10 70 20 30
23a 26.90 19.76 - 90 10 27
23b 30.00 15.20 - 86 14 49
24a 22.40 14.74 15 70 15 34
24b 13.00 5.42 9 76 15 58
25a 42.00 19.20 8 67 25 54
25b 17.10 4.68 24 46 30 73

Table 71: weights of the painted plaster/mortar samples, and aggregate and lime soluble
percentages

Calcite Gas Test

This test was developed by H Jedrzejewska (1960). The following samples, with the exception of BAL-18
F802 3 (Sample 9), are made of chalk/limestone and clunch materials, and were subjected to the Calcite
Gas Test, in order to determine the percentage of soluble material in them.
 BAL-18 F802 3 was tested in order to estimate the first weight value of Sample 9
 BAL-18
 BAL-33 C4 PH26;
 BAL-18 865 8106;
 BAL-6 L29 P3;
 BAL-18 F802 3 (Sample 9).
Table 72 shows the results of the test.
First weight Second Volume of
Sample % calcite % soluble
(g) weight (g) gas (ml)
Calcite 1* 0.2570 - 67.0 100 100
Calcite 2* 0.3100 - 76.5 100 100
A18 0.1965 - 51.5 100 100
C4PH26 0.3023 0.0840 49.0 64 72
A18 865 0.3432 0.0311 73.8 85 91
A6 P3 0.3864 0.2082 32.5 33 46
A18 F802 0.4390 0.0447 77.4 69.5 90

211
Table 72: results of the Calcite Gas Test (* = two calibration samples)

Conclusion

Opus signinum and mortar samples

Mortars are on average 30% lime soluble, 70% aggregate. Graph 00 shows the lime soluble percentages.
Samples 1, 4, 5 and 10 are slightly above this 30% but are most likely mortars. The first microscopic
analysis of these samples show that these looked like opus signinum, but opus signinum has a higher
lime soluble content.
However, Graphs 00 and 00 show that S5 does not lie in the same group as the others indicating a
different provenance.
The remaining samples are opus signinum but those with a lime soluble content greater than 40% are
unusual. These readings may be high due to the local calcareous geology. Since Baldock is situated on
the chalk downs and therefore this may account for the abnormally high readings.
When tested with a magnet, it was found that all of these samples contained magnetite either due to
natural magnetite or reduced fired haematite.
One final point to note is that the aggregate of the opus signinum samples is mainly crushed tile. This
points to the use of other building debris in the manufacture of this material and thus this may indicate
contamination of the samples.

Painted plaster samples

Samples 20a, 21, 22b, 23a and 24a have lime soluble contents lower than or exactly 30% as can be seen
in Graph 6. This indicates a real mortar base. However, samples such as 14, 18 and 25b have extremely
high soluble contents. As before, this is probably due to the local geology.
An interesting point to note is that all of these samples contain a large amount of flint. This accounts for
most of the aggregate in the mesh sizes above 2.00 mm. Also, a lot of these samples contain reduced
fired haematite or magnetite and charcoal. According to Hodges (1976, 171) “early lime and gypsum
plasters were prepared in rather crude kilns” and therefore “a certain admixture of charcoal was
unavoidable. Small flecks of carbon are thus a common feature of most early plasters.”

Calcite Gas Test

With the exception of BAL-6 P3 L29, the samples also had a high soluble content. BAL-6 P3 L29 may in
fact be a mortar. The high soluble content is due to the large amount of chalk in the samples and confirms
the descriptions of them during the original microscopic analysis.

Pipeclay
A pipeclay model pigeon
Keith J Fitzpatrick-Matthews [1989, revised 2006]

Description
Three fragments of a pipeclay figurine were found in the top fill of a late second-century pit F246 on BAL-
2, Mercia Road, in 1982. Although initially thought to derive from a human figure, such as a Venus or Dea
Nutrix, further examination indicated that the most substantial fragment depicted the tail of a bird.
Comparison with Rouvier-Jeanlin‟s (1982) catalogue of pipeclay figurines confirmed that the fragments
are part of a pigeon model (Figure 87).
The pipeclay is an off-white colour with slightly pinkish tones, particularly on the interior surfaces and
there are no apparent macroscopic inclusions in the paste. The figurine was evidently made in a two-
piece mould such as the half illustrated by Rouvier-Jeanlin (1972, no. 1149); a pedestal base would have
been added after the moulding of the figurine. There are very clear fingerprints on the interior surfaces,
probably from smoothing the clay into the mould before firing, and traces of a groove cut by a flattened
instrument, perhaps a stick, inside the solid portion of the neck.
The figurine has broken along the joint line between the two halves of the mould, the surviving fragments
all belonging to the left hand side of the bird, which has subsequently fragmented further.
The largest fragment, measuring 49×24×23 mm, comprises almost all of the left wing from its tip to the
distal smooth vertical band, including all of the area covered with herringbone patterning imitating
feathers, as well as part of the broad, flat tail. There are traces of the beginning of herringbone patterning
on the upper surface of the tail. On the underside of the wing are traces of what may be the joint surface
between the body and the applied pedestal.
212
A second fragment, measuring 26×25×11 mm, comprises part of the left side of the neck and upper chest
of the bird. The line of the break between the neck and head occurs at a point that suggests the head
may have been broken off before the splitting of the figurine along the seam. The smallest fragment,
measuring 22×11×10 mm, comprises an adjoining part of the neck and a small part of the upper left back
of the bird.
The hints of herringbone patterning on the tail fragment put the figurine into Rouvier-Jeanlin‟s Pigeon
Type I Group B. The fragments derive from a figurine almost identical with his number 1149, the principal
difference being that the feathers on the Baldock example are rather more finely executed.

Figure 87: Pipeclay pigeon (actual size)

A description of the figurine when complete may be derived from Rouvier-Jeanlin‟s description of the
mould for this type. “The eye is formed by a circle surrounded by a ring. The body and front of the wing
are plain; the separation of this last forms a double band, and the rest is divided into five horizontal bands
decorated with oblique strokes, successively of type a/b/a/b/a (type a=////, type b=\\\\). The tail is smooth
on top and decorated with obliques on each side; these leave from an elongation of the upper edge of the
wing and descend towards the edge” (Rouvier-Jeanlin 1972, 375: translation KJF-M).

Context and distribution

The pigeon is not the commonest form of pipeclay bird figurine, being rather less common than doves
and turtle-doves (Rouvier-Jeanlin 1972, 82). There is a great homogeneity of forms, suggesting that all
the pigeons were products of a single tradition, if not workshop. All pipeclay pigeon figurines can be
assigned to the Allier district pipeclay workshops. The mould illustrated by Rouvier-Jeanlin is from
Moulins (Allier) and is signed by Sacrillos, a mould-maker responsible largely for animal figurine moulds,
attested at Toulon-sur-Allier (Allier) itself. As with all pipeclay figurines, the dating is rather vague, but
somewhere in the range of mid first to early century AD is probably indicated.

Significance
Bird models such as this derive originally from Italian prototypes, but whereas the Italian types represent
the entire foot of the bird on the pedestal, Gallo-Roman copies (if they can really be called such) merely
indicate the bird‟s claws. Some of the models are pierced, perhaps as whistles or perhaps to attach to
strings. Rouvier-Jeanlin suggests that they may have been placed in model nests or boats and that they
were almost certainly used as children‟s toys. There is nothing to indicate a religious or quasi-religious
use for such figurines, unlike Venuses or Deae Nutrices, examples of which have also been found at
Baldock (Stead & Rigby 1986, 168; Burleigh et al. 2006).

213
A Dea Nutrix figurine <B408>
Miranda J Green [1988, revised 2005]

Description
The statuette is made from white pipeclay and measures 150 mm high, 54 mm wide and 45 mm deep
(Figure 88); there is no indication that it was ever painted. It depicts a young woman seated in a high-
backed basket chair with an infant at each breast; the figure belongs to a well documented group of votive
objects made in Central Gaulish and Rhenish pottery workshops, known as the Dea Nutrix or nursing
goddess (see below; Jenkins 1957, 40). The goddess‟s hair is waved on the forehead and around the
ears, and is arranged in a plait across the middle of the head, with a chignon reaching almost from the
nape of the neck to the top behind the line of the plait. She wears a long robe to her feet; it has a V-neck,
is sleeveless and open at the sides to allow it to be gathered together in the front and expose the breasts.
The garment falls in stylised draped folds around the legs. The act of burying the figurine in the grave has
preserved the head intact: when such statuettes are found on settlement sites, the heads are often
broken off, usually by accident, but sometimes perhaps deliberately, as an act of ritual damage or „killing‟
(Green 1986, 155; 222).

Figure 88: the Dea Nutrix figurine

A number of features of the figurine identify it as a product of the Central Gaulish factories of the Allier
district, centred on Toulon-sur-Allier (Jenkins 1978): the wicker chair is specific to this region‟s products,
and the presence of two nursing infants also betrays its Central Gaulish origins. The figurine falls into
Rouvier-Jeanlin‟s Type I C (Rouvier-Jeanlin 1972, nos 342-3); its closest parallel in Britain, in terms of
hairstyle and general mien, is a figure, also from a Roman cemetery, at St Dunstan‟s, Canterbury
(Jenkins 1957, pl opposite 44). The products of the Rhenish factories, which also manufactured pipeclay
figurines like this in large quantities, modelled them without the distinctive chair, with only one breast
bared and with one child. The Baldock figurine was probably made in one of the Allier factories, in a two-
piece mould, during the second century AD. The seams resulting from the use of a two-piece mould can
be seen quite clearly running up the centre of each side of the chair, and less clearly on the neck and
head of the figurine. There are signs of wear to the mould, resulting in the „blurring‟ of some of the detail,
particularly noticeable in the reproduction of the wicker texture of the chair. On the left side of the chair,
roughly half way between the plinth and the top of the chair arm, is a small hole about 3 mm in diameter;
this was cut to allow the air inside to escape as it expanded during firing to prevent the explosion of the
statuette. Carved stone depictions of high-backed wicker chairs are relatively common during this period
in Western Europe (Jenkins 1978); the hairstyle would fit a second-century date, and this time was the
height of production (and probably export) at the pipeclay workshops. The statuette may well have been
imported some time before being buried with the infant at Baldock in the early fourth century.

Context and distribution

The presence of such a pipeclay figurine brings the Baldock infant grave into sharp prominence as a rare
type of Roman-British burial. There are only a few instances in Britain of Deae Nutrices from graves,
although they are common in Gaul, both in shrines (Blanchet 1891; 1901; de Vesly 1909) and in tombs,
particularly those of children (Rouvier-Jeanlin 1972, 32). Complete British grave finds include those at
Canterbury (Jenkins 1957, 44) and Welwyn (Rook 1968; 1973, 3). The whole distribution of Dea Nutrices
214
and the other main exported type, the „Venus‟, is biased towards south-east Britain (Green 1976, fig 14),
appropriate enough if they were imported to areas without a ready source of good stone for carving.
There is a pipeclay „Venus‟ statuette from the settlement area at Baldock (Stead & Rigby 1986, 169). But
we should not forget the curious deposit of figurines from Nor‟nour in the Isles of Scilly (F Jenkins in
Dudley 1967, 19-21).

Significance
Two related issues concern us here: the first is the significance of the goddess herself; the second is the
meaning of the presence of her image in the grave of the Baldock child, in terms both of function and the
implications for the status of the infant and its family. The goddess represented has been called the Dea
Nutrix by Jenkins (Jenkins 1957, 40), though her real name is unknown to us. She may be a Gaulish
version of the Roman concept of Juno Lucina, who presided over childbirth and, as her name suggests,
saw to it that the newborn child opened its eyes to the light of day. From the iconography of the goddess,
it is quite clear that she belongs to the vast group of Romano-Gaulish and British mother-goddesses who
were portrayed in metal, clay and stone throughout the Romano-Celtic world (Green 1976, 72-102; 1989,
9-45; 184-204).
In origin, these images owed their inspiration to Mediterranean concepts of the Divine Mother, who
brought fertility to people, livestock and crops. The monumental stone images depict mother-goddesses
sometimes as triads, as couples or alone (Green 1976), with babies, older children, wine, bread and other
symbols of fecundity and well-being. But the Dea Nutrix represents a more personal cult: her images
could be acquired by individuals who perhaps could not afford a votive object in bronze or stone, and who
bought the clay figures, much as pilgrims to Lourdes purchase little images of the Virgin Mary, to dedicate
in shrines or to bury with their dead. The imagery of the goddess links her firmly with women and she was
probably frequently invoked in times of pregnancy, childbirth lactation, when an adequate supply of milk
ensured a healthy beginning for the new child; she would also have been called upon to help in instances
of infertility.
Mother-goddesses possessed a function rather more complex than simply the promotion of fertility: a
study of their iconography indicates that they were concerned with healing, and they (including the Deae
Nutrices) were often invoked at Gaulish therapeutic spring-sanctuaries (Green 1976, 150-8). They were
associated, too, with renewal, rebirth and the afterlife. They were associated, too, with the measurement
of the span of human life on earth and with resurrection in the otherworld. As deities of fertility, the
goddesses presided over the earth, where the seed grows in the dark underground after a period of
apparent lifelessness, and this function gave mother-goddesses their significance as underworld
divinities. So their presence in tombs is not inappropriate. The burial of the image of the Mother in the
grave of a child may have different levels of meaning: it ensured that the infant would find rebirth, healing
and renewal after its brief life on earth; it could also perhaps represent the presence of the infant‟s earthly
mother, and thus be a comfort to the child in death.
The mass production of pipe-clay figurines in Gaul and the Rhineland and the frequency with which such
statuettes were dedicated in religious and sepulchral sites on the continent may suggest that the figures
were relatively inexpensive to purchase. So, by itself, the presence of a Dea Nutrix in the Baldock grave
need not therefore imply wealthy parents or social standing. But other features of the grave – the possible
superstructure and the caskets – may indicate relatively high status within an otherwise modest Romano-
British settlement. In addition, we have to consider the extreme rarity of such figurines in Romano-British
graves. Indeed, given its second century date of manufacture, it is tempting to see the figurine as a
treasured household goddess, taken from its domestic shrine for burial on the occasion of a very special
death. What can be said with certainty is that this was a valued child, one whose relatives endeavoured to
ensure had an easy transition from this world to the otherworld.

Objects of bone and antler

S J Greep [1984, revised 2006]

Hair-pins
I have discussed the typology, chronology and function of Roman bone hair pins elsewhere in detail
(Greep 1995, 1113-21). The arrangement listed there is followed here.

1 BAL 1984 (1601) SF <7178>

Type A1 hair-pin with a flat head and a tapering stem. A mid Roman form, most dated examples
belonging to the send and third centuries. 114 mm long, broken.

2 BAL-9 1983 F687 SF <6023> Late Roman

Type A2.2 hair-pin with a conical head and a single groove cut beneath. Tapering stem. These forms are
datable to the period AD c 40-200/250. 35 mm long, broken.
215
3 BAL-4 1981 F184 L3 SF <2318> Post-conquest
Type A2.2 hair-pin, form and date similar to No 2 above. 122 mm long, complete.

4 BAL-1 1980 F34 L4 SF <539> Late Roman

Type A2.2 hair-pin with a conical head and a single collar beneath. Tapering stem. Date as No 2 above.
35 mm long, complete.

5 BAL 1984 (1559) SF <7153> Mid Roman

Type A2.2 hair-pin as No 4 above. 103 mm long, complete.

6 BAL-2 1982 F211 L1 SF <3026>

Type A2.2 hair-pin as No 4 above but with two collars. 43 mm long, broken.

7 BAL-1 1983 F604 L1 SF <5721> Sub-Roman

Type B1 hair-pin with an oval head and a tapering stem. These forms are datable to the period AD c
150/200-400. 22 mm long, broken.

8 BAL-18 1984 (904) SF <8114> Late Roman

Type B4 hair-pin with a facetted cuboid-shaped head and a swelling stem. Date as No 7 above. 42 mm
long, broken.

9 BAL-1 1983 F557 L4 SF <5993> Late Roman

Small fragment of a hair-pin, 36 mm long, broken. The irregular nature of the stem, still showing quite
marked knife-cuts, suggests that this piece is unfinished through there is no further evidence of pin
manufacture from the excavations.

Needles

10 BAL-1 F557 L5 SF <5524> Late Roman

Fragment of a needle, broken across the eye, a single oval of figure-of-eight configuration. Stained green,
usually an earlier Roman feature. 37 mm long, broken.

11 BAL-2 1981 F120 SF <2098> Mid-Late Roman

Fragment of a needle with a composite eye, the lower element of which has a single oval perforation, the
upper possibly the same. 29 mm long, broken.

Gaming equipment

12 BAL 1984 U/S SF <7559>

Gaming counter with an obverse decorated with a series of turned, concentric circles. 24 mm diameter.
These forms last throughout the Roman period.

13 BAL-2 U/S SF <3074>

Half a bone disc, possibly a gaming counter though the reverse is unfinished.

14 BAL-7 1980 L4 SF <40> Conquest period

Composite bone die manufactured from a section of long bone, the ends of which have been plugged
with small pieces of bone. The opposite faces add up to seven, the usual configuration on Roman dice,
though the surfaces are quite worn and the numerals faint in places.
Composite dice are an earlier Roman form. Parallels from first-century contexts include those from
Richborough (Bushe-Fox 1949, pl 34, 81) dated pre AD 85 and Fishbourne (Cunliffe 1971, fig 67, 15)
from Flavian deposits. For Roman dice in general see Schmid 1980.

216
Figure 89: Objects of bone and antler

Bracelets

15 BAL 1984 (1069) SF <7270> Late fourth century

Fragment of a D-sectioned bone bracelet, 53 mm diameter. Bone bracelets were manufactured from a
long strip of bone bent and fastened at the two ends by either a collar (of silver, bronze or iron) or by
lapping the two ends and riveting together. Though the collar is now lost, this example was clearly
fastened by the first method, staining around the rivet hole suggesting that an iron collar was used.
Bracelets are a common fourth-century type (e.g. Clarke 1979, 313-4), though it does not seem possible
to differentiate chronologically between methods of fastening or decoration.

16 BAL-13 1982 (1202)

Small length of a plain bone bracelet with a lapped fastening (cf. No 15 above) with two rivet holes. 35
mm long, broken.

17 BAL-13 1982 (1202) <7512> Late fourth century

Small section of a plain bone bracelet, 27 mm long. No trace of the method of fastening survives.

Handles

18 BAL-9 1983 687 SF <6058> Late Roman

D-sectioned plate, 73 mm long. This is probably from a plain, composite handle since a small fragment of
an iron rivet, across which the place has broken, survives.

217
19 BAL-1 1982 F440 SF <3738> Post-Roman
Small section form a handle plate similar to No 18 above but decorated with cross-hatching. 20 mm long,
broken. Such decoration is common con composite handles of the Roman period (e.g. Merrifield 1965, pl
135, 5), though usually divided from the rivet holes by plain bands not apparent on this piece. An example
from Braughing (Partridge 1981, fig 58, 49), however, was decorated with all-over cross-hatching and
came from the “latest Roman layer”.

Other bone finds

20 BAL-1 1982 F552 L3 SF <4502> Pre-conquest

Half a simple, plain bone finger-ring of D-shaped section. 18 mm diameter.

21 BAL-1 1983 F484 L11 SF <5953> Late Roman

Bone box hinge (cf. Waugh & Goodburn 1972, 149-50 for a discussion of their function). 31 mm long,
complete. Single perforated hinges such as this belong typically to the earlier Roman period (e.g.
Richardson 1944, pl XVIII, 1-2; Crummy 1983, fig 131, 4096) and this example may be residual from first
or second century contexts.

22 U/S SF <1244>
Small bone ?bead, 12 mm diameter with an irregular, tapering perforation. Date uncertain.

218
6: Human remains
Inhumations
The Inhumations from Wallington Road
Charlotte Roberts [1984, revised 2006]

Introduction
In 1982, Letchworth Museum excavated a hitherto unknown Romano-British cemetery located at the
south-eastern limit of the Roman settlement at Baldock. The full extent of the cemetery was recorded in
advance of building developers (Burleigh 1984, 28). 164 cremations and 22 inhumations were recorded.
Two further inhumations were identified in 1990 and therefore are not included within the discussion. In
three cases (B195, B196 and B197), no remains were recovered. In some cases, burials had been
disturbed. This feature is recorded for specific skeletons at the end of the report.
The burials were haphazardly oriented with two graves containing pottery vessels dating to the mid first
century BC.
Stratigraphically, some of these burials were earlier than the related cremations, while none were
stratigraphically later.
Excavations at Baldock have previously revealed settlement dating from pre-Roman to the late Roman
eras and sporadic settlement in the earlier prehistoric period (Burleigh 1982, 3). Inhumations and
cremations have also been excavated in previous years at Baldock, notably by Westell (1931a), in Walls
Field but analysis of the remains was not undertaken. Pottery groups were considered more important at
that time. However, between 1982 and 1985 a ditched enclosure was excavated at a Roman crossroads
revealing a small cemetery dating from the third century to the earlier sixth. The following report is
concerned with the inhumations from the Wallington Road cemetery.
The skeletal remains were recorded in the early 1980s, before the publication of standards for recording
human remains (Buikstra & Ubelaker 1994; Brickley & McKinley 2004) and prior to the publication of
specific adult age estimation techniques from 1985.

Condition of the burials

The bone from the burials was generally in a good state of preservation, but with some post mortem
erosion of surfaces. However, the burials themselves were often fragmentary. This could be attributed to
accidental disturbance of many of the graves by the developers. The three juvenile skeletons suffered
badly, the bone being very fragmentary. However, the very nature of subadult bone, being less robust,
makes it vulnerable to post-mortem degradation. Skeletons B2, B118, B131, B174 and B175 were
relatively complete. Obviously completeness of the skeleton determines the amount of recoverable data.
A number of skeletons were associated with animal bone, flint, B1 and B174, or pottery, B27 Samian,
B138. Burial B2 had two fragments of infant long bone included in the assemblage.

Recording of information.
Standard recording forms of the then Calvin Wells Laboratory, Department of Archaeological Sciences,
University of Bradford, were used. The original recording forms are archived there. Data on age at death,
biological sex, stature, non-metric traits, measurements and pathology were recorded. Details of methods
used will be covered in the appropriate sections.

Minimum number of individuals

Excavation of recorded twenty graves, including the B1, B2, B4, B8 assemblage. The total number of the
most abundant bone present revealed a minimum population count of eight individuals (Table 73).
Obviously the two numbers are at variance but the fragmentary nature of the remains suggests that the
archaeological value should be regarded as the most accurate value. Analyses of age, sex and stature
have been attempted for all the bone assemblages excavated.
Glabella 6
Occiput 8
L 8
Mandible
R 7
L 2
Maxilla
R 2
Prox 4
Humerus L
Distal 5
219
 Prox 5
R
Distal 5
Prox 5
L
Distal 1
Radius
Prox 3
R
Distal 4
Prox 6
L
Distal 4
Ulna
Prox 3
R
Distal 1
Prox 6
L
Distal 5
Femur
Prox 7
R
Distal 6
Prox 4
L
Distal 2
Tibia
Prox 5
R
Distal 2
Prox 1
L
Distal 1
Fibula
Prox 1
R
Distal 1
L 4
Pelvis
R 6
Medial 2
L
Lateral -
Clavicle
Medial 6
R
Lateral 3
L 3
Patella
R 5
L 4
Scapula
R 4
Table 73: minimum number of individuals, BAL-11

Biological sex
Sex determination of individuals was carried out by morphological assessment (Bass 1987; Brothwell
1981) and by metrical analysis of certain bones (Bass 1987; Stewart 1979).
Due to the incompleteness of some skeletons it was often impossible to assign a sex. Table 74 shows the
sex distribution. There were three definite males, four definite females, two possible males and three
possible females. Four individuals were unsexable, three skeletons being subadults. Sex estimation of
non-adult skeletons is imprecise and was not attempted. Their remains nevertheless would have been
inadequate for analysis.
Male 3
Female 4
? Male 2
? Female 5
? Sex 4 (3 subadults)
Table 74: sex distribution, BAL-11
Due to the small assemblage, it was considered inappropriate to comment on the sex distribution.

Age at death
Age at death of non-adults was assessed by the state of epiphyseal union of the bones and development
and eruption of the teeth (Brothwell 1981). It is necessary to assume that union of epiphyses and eruption
of teeth occurred at the same ages in the past as they do today.
Up to around twenty-five years, when all the epiphyses are fused and teeth developed, age at death can
be estimated to within five-year age brackets but once the individual has reached adulthood, quantitative
assessment of dental attrition is used to age the individual into ten-year age brackets, a method
developed by Brothwell (1981), on pre-medieval skeletons in Britain. In addition, age changes on the
pubic symphyses of the pelves were considered, a method pioneered by Todd (1920). However, it was
often not possible to use the latter method, due to post mortem degradation and fragmentation of the
anterior pelvic girdle area.
The degree of suture closure in the skull was not considered an accurate method of determining age,
whilst the presence of degenerative joint disease, osteoarthritis and osteoporosis, a decrease in the
220
amount of osseous tissue per unit of bone volume, as an indication of an older person was only referred
to in problematical cases of ageing. Methods of ageing adults are, at best, imprecise (Cox 2000). It is
considered that assigning any more specific ages than young, middle-aged and elderly adults to a
skeleton would be misleading (Brickley & McKinley 2004).
Table 75 shows the age distribution. The number of individuals accurately assessed in terms of age is too
small to permit any conclusions about mortality rates at Baldock.
Juveniles 3
Young adult 3
Young to middle aged adult 3
Middle aged to older adult 1
Old adult 1
Elderly 3
Age 4
Table 75: age distribution, BAL-11
The numbers in this cemetery are so small that comments on infant mortality are unrealistic. The three
subadult skeletons were estimated to be aged about six years, six and a half to seven years and two
years old at death.
More refined but time consuming and expensive microscopic methods of ageing have been developed,
such as osteon counting of thin sections of bone and analysis of thin sections of teeth (Robling & Stout
2000). This should give more accurate ages of individuals and hence demographic patterns.

Stature
The maximum lengths of the long bones were used in conjunction with formulae devised by Trotter and
Gleser (1952; 1958; 1977) to calculate the height of individuals in the Wallington Road cemetery. Trotter
and Gleser studied stature of soldiers before and after death in the Korean War. By measuring the long
bones of the cadavers, it was possible to produce regression equations for use on dry bone specimens.
There is no British equivalent of this work and therefore stature was based on the formulae for American
Whites.
Statures were calculated for three males and one female. Table 76 records the data. Stature for this
group when compared with the mean for Romano-British burials (Roberts & Cox 2003: 1.69 m male and
1.59 m female) was not greatly different.
male females
1.70 m 5‟7” 1.52 m 4‟10”
1.77 m 5‟9½”
1.67 m 5‟5½”
Table 76: stature, BAL-11
The fragmentary nature of some of the long bones meant that stature calculation was not possible for
some skeletons.

Non-metric traits
Non-metric cranial traits (Berry & Berry 1967) were recorded (see Tables 77 and 78). Eight skulls in
varying states of preservation were available for study. Non-metric features have been considered
inherited traits by some in the past and there have been attempts to assign skeletons to genetically
distinct groups. Recent work (Tyrrell 2000) has indicated that some traits may also be induced by activity.
Three skulls, B1, B4 and B17, showed extra, or wormian, bones in the sutures of the skull (see Plate 25).

221
Plate 25: Wormian bones in the skull of B1
1 Highest nuchal line
2 Lambdoid ossicle
3 Ossicle at lambda
4 Bregmatic bone
5 Metopism
6 Coronal ossicle
7 Epipteric bone
8a Ossicle at asterion left
8b Ossicle at asterion right
9 Parietal notch bone
10 Fronto-temporal articulation
11a Foramen ovale complete left
11b Foramen ovale incomplete left
11c Foramen ovale complete right
11d Foramen ovale incomplete right
12a Foramen spinosum patent left
12b Foramen spinosum patent right
13a Mastoid foramen exsutural left
13b Mastoid foramen sutural left
13c Mastoid foramen exsutural right
13d Mastoid foramen sutural right
14 Parietal foramen
15a Accessory infra-orbital foramen left
15b Accessory infra-orbital foramen right
16a Zygomatic-facial foramen left
16b Zygomatic-facial foramen right
17 Frontal foramen
18a Foramen of Huschke left
222
 18b Foramen of Huschke right
19 Accessory lesser palatine foramen
20a Anterior ethmoid foramen exsutural left
20b Anterior ethmoid foramen sutural left
20c Anterior ethmoid foramen exsutural right
20d Anterior ethmoid foramen sutural right
21a Posterior ethmoid foramen exsutural left
21b Posterior ethmoid foramen sutural left
21c Posterior ethmoid foramen exsutural right
21d Posterior ethmoid foramen sutural right
22a Auditory torus left
22b Auditory torus right
23 Mandibular torus
24 Torus maxillares
25 Palatine torus
26 Pre-auricular sulcus
27 Precondylar tubercle
28 Post-condylar facet
29a Anterior condylar canal double left
29b Anterior condylar canal single left
29c Anterior condylar canal double right
29d Anterior condylar canal single right
30a Condylar facet single left
30b Condylar facet double left
30c Condylar facet single right
30d Condylar facet double right
31a Posterior condylar canal patent left
31b Posterior condylar canal patent right
32a Supra-orbital foramen complete left
32b Supra-orbital foramen incomplete left
32c Supra-orbital foramen complete right
32d Supra-orbital foramen incomplete right
Table 77: non-metric traits recorded on skulls, BAL-11
Present Absent ?
1 3
2 3 1 4
3 1 3 4
4 4 4
5 1 4 3
6 1 3 4
7 3 5
8a 1 2
8b 1 2 5
9 1 1 6
10 8
11a 1
11b
11c 1 7
11d 7
12a 1
12b 1 7
13a 3
13b 2
13c 4 2
13d
14 4 1 3
15a
15b 1 7
16a 3 3
16b 4
17 5 3
18a 1 7
18b 1
19 8
20a
20b 8
20c
20d
223
 21a
21b
21c 8
21d
22a 8
22b 8
23 6 2
24 4 4
25 1 3 4
26 2 3 3
27 3 5
28 2 6
29a
29b 2 6
29c
29d 2
30a 3
30b
30c 3 5
30d
31a
31b 1 7
32a 3
32b 1
32c 1 3
32d 4
Table 78: non-metric cranial traits recorded, BAL-11 (? = part not present to observe)

Metrical data
Skeletal measurements (Bass 1987; Brothwell 1981), were taken of intact bones. Table 79 shows the
measurements. These specific measurements were used because they were seen as useful for either
contributing to the sex estimation of an individual or calculating an index. Femoral measurements, FeL1,
FeD5 and FeE1, were useful aids in sexing skeletons.
Cranial (mm) B1 B2 B4 B7 B27 B88 B118 B131 B174 B175
L 190 181
B 135 133 124
B‟ 100 95 88
H‟ 134 117
LB 82
GL
G‟H
GB
J
NH‟
NB
NB4
L
O‟1
R
L
O‟2
R
G‟1 40
G‟2 36
S1 134 140 127
S2 120 120 140
S3 132 120
S‟1 108 107 105
S‟2 109 107 120
S‟3 105 95
O9L 73
FL 34 35
FB 28
SC
DA
DC
U 539
BQ‟ 319
MHL
224
MHR
W1 126 97 128 107
ZZ 43 46 41 52 42 46 41
H1 27 32 25 21 28
L 70 53 64 62
CrH
R 67 56 60 62
MA 121 109 123 128
GoGo 105 88 109 116 99
L 34 33 33 34
RB‟
R 34 31 31 31 32
ML 107 93 97 99
L 22 18 19 18
CLY
R 23 17 18
Post-cranial
L 474 438 392
FeL1
R 445 396
L 471 434 390
FeL2
R 443 388
L 28 29 29 29 30 23
FeD1
R 31 28 27 28 27 22
L 38 28 32 38 31 32
FeD2
R 39 33 35 36 34 32
L 50 50 46 42
FeD5
R 52 49 46 50 48 42
L 94 100 98 87 82
C
R 104 85
L 85 78 97
FeE1
R
L 119 116 123 122
CA
R 118 130 117 121 128
L 373
TIL1
R 373 392
L 360
TA
R
L 76
TIE1
R
L 36 24 23 22 20 30
TID1
R 35 22 22 37 20 29
L 27 34 27 30 38 23
TID2
R 28 30 30 28 38 25
L 369
FIL1
R
L 289
HUL1
R 350
L
HUD5
R
L 71 81 60
HC
R 74 83 60
L
RAL1
R 256
L
ULL1
R 272
L
CLL1
R 145 136
L 39 33
GC1
R 43 42
L 32 23
GC2
R 30 31 24
AW 52
L 78 81
PL
R 79
L 91 91
IL
R 90
SAB 121 91 114
SAL 105
Indices
Cranial 71.1 68.5
Height/length 70.5 44.6
Height/breadth 70.5 94.3
225
 Nasal
Upper facial
Foraminal
Palatal 90.0
Orbital
Porion/height
L 73.7 76.3 90.6 76.3 96.8 71.9
Platymeric R 79.5 84.8 77.1 77.8 79.4 68.7
Av 76.6 76.3 84.8 83.8 77.0 88.1 70.3
L 75.0 141.7 117.4 136.4 190.0 76.7
Platycnemic R 80.0 136.4 136.4 75.7 190.0 86.2
Av 77.5 141.7 126.9 136.4 75.7 190.0 81.4
L
Robusticity R 21.1
Av 21.1
L
Radio-humeral R 73.1
Av 73.1
L 89.0
Ischio-pubic R
Av 89.0
Table 79: measurements and indices, BAL-11
Platymeric indices of the femora of seven individuals were calculated. Six skeletons were platymeric. This
trait is seen as a flattening of the proximal end of the femoral shaft in an antero-posterior direction,
occurring more frequently in earlier people. The cause of platymeria is unknown but could be attributed to
strain on the femur in childhood (Cameron 1934), pathological conditions (Townsley 1946) or diet (Buxton
1939). However, no clear idea has yet been validated of its cause.
Platycnemic indices of seven individuals showed none of them to be platycnemic. Platycnemia is a
transverse flattening of the upper shaft of the tibia. It has been attributed to several pathological and
muscular causes in the past, but again there is no evidence to support any of these claims.
Maximum lengths of long bones were used in stature formulae.
Although little can be said statistically about the measurements, their use in deriving further information
about individuals was invaluable.

Pathology
An account of the pathological features isolated in the skeletons is included with the individual burial
reports in the DVD-ROM catalogue.

Dental data
The dentition of each individual is recorded in the DVD-ROM catalogue.
135 teeth were available for examination, 112 of which were present in the jaws (Table 80).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Mandible 4 5 5 5 4 3 4 2
Male
Maxilla 3 3 5 4 2 2 2 2
Mandible 2 3 6 4 3 2 4 4
Female
Maxilla 2 2 4 4 4 2 2 0
Mandible 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
?Age/Sex
Maxilla 0 0 0 2 2 2 2 0
Loose teeth Incisor Canine Premolar Molar
Upper 4 0 5 8
Lower 5 0 1 0
Table 80: tooth numbers (laterality not considered), BAL-11

Ante mortem tooth loss

From 180 alveolar sites or tooth sockets (see Table 81) present for examination, 35 (19.4%) of teeth had
been lost ante mortem (Table 82). Most losses tended to occur in the second premolars and first and
second molars. Skeleton B88 had lost eleven of sixteen lower teeth before death. All individuals with ante
mortem tooth loss also had some dental disease, usually caries (see Table 83).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Mandible 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 3
Male
Maxilla 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

226
 Mandible 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
Female
Maxilla 2 2 4 4 4 2 2 0
Mandible 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1
?Age/sex
Maxilla 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2
Table 81: alveolar sites present (laterality not considered), BAL-11
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Mandible 0 0 0 0 2 3 1 1
Male
Maxilla 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
Mandible 0 0 0 0 2 4 2 2
Female
Maxilla 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mandible 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 0
?Age/sex
Maxilla 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Table 82: ante mortem tooth loss (laterality not considered), BAL-11
Periodontal Ante mortem
Calculus Hypoplasia Caries Abscess
disease loss
B1 x x x x
B2 x x x x x
B4 x x
B21 x x
B88 x x
B118 x x x x
B131 x x x
B174 x x
B175 x X
Table 83: dental disease, BAL-11

Periodontal disease
Periodontal disease is an inflammatory disease of the gums but eventually, the bone of the jaws may be
lost. It is recognised by pitting of the bone around the tooth sockets, eventual recession of bone around
them and loss of teeth. It usually reflects the state of oral hygiene and care of teeth of individuals.
Moreover, it is often associated with other dental disease, particularly calculus or plaque (see Tables 83
and 84). Seven skeletons exhibited periodontal disease in varying degrees from slight to considerable
(based on Brothwell's subjective but simple assessment 1981, 155). No significant differences for sex or
age were noted. More complicated methods for recording periodontal disease are available (summarised
in Hillson 1996), but there is debate about whether periodontal disease can actually be recognised in
skeletal remains, and continuing eruption of teeth may complicate accurate recording (Glass 1991).
20-25 25-35 ?Age
Male 0 2 0
Female 1 1 4
?Sex 0 0 1
Table 84: periodontal disease, BAL-11

Caries
Caries is the result of progressive destruction of the tooth structure initiated by microbacterial activity on
the tooth surface (Pindborg 1970, 256). Carbohydrates in the diet initiate normally harmless bacterial
(commensals) in the mouth to break down sugars, leading to acidic end products. Caries is hence a
reflection of diet and oral hygiene (see Plate 26).
Table 85 records caries frequencies. The caries frequency for 135 teeth observed was 9.6%. The mean
rate for Romano-British burials is 7.5% (Roberts & Cox 2003), so the rate at BAL-11 is a little higher. The
female rate was 5.2% of the total and for male, 3.7%, with the remainder being made up of teeth whose
age and/or sex was not known. No apparent difference in the site of caries emerged, although mesial and
distal, i.e. interproximal, caries together in the same jaw were preponderant. Lingual caries were absent.
There was a slight increased prevalence in caries for the young adult age group. Mandibular caries was
more prevalent in both sexes for 76.9% of the total carious teeth. The third molars were the common
tooth affected (38.5%).
20-25 25-35 35-45 ?Age
Male 0 2 3 0
Female 2 1 0 4
?Sex 0 0 0 1
Site: Occlusal Labial Lingual Mesial Distal
Male 0 0 0 2 3

227
 Female 1 2 0 1 1
?Sex 0 1 0 0 0
?Site 1
Mandibular/maxillary
frequency (laterality not 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
considered)
Mandible 0 0 2 1 0 0 1 0
Male
Maxilla 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Mandible 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 3
Female
Maxilla 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Mandible 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
?Age/Sex
Maxilla 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Table 85: caries, BAL-11

Plate 26: Dental caries

Dental abscess
Dental abscesses are usually the result of severe caries or heavy dental attrition from abrasive food
which culminates in the exposure of the pulp cavity within the tooth. An abscess consists of a localised
area of infection within the bone of the jaw and is visible as a sinus usually on the external jaw surface.
However, many abscesses will be undetectable unless all jaws are radiographed. In the Wallington Road
cemetery, only two abscesses were located, both from young to middle aged males. The abscesses
occurred in conjunction with an upper and lower second molar (see Plate 27).

228
Plate 27: Maxillary dental abscess

Dental enamel hypoplasia

Six skeletons displayed evidence of dental hypoplasia (see Table 86). These macroscopic defects in the
enamel surface of the tooth are the result of any disturbance, nutritional or pathological, in tooth formation
(Hillson 1996). The amount of data here was so small as not to warrant discussion.
20-25 25-35 ?Age
Male 0 2 0
Female 1 1 1
?Sex 0 0 1
Table 86: dental enamel hypoplasia, BAL-11

Calculus
Calculus deposits occurred on teeth of individuals in four cases (Table 87). Plaque consists of micro-
organisms which accumulate in the mouth, embedded in a matrix partly composed by the organisms and
partly derived from proteins from the saliva (Hillson 1986). Plaque becomes mineralised into calculus
where crystallites of mineral are deposited in the plaque. It can become an irritant in the mouth, causing
infection of the gums, recession of bone and loosening of the teeth. Obviously, the diet and oral biology of
the mouth will affect formation.
20-25 25-35 35-45
Male 0 2 1
Female 1 1 0
Table 87: calculus, BAL-11

Tooth anomalies
Skeleton B174 suffered impaction of a mandibular third molar (see Plate 28). The mandibular first molars
of skeleton B2 were noted to have abnormally heavy wear whilst the second and third molars were only
slightly worn.
229
Plate 28: Impacted mandibular third molar in B174

Degenerative joint disease

Degenerative disease of the joints manifests itself primarily as osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis (OA) affects
the synovial joints of the body (Rogers & Waldron 1995). Cartilage on the joint surfaces disintegrates
under stress and the bone of the joint becomes exposed. Continual movement of the joint leads to wear
on the bone surface and eventual eburnation. The bone immediately subjacent to the joint hypertrophies
as a strengthening mechanism and osteophytes or bony outgrowths from around the margins of, and on,
the joint. OA may be a primary or secondary phenomenon. Primary OA is an age related phenomenon,
slightly more common in females. Secondary disease may be a sequel to trauma, congenital abnormality
or joint infection. OA tends to increase with age (Radin et al. 1972, 519); it is more common in some
occupations, but inferring occupation from the presence of OA in the skeleton is problematic (Jurmain
1999).
The intervertebral discs also suffer degenerative disease. Intervertebral disc degeneration caused by
spinal stress can lead to disc herniation into the central or postero-central part of the vertebral body.
These lesions, or Schmorl's Nodes, occur more frequently in the lower thoracic and lumbar vertebrae and
usually in more than one vertebra (Hilton et al. 1976). In association with spinal OA and Schmorl's Nodes,
there is often a development of osteophytes on the anterior infero-supero margins of the vertebral bodies
(Nathan 1962, 258), again more common in the lower spine. A high rate in the elderly is probably due to a
combination of disc degeneration and osteoporosis weakening the vertebral body.
Table 88 displays the skeletons affected by degenerative disease in the spine, and specific vertebrae
affected. Of six individuals with vertebral columns surviving, five were affected by degenerative disease.
Two skeletons had Schmorl's nodes, one with associated osteophytosis and osteoarthritis; the second
with osteophytosis. All individuals suffered osteophytosis of the vertebral bodies. Three skeletons were
male aged between young to older adult, and one probable female was a young to middle aged adult.
Thoracic and lumbar vertebrae were mainly affected. In two cases, OA of other joints of the body was
noted. One individual had porosity and osteophytes of two right rib tubercles; the other had associated
OA of the right radius, in the form of osteophytes of the proximal and distal joint surfaces, OAs of the
acromion of the right scapula and the left first metatarsal and phalanx of the foot, eburnation and
osteophytes on the distal surface of the metatarsal and proximal surface of the proximal phalanx.

230
 Sch OP OA EB FU
T9 x
T10 x
T11 x x
B2
T12 x
L1 x
L2 x
B4 Vertebral bodies T×3 x
Vertebral body T x
B118
L4 x
T11 x
B131 T12 x
C3 and C4 x
C1 x
C3 x
C4 x
C5 x
C6 x
C7 x
T7 x
T8 x
B174
T9 x
T10 x
T11 x
T12 x
L1 x
L2 x
L3 x
L4 x
Table 88: vertebral degenerative joint disease, BAL-11
Key: Sch Schmorl's Nodes; OA Osteoarthrosis; OP Osteophytosis; EB Eburnation; FU Fusion; C
Cervical; T Thoracic; L Lumbar
OA in other joints of the body was noted in one further individual. Skeleton B7 displayed osteophytes and
eburnation of the distal articular surface of the left first metatarsal of the foot. Cervical vertebrae three and
four of skeleton B131 exhibited fusion at the inferior and superior articular processes (Plate 29).

Osteochondritis dissecans
This condition was noted in the right first metatarsal of skeleton B7 and the right navicular bone of
skeleton B131 (Plate 30). It is a condition affecting the articular surfaces of bones, more commonly in the
distal articular surface of the femur, 80 to 90% of modern cases (Loveland et al. 1984, 240). It involves
necrosis of a segment of the articular surfaces followed by degenerative change in the overlying cartilage
(Loveland et al. 1984, 239). The fragment may become separated from the rest of the bone. It is probably
caused by a localised deficiency of blood to the articular cartilage and underlying bone. It usually occurs
in late adolescence and more frequently in males. The lesion is irregular, shallow and 'punched out' in
appearance. The cause has been attributed to trauma, stress or an hereditary predisposition.

Trauma

Bone
One traumatic lesion of the left fibula of skeleton was noted (Plates 31 and 32). X-ray showed an oblique
fracture which had healed with little deformity and no post-traumatic infection. It is likely that the
associated tibia automatically splinted the fracture until it was healed.

Soft tissue
An exostosis (bone formation) attributed to soft tissue, muscle, ligament or tendon, injury was noted on
the right femur of skeleton B2 in the posterior mid-shaft area. This could have been due to muscle strain.

231
Plate 29: Fused cervical vertebrae in B131

Plate 30: Osteochondritis dissecans in navicular of B131

232
Plate 31: Traumatic lesion in fibula of B2

233
Plate 32: Traumatic lesion in fibula of B2

Infection
Inflammation of bone, recognised as periostitis or non-specific inflammation of the periosteum (meaning
the specific causative organism is unknown), the outer vascular fibrous covering of the bone, was noted
on the medial surface of the mid-shaft of the left tibia of skeleton B2. The infection could be associated
with the fractured fibula recorded above, periosteal reaction probably occurring in response to injury.

Stress
Six individuals showed evidence of cribra orbitalia, a condition in temperate Europe probably associated
with chronic iron deficiency anaemia in infancy and hence an indication of a low level of iron in the diet, or
a low iron level caused by excessive haemorrhage, perhaps from a parasitic intestinal infection or
infectious disease (Stuart-Macadam 1992). The condition manifests itself in the superior surface of the
orbits of the skull and is due to an overgrowth of the diploic bone of the skull in response to anaemia. The
lesions themselves range from small pits in the bone to coalescing apertures, depending on the severity
of the condition.
Three of the skeletons affected were male, two female and one probable female. One individual was a
young adult, two were young to middle aged adults, one was a middle aged adult and one was estimated
as being elderly.

Conclusion
The numbers of skeletons in the Wallington Road cemetery do not warrant a more general interpretation
of the pathological lesions exhibited. However, a few points should be noted.
The dental data from the Bath Gate Romano-British cemetery at Cirencester (Wells 1982) was
considered, this being one of the few thorough Roman cemetery reports available for study. Although
numbers of skeletons at Wallington Road were much less than for Cirencester, similar rates for ante
mortem tooth loss and caries were noted, the most frequent site for caries on the teeth being
interproximal for both cemeteries. The impaction of food between the teeth is the most likely predisposing
factor to interproximal caries. The low rate of caries in both cemeteries indicates that there was probably
not so much reliance on high carbohydrate foods. The presence of calculus, periodontal disease and
interproximal caries suggests that there was a low standard of oral hygiene. There is, however, a large
amount of documentary and artefactual evidence for dentifrices, toothpicks and brushes in the Roman
period (Weinberger 1948, 139). However, it is difficult to determine whether specific populations in the
Roman period were using them.

234
A more thorough picture of the residents of Baldock should emerge once interpretation of the larger
cemetery excavated in 1982 to 1985 has been carried out.

The inhumations from BAL-1

Charlotte Roberts [1988, revised 2006]
This report also includes material from contexts on BAL-2 and BAL-17

Introduction
The human skeletal remains from Baldock were excavated during the years 1980-1983 and during 1985
from a site located at a crossroads in Baldock, Hertfordshire. Most of the burials lay within an originally
ditched enclosure, the California Late Roman cemetery. The burials seem to date to the third to sixth
centuries AD. Two burials, F610 and F556 from the nearby doline, date from the late Iron Age, c first
century BC.
The skeletal remains were recorded in the early 1980s, before the publication of standards for recording
human remains (Buikstra & Ubelaker 1994; Brickley & McKinley 2004).

Preservation
The majority of the bone from all the skeletons was eroded on their surfaces due to conditions of burial.
The result of this was a lack of information on pathological changes of the surface of the bones,
particularly non-specific infective processes. In some cases, skeletons were badly fragmented, which
negated the use of accepted age and sex estimation techniques on the skull and pelvis. There were
therefore a large number of individuals who could not be aged and sexed very accurately. Fragmentation
of the bones can also mask subtle pathological changes to the bone, such as fractured ribs and blade
injuries to the skull. It was not considered worth the time and effort to reconstruct badly fragmented bone.
Some burials were very incomplete, so little information could be generated about the skeletal elements
present.

Minimum number of individuals

There were 139 discrete burials excavated plus many groups and contexts of disarticulated bone. Many
of these burials did not represent a complete skeleton. The minimum number of individuals was 81,
based on the left proximal femur (see Table 89). Some of the burials were made up of two or more
contexts of bone close to each other. Reconstruction of one individual from different contexts was only
done on the basis of the clear matching of individual bones. The discrete burials were used for the
analytical work of the human bone report. The catalogue for the human skeletal remains including all
bone recovered from the site is in the North Hertfordshire Museums Service archives. Original recording
forms are archived in the Department of Archaeological Sciences, University of Bradford.
Glabella 73
Occiput 70
L 64
Mandible
R 58
L 51
Maxilla
R 51
proximal 55
L
distal 61
Humerus
proximal 50
R
distal 53
proximal 56
L
distal 48
Radius
proximal 18
R
distal 19
proximal 49
L
distal 42
Ulna
proximal 56
R
distal 46
proximal 81
L
distal 69
Femur
proximal 72
R
distal 66
proximal 59
L
distal 59
Tibia
proximal 61
R
distal 69
proximal 35
Fibula L
distal 61
235
 proximal 25
R
distal 63
L 68
Pelvis
R 67
medial 50
L
lateral 46
Clavicle
medial 45
R
lateral 41
L 54
Patella
R 53
L 58
Scapula
R 55
Table 89: minimum number of individuals, BAL-1

Biological sex
Sex estimation of individuals was based on skull and pelvic morphology (Bass 1987) and, where possible,
measurements of the humerus head (Dwight 1905) and of the femur head and bicondylar width (Pearson
1919). As the methods of sex estimation of non-adult skeletons is at present unreliable (Scheuer & Black
2000), only adults (i.e. those whose epiphyses had fused and all the teeth of the dentition had developed)
were sexed.
Table 90 shows the sex distribution of the skeletons recovered from the cemetery. There were 37 males,
41 females, 7 possible males and 14 possible females. 21 individuals were impossible to sex with the
skeletal remains available and 15 skeletons were subadult and therefore unsexable.
Male 37
Female 41
?Male 7
?Female 14
?Sex 21
Subadult 12
Total 132
Table 90: sex distribution, BAL-1

Age
Non-adult individuals were aged on the basis of epiphyseal union and dental development (Bass 1987).
By these methods, each skeleton could be assigned an adult or subadult age. Ageing of non-adult
skeletons is more accurate than the ageing of adult skeletons. It is assumed that dental development and
epiphyseal fusion occurred at the same times in the past as they do today, although it is likely they did
not. However, the methods used to age skeletal remains derive from modern skeletal remains.
Many methods, based on modern population data, have been devised over the years and were used
collectively to assess the age of the adult skeletons (summarised in Cox 2000). Many of these methods
rely on the survival of particular parts of the skeleton, especially the pubic symphysis of the pelvis. This
part is often damaged before the skeleton reaches the laboratory for examination.
Adult skeletons at Baldock were aged by the following methods when possible:
1. Epiphyseal union (Bass 1987).
2. Dentition development (Bass 1987).
3. Attrition of the molar teeth (Brothwell 1981) – this method of ageing is very subjective, as rate of
attrition is dependent on the type of diet being eaten; this is just one of the factors affecting rate of
wear.
4. Pubic symphyseal changes (McKern & Stewart 1957; Gilbert & McKern 1973; Katz & Suchey
1986).
5. Auricular surface of the ilium (Lovejoy et al. 1985).
6. Sternal ends of the ribs (Iscan et al. 1984a; 1984b; 1985).
7. The presence of degenerative joint disease and osteoporosis as an ancillary method of ageing
problematical skeletons.
Obviously, all the above methods assume that the part of the skeleton necessary is available for
assessment. In many cases the pelvis was fragmentary and therefore did not provide complete pubic

236
symphyses for examination. Method 6 provides an easily useable method of ageing even with the most
fragmentary skeleton. However, the age ranges on some of the phases are very wide.
Table 91 shows the age distribution for the population at BAL-1. 12 skeletons were non-adult (i.e. less
than 17 years), 5 were neonatal or newborn, 9 were aged as young adult, 32 as young to middle aged, 7
as middle aged and 7 as elderly adults, 56 individuals could only be assessed as adult (i.e. over 25 years
of age), 9 were elderly adults (i.e. epiphyses fused and signs of degenerative joint disease). One
individual could not be assigned any category.
Child 9
Young adult 9
Young to middle aged adult 31
Middle aged adult 6
Elderly adult 7
Adult 55
Elderly adult 9
Neonate 5
?Age 1
Total 132
Table 91: age distribution, BAL-1

Stature
Stature was calculated by using the maximum length of long bones in the formulae of Trotter (1970),
based on modern American White populations. Obviously the long bones, particularly the femur and tibia,
the most accurate of the long bones to use, need to be complete long bones. Table 92 shows stature for
males and females. Male stature ranged between 1.6 m (5' 3") and 1.75 m (5' 7"), with a mean of 1.67 m
(5' 5"). Female stature ranged between 1.51 m (4' 9") and 1.72 m (5' 6½"), with a mean of 1.59 m (5' 2").
Three individuals whose sex could not be determined had a range of between 1.52 m (4' 10") and 1.68 m
(5' 5"), with a mean of 1.58 m (5' 2").
Range Mean Cases
Male 1.60-1.75 m 1.67 m 22
Female 1.51-1.72 m 1.59 m 14
?Sex 1.52-1.68 m 1.58 m 3
Table 92: stature, BAL-1
Stature estimation at the larger cemetery at Cirencester (McWhirr et al. 1982), of a similar late Roman
date shows that the average stature for males was 1.69 m (5' 6½") and for females, 1.58 m (5'2"). The
only difference in the cemeteries was that at Cirencester greater numbers of individuals could be
assessed, 107 males and 44 females. At Gambier-Parry Lodge, Gloucester (Roberts & Cameron 1984),
mean stature for males was 1.7 m (5' 7") and for females, 1.53 m (5' 0"). There were no great differences
in either of these comparative cemeteries. The means did not differ much from those cited by Roberts &
Cox (2003).

Metrical analysis and morphological traits

Metrical analysis
Measurements of specific parts of the skeleton were undertaken (measurements described in Bass 1987
and Brothwell 1981). Cranial measurements are listed in Table 93 with ranges, means and cases. It
became obvious from examination of the numbers of cases for each measurement that many of the skulls
were fragmentary and could therefore not be measured. More robust areas of the skull such as the
mandible tended to be intact more often and therefore measurable. Detailed analysis of these
measurements was not considered useful. In addition there were consequently few cranial indices which
could be calculated (see Table 56 – descriptions of indices can be found in Bass 1987).
Range Mean Cases
L 120-132 127 9
male
R 120-131 127 9
Porion Bregma Height
L 122-132 128 4
female
R 116-134 122 6
male 176-212 190 14
Cranial length female 174-198 182 9
?sex - 186 1
male 132-148 141 14
Cranial breadth
female 129-153 139 9

237
 ?sex - 147 1
male 90-102 98 17
Minimum frontal breadth female 86-104 95 15
?sex - 97 1
male 123-149 136 11
Basion-bregma height
female 123-138 130 5
male 76-140 110 8
Basion-nasal length
female 94-103 99 3
Basion-alveolare male 72-133 97 5
male 69-74 70 5
Upper facial height
female 65-68 67 3
male 85-106 93 4
Bimaxillary breadth
female 62-87 78 3
male 114-130 124 2
Bizygomatic breadth
female - 121 2
male 50-55 53 5
Nasal height
female 48-49 48 3
male 10-25 21 5
Nasal breadth
female 22-24 23 3
male 6-15 11 5
Superior basal breadth
female 11-14 12 6
L 34-37 36 3
male
R 34-41 38 6
Orbital breadth
L 32-38 34 3
female
R 33-40 36 4
L 31-36 33 5
male
R 30-36 34 6
Orbital length
L 31-38 34 3
female
R 29-39 34 4
male 40-54 49 8
Palatal length female 41-56 48 9
?sex - 48 1
male 31-44 38 9
Palatal breadth female 31-39 35 3
?sex - 35 2
male 107-147 127 16
Frontal arc female 109-148 127 16
?sex 128-135 131 3
male 111-148 131 17
Parietal arc
female 118-143 127 15
male 101-142 117 15
Occipital arc
female 97-136 115 8
male 106-134 117 16
Frontal chord female 100-128 110 15
?sex 111-150 126 3
male 108-135 120 17
Parietal chord female 108-130 115 14
?sex 116-121 119 2
male 86-130 101 16
Occipital chord female 93-127 100 9
?sex - 103 1
L 60-81 74 12
male
R 60-80 75 12
Basion-asterion chord
L 68-81 74 5
female
R 67-81 74 5
male 33-40 36 11
Foraminal length
female 33-38 36 5
male 25-33 29 11
Foraminal breadth
female 26-32 28 6
male 17-42 35 4
Bi-dacryonic arc
female - 31 2
male 13-25 22 4
Bi-dacryonic chord
female - 35 2
male 513-570 534 14
Maximum horizontal perimeter female 408-560 512 9
?sex - 538 2
male 202-338 304 14
Transverse biporial arc
female 298-323 307 4
Malar height male L 45-52 50 7
238
 R 38-54 48 9
L 40-49 44 7
female
R 40-47 44 7
L - 48 2
?sex
R - 45 2
male 115-131 123 7
Bi-condylar breadth female 112-120 115 4
?sex - 117 2
male 39-48 44 22
Foramen mentalia breadth female 41-48 45 11
?sex 41-46 43 3
male 22-37 31 21
Symphyseal height female 25-33 30 11
?sex 28-35 31 3
L 54-76 66 16
male
R 55-76 66 19
L 50-76 62 11
Coronoid height female
R 53-76 61 10
L 52-86 64 3
?sex
R - 69 1
male 112-137 120 12
Mandibular angle female 117-127 124 3
?sex - 117 2
male 92-121 104 15
Bogonial breadth female 84-103 91 5
?sex 84-101 92 3
L 27-35 31 20
male
R 27-35 31 18
L 25-36 32 11
Ramus breadth female
R 25-35 32 11
L 30-34 32 3
?sex
R - 31 2
male 93-115 102 11
Maximum mandibular length female 97-105 101 4
?sex - 93 1
L 17-23 20 12
male
R 18-24 21 9
L 17-23 20 7
Condyle length female
R 17-23 20 10
L - 20 1
?sex
R - 19 1
Table 93: cranial metrics (mm), BAL-1
In the case of the post-cranial skeleton, there were a greater number of cases for many of the
measurements (Table 94). The measurements taken were selected to aid in furthering knowledge of
other aspects of the individual, e.g. maximum lengths of long bones for stature estimation, diameters of
femur and humerus head for sexing purposes. The post-cranial measurements were also used to
determine indices.
Range Mean Cases
L 416-487 452 20
male
R 410-491 450 16
L 391-468 420 11
Maximum length female
R 372-441 420 8
L 393-456 426 4
?sex
R 396-419 408 3
L 413-485 473 19
male
R 409-486 446 16
L 387-461 416 11
Oblique length female
Femur R 370-435 415 8
L 390-456 424 4
?sex
R - 397 2
L 25-35 28 31
male
R 23-36 29 30
Sub-trochanteric anterior- L 22-30 26 23
female
posterior diameter R 23-32 26 24
L 23-31 26 27
?sex
R 22-26 26 8
Sub-trochanteric medio- male L 30-40 35 30
239
 lateral diameter R 26-41 35 29
L 28-40 33 22
female
R 25-40 32 25
L 31-37 33 7
?sex
R 29-38 32 8
L 45-56 49 23
male
R 44-54 49 24
Maximum diameter of L 40-49 43 17
female
femur head R 40-49 44 16
L 40-49 43 6
?sex
R 42-49 44 4
L 84-109 95 28
male
R 82-105 93 28
L 78-95 87 19
Circumference mid-shaft female
R 75-95 84 18
L 83-94 88 4
?sex
R 82-96 88 4
L 75-90 81 14
male
R 72-89 82 12
L 68-82 74 11
Bicondylar width female
R 70-81 73 7
L 67-78 71 3
?sex
R 66-74 70 3
L 339-381 358 13
male
R 320-391 339 17
L 310-390 345 9
Maximum length female
R 315-361 346 8
L - 312 2
?sex
R 304-348 332 5
L 71-86 77 9
male
R 68-84 76 11
L 67-81 73 6
Bicondylar breadth female
R 64- 82 72 8
L - 69 3
?sex
R 66-74 71 6
Tibia
L 31-46 37 23
male
R 34-48 38 25
Anterior-posterior diameter L 28-40 35 24
female
at nutrient foramen R 28-40 32 23
L 30-38 33 9
?sex
R 29-44 35 10
L 21-42 26 23
male
R 23-49 27 24
Medio-lateral diameter at L 18-28 24 24
female
nutrient foramen R 20-29 24 23
L 21-28 24 8
?sex
R 20-47 28 9
L 342-372 358 4
male
Fibula Maximum length R 342-364 355 4
female R - 329 2
L 304-357 324 13
male
R 307-353 330 11
Maximum length L 283-321 302 11
female
R 274-318 299 7
?sex R - 291 2
L 43-50 46 13
male
R 41-50 47 11
Maximum diameter of head L 38-48 42 8
Humerus female
R 38-49 42 7
?sex R - 39 2
L 62-80 70 26
male
R 63-79 69 21
L 62-73 67 13
Mid-shaft circumference female
R 60-73 66 13
L 64-77 69 4
?sex
R 55-69 64 4
L 220-254 239 6
male
Radius Maximum length R 221-265 244 7
female L 190-247 218 8
240
 R 192-257 243 3
L 237-257 243 4
?sex
R - 204 2
L 214-280 259 10
male
R 236-265 255 5
Ulna Maximum length L 224-270 241 4
female
R 211-247 238 5
?sex L 261-290 278 3
L 143-175 154 10
male
R 138-276 171 5
Clavicle Maximum length
L 135-162 145 7
female
R 131-142 137 5
L 38-42 40 10
male
R 38-43 40 5
Glenoid cavity length L 31-39 35 6
female
R 36-39 37 4
Scapula ?sex L - 35 2
L 25-30 28 9
male
R 27-32 30 7
Glenoid cavity breadth
L 24-29 25 4
female
R 25-28 26 4
male 27-32 30 6
Atlas Width
female 25-29 27 6
male - 109 2
Sternum Length
female 89-98 92 2
male 42-54 47 3
Manubrium Length
female 51-56 54 4
male 101-123 114 6
Length
female 93-135 110 6
Sacrum
male 105-126 114 6
Breadth
female 106-127 117 12
Table 94: post-cranial metrics (mm), BAL-1
Range Mean Cases
male 68.5-80.2 74.8 13
Max. cranial length x100
Cranial female 55.6-77.0 71.7 4
Maximum cranial breadth
?sex - 79.1 2
Height/ Basio-bregma height x100 male 66.0-77.6 71.1 10
Length Maximum cranial length female - 71.7 2
Height/ Basio-bregma height x100 male 85.1-109.1 95.8 10
Breadth Maximum cranial breadth female - 93.3 2
Nasal breadth x100 male 42.6-50.0 46.5 3
Nasal
Nasal height female - 48.4 2
Upper facial height x100
Upper facial male 56.9-80.2 68.1 3
Bizygomatic breadth
Foramen magnum breadth x100 male 73.5-88.6 80.1 7
Foramen
Foramen magnum length female - 77.9 2
Maximum palatal breadth x100 male 64.0-87.5 76.9 5
Palatal
Maximum palatal length female - 81.8 2
L 83.8- 94.6 91.0 4
male
R 77.5-103.4 95.0 5
Orbital height x100
Orbital L - 89.0 2
Orbital breadth female
R 85.3- 97.5 90.6 3
?sex L - 88.0 2
L 18.2- 38.8 23.2 8
Mean porion Porion-bregma height x100 male
R 18.5- 38.4 23.8 8
height Cranial length and breadth
female R - 18.8 2
L 68.4- 83.8 80.4 28
male
R 63.9-115.4 83.4 26
Subtrochanteric anterior-posterior diameter x100 L 64.7- 96.7 81.2 23
Platymeria female
Subtrochanteric medio-lateral diameter R 63.9-103.4 81.8 24
L 71.9- 93.9 81.3 4
?sex
R 62.8-103.3 83.1 6
L 56-7-113.5 70.0 20
male
R 60.5-140.0 72.1 23
Platycnemia Medio-lateral diameter at nutrient foramen x100 L 64.5- 80.0 71.0 22
female
Medio-lateral diameter at nutrient foramen R 64.5- 85.7 73.8 23
L 64.9- 80.6 70.3 8
?sex
R 65.8- 82.3 71.0 7
241
 L 14.9- 24.8 21.4 9
male
Humerus shaft circumference x100 R 20.4- 24.3 22.3 7
Robusticity
Maximum length humerus L 13.9- 24.6 21.2 6
female
R 13.4- 23.4 21.1 7
L 70.6- 78.8 75.0 4
male
Radio- Maximum length radius x100 R 70.1- 77.2 73.5 5
humeral Maximum length humerus L 66.2- 79.1 73.6 4
female
R 70.1- 80.5 74.3 3
Table 95: indices, BAL-1
It was possible to determine the platymeric index (Table 96), i.e. the shape of the proximal part of the
femur shaft which varies between populations, on 29 left and 27 right male femurs and 24 left and 25 right
female femurs. The average platymeric index, left and right bones together, for males was 81.9 and for
females 81.5, which is platymeric in both cases. Taking the individual measurements themselves: 19
(65.5%) males and 19 (76%) females were platymeric, 9 (31%) males and 4 (16%) females were
eurymeric and 1 (3.4%) male and 2 (8%) females were stenomeric. At Cirencester, 96 (51.3%) males and
36 (46.8%) females were platymeric. Platymeria is believed to be more common in females and this
appears to be the case at BAL-1. At Gloucester, 100% of the males and only 75% of the females were
platymeric. There have been many explanations for platymeria in the past, including mechanical
adaptation for weight bearing, pathological conditions, muscle pull, altered posture and gait (Townsley
1946), strain on the femurs in childhood (Cameron 1934) and shortage of bone material, e.g. in dietary
deficiencies (Buxton 1939). It is difficult to determine in the BAL-1 population what the causative factor
was in producing platymeria but all the above factors should be borne in mind. There is no clear evidence
that the platymeric individuals had more pathological changes on their femurs compared with those
without platymeria. Only two individuals, (1191) and F475 L2 <4443>, had some pathological change on
the femur head in the form of osteophytes or new bone formation around the margins of the joint (with
multiple causes).
Platymeric Eurymeric Stenomeric
<84.9 85-99.9 >100
Male 19 9 1
Female 19 4 2
Table 96: platymeric indices
It was possible to determine the platycnemic index (Table 97), i.e. the degree of medio-lateral flattening of
the proximal tibial shaft, in 21 left and 24 right male tibiae and 23 left and 24 right female tibiae. The
average platycnemic index for males, left and right bones together, was 71.0 and for females 72.4, which
in both cases was eurycnemic.
Hyperplatycnemic Platycnemic Mesocnemic Eurycnemic
<54.9 55-62.9 63-69.9 >70
Male 0 2 11 11
Female 0 0 10 14
Table 97: Platycnemic indices
There were no individuals with hyperplatycnemia. 2 males (8.3%) were platycnemic, 11 males (45.8%)
and 10 females (41.7%) were mesocnemic, and 11 males (45.8%) and 14 females (58.3%) were
eurycnemic. Suggestions for platycnemia range from the adoption of the squatting position (Cameron
1934), to pathological conditions or muscular factors (Lovejoy et al. 1976). There was no evidence of
these factors affecting the platycnemic individuals at Baldock. At Cirencester, 17 (9.8%) males and 7
(9.7%) females were platycnemic, 64 (36.9%) males and 26 (36.1%) females were mesocnemic. There
were therefore no real differences between the two sites. At Gloucester, all skeletons were mesocnemic.
The numbers of cases of the remaining indices (Table 95) which could be calculated were so small that
further analysis was not considered worthwhile.

Morphological variants
Tables 98 and 99 show the occurrence of non-metrical variants in the skeletons at BAL-1 (see Berry &
Berry 1967 and Finnegan 1978 for descriptions of traits). Non-metric traits may be inherited or induced by
other factors such as activity (Tyrrell 2000). Many papers have been written and there have been some
definite relationships established between specific variants and sex and side (e.g. Perizonius 1979).
However, there is still much work to be carried out to establish clear ideas about the development of
these traits.
Left Right
Present Present Present
Highest nuchal line 0
242
 Lambdoid ossicle 32
Ossicle at lambda 5
Bregmatic bone 0
Metopism 12
Coronal ossicle 2
Epipteric bone 1 2
Ossicle at asterion 3 7
Parietal notch bone 1 4
Fronto-temporal artic. 0 1
Complete Incomplete
Foramen ovale 17 3
Patent Closed
Foramen spinosum 19 4
Sut. Exsut. Sut. Exsut.
Mastoid foramen 37 1 45 1
Parietal foramen 28
Present Present
Accessory infra-orbital 1
foramen
Zygomatico-facial 41 38
foramen
Frontal foramen 19
Foramen of Huschke 12
Accessory lesser palatal 1
foramen
Sut. Exsut. Sut. Exsut
Anterior ethmoid foramen 6 0 6 0
Posterior ethmoid 0 0 0 0
foramen
Auditory torus 0 0
Mandibular torus 8
Torus maxillares 6
Palatine torus 6
Precondylar tubercle 2
Post condylar facet 0
Single Double Single Double
Anterior condylar canal 4 31 5 31
Single Double
Condylar facet 41 1
Patent Closed Patent Closed
Posterior condylar canal 11 7 11 6
Complete Incomplete Complete Incomplete
Supra-orbital foramen 9 43 15 40
Table 98: cranial non-metric traits (numbers denote presence), BAL-1
Present
Atlas bridge 3
Axis spine bifid 6
Transverse for. 4
bipartite
Single Double
Atlas facet 12 9
Accessory sacral 0
facets
Spondylolysis 2
Sacralisation L5 3
Lumbarisation 0
Supra scapular 0 2
foramen
Circumflex sulcus 0
Rectangular acromion 0
Acromial articular facet 1 4

243
 Glenoid extensions 0
Supracondylar 0
process
Sternal foramen 0
Septal aperture 0 1
Acetabular notch 2 2
Acetabular crease 1 3
3rd trochanter 1 1
Vastus notch 11 13
Bipartite patella 0
Left Right
Single Double Absent Single Double Absent
Anterior calcaneal 20 8 18 24 6 17
facet
Allen's fossa 0
Peroneal tubercle 5 7
Poirier's facet 1 1
Plaque formation 3 2
Hypotrochanteric 3 3
fossa
Trochanteric fossa 21 17
exostosis
Inferior talar artic. 17 21
surface
Medial talar facet 2 2
Lateral talar extension 0
Os trigonum 1 0
Tibial squatting facets 17 14
Talus squatting facets 0
Table 99: post-cranial non-metric traits, BAL-1
There were many skeletons at BAL-1 where the post-mortem fragmentation of the bone meant that many
non-metric traits could not be recorded. This becomes clear when the Tables are consulted. It was not
considered worth examining the traits in any more detail.

Plate 33: Vastus notches in both patellae of skeleton F637 L3

Disease
The palaeopathological report is based on the 139 discrete burials excavated from the site at BAL-1. The
evidence for disease is only as complete as the skeletons themselves so some of the evidence will be
limited in terms of interpretation. The results of the palaeopathological report will be compared, where
applicable and where the same methods of examination have been used, to the Bathgate cemetery,
Cirencester, and Gambier-Parry Lodge, Gloucester, both late Roman cemeteries. Attempts at

244
interpretation of the data will also be attempted so that the individuals at Baldock can be put in a wider
environmental setting.

Dental disease
There were many individuals who had no jaws or teeth available for examination. There were 67 left and
61 right mandibles and 54 left and 53 right maxillae present. The total number of teeth in situ, i.e. in the
jaws, to examine was 1270 and there were a further 263 loose teeth (including roots), making a total of
1533 teeth. Table 10 shows the numbers of teeth divided for age, sex and position. Table 100 shows the
occurrence of the different types of dental disease by skeleton number as a quick source of reference. 83
skeletons had some type of dental disease. These diseases will be discussed in more detail below.
Permanent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Totals
mandible 37 47 51 52 33 37 41 38 336
Male
maxilla 31 34 35 44 31 20 28 20 243
mandible 26 31 41 33 35 12 26 11 215
Female
maxilla 25 29 39 32 28 28 22 13 216
mandible 8 8 13 12 14 10 12 14 91
?Age/sex
maxilla 9 11 17 18 12 11 7 4 89
mandible 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 15
Subadult
maxilla 3 2 5 2 2 7 6 2 29
Totals 141 164 203 195 157 126 144 104 1233
Deciduous a b c d e Totals
mandible 2 0 1 2 1 6
maxilla 3 3 4 5 1 16
Totals 5 3 5 7 2 22
Loose teeth incisor canine premolar molar Totals
mandible 16 2 21 3 42
maxilla 28 8 20 20 76
Permanent
? 20 12 20 37 89
? tooth 6
Totals 64 22 61 60 206
mandible 0 0 0 3 3
Deciduous maxilla 0 0 0 1 1
? 6 4 0 13 23
Totals 6 4 0 17 27
Roots 21
Table 100: tooth numbers (laterality not considered), BAL-1 (includes all in situ teeth (including
roots) recovered from excavation (i.e. all contexts associated with the burials))

Tooth loss
A number of teeth had been lost post mortem or ante mortem (Table 101). These were a total of 2008
tooth loss sockets observable and 335 showed evidence of post mortem tooth loss, 16.7%. 403, 20.1% of
the tooth sockets displayed evidence of ante mortem tooth loss. All the ante mortem loss occurred in
adults. 19.8% (398) of 2008 tooth sockets showed ante mortem tooth loss.
Ante mortem 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Totals
mandible 11 7 4 3 13 22 18 13 91
male
maxilla 7 8 8 8 8 17 13 11 80
mandible 12 7 6 10 10 22 17 16 100
female
maxilla 8 8 7 10 13 13 14 12 85
mandible 4 4 2 1 1 7 3 2 24
?age/sex
maxilla 2 2 1 3 2 3 2 3 18
Totals 44 36 28 35 47 84 67 57 397
Post mortem
Permanent
mandible 11 4 4 4 4 1 1 3 32
male
maxilla 18 18 8 6 5 3 8 7 73
mandible 13 13 4 6 5 3 1 2 47
female
maxilla 18 13 6 7 10 5 6 5 70
mandible 9 9 9 9 7 2 3 3 51
?age/sex
maxilla 15 14 6 2 4 1 1 1 44
Totals 84 71 37 34 35 15 20 21 317
Deciduous a b c d e Totals
mandible 0 3 1 2 1 7
maxilla 0 0 0 1 1 2
Totals 0 3 1 3 2 9
Table 101: tooth loss: site frequency (laterality not considered)
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There were 580 definite male teeth and 438 definite female teeth. Of those 171 male teeth, 29.5% and
190 female teeth, 43.4% had been lost ante mortem. This is a very high percentage for both sexes when
compared with Cirencester (7.3% male and 11.4% female) and Gloucester (8.4% male and 3.5% female).
There was no predilection for site of ante mortem loss in either sex.
Ante mortem tooth loss is related to periodontal disease (see below), where there is bone loss in the jaws
caused by inflammation of the tissue surrounding it. Eventually the teeth become loose and are lost. The
soft tissues heal over and the bone is remodelled to fill the empty socket (Hillson 1986, 309). Tooth loss is
usually an age related phenomenon and a diet rich in carbohydrates with poor oral hygiene predisposes
to the condition; loss of teeth due to caries and/or abscess may also be a cause. The evidence at BAL-1
suggests that these individuals were practising poor oral hygiene and/or eating a diet high in
carbohydrates to precipitate bone and tooth loss.

Periodontal disease
Periodontal disease has already been mentioned as being related to ante mortem tooth loss. A total of
103 half mandibles and 102 half maxillae were available to assess for the occurrence of periodontal
disease. Jaws were graded by severity as slight, medium or considerable according to Brothwell (1981).
Table 102 shows the distribution of the disease by age, position, upper and lower jaw, and severity. More
complicated methods of recording periodontal disease are available (summarised in Hillson 1996), but
there is debate about whether periodontal disease can actually be recognised in skeletal remains, and
continuing eruption of teeth may complicate accurate recording (Glass 1991).
Mandible absent slight medium considerable totals
Immature 0 5 0 0 5
Young adult 0 5 9 1 15
Young-mature adult 0 3 26 13 42
Matured adult 0 2 4 6 12
Older adult 0 0 0 10 10
?Age 0 0 0 2 2
Adult 0 0 1 3 4
Elderly adult 0 0 2 8 10
Totals 0 15 42 43 98
Maxilla
Immature 0 5 0 0 5
Young adult 0 6 10 1 17
Young-mature adult 0 3 18 16 37
Mature adult 0 2 4 5 11
Older adult 0 0 2 7 9
?Age 0 0 0 2 2
Adult 0 0 4 5 9
Elderly adult 0 0 2 7 9
Totals 0 16 40 43 97
Table 102: periodontal disease (number of half jaws, grading based on Brothwell 1981), BAL-1
All jaws had some periodontal disease. The majority were affected to a medium or considerable degree:
84.5% of mandibles and 83.3% of the maxillae. The majority of cases occurred in the young adult age
group (41.7% of mandibles, 37.2% of maxillae), but this is perhaps a reflection of the age distribution of
the cemetery where the majority of the individuals were in this age group. There seemed, therefore, to be
no consistent patterning of an increased severity with age.
Periodontal disease is the response to one or more irritants. A common irritant is calculus or calcified
plaque (see below), which leads to inflammation of the gums and ultimately absorption of the bone
surrounding the teeth, with tooth loss. 71 individuals had evidence of periodontal disease and of those, 55
(77.5%) had associated calculus. Periodontal disease also predisposes the teeth to develop caries. As
more of the tooth surface is exposed the chance of caries attack is increased. 39 (54.9%) of the 71
individuals had associated caries.
The prevalence of periodontal disease at BAL-1 appears to correspond with the pattern of ante mortem
tooth loss and suggests, again, that poor oral hygiene was being was being practised and that a diet high
in carbohydrates was being eaten. Schei et al. (1959) found a positive relationship between poor oral
hygiene and periodontal disease in modern populations.

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Plate 34: Periodontal disease in jaws of skeleton F475 L2 <4443>

Calculus
Calculus, or mineralised plaque, is a calcium deposit which builds up on the tooth surface. The mineral
comes from fluids in the mouth, particularly saliva (Hillson 1986, 301). Regular brushing of teeth will
prevent this build-up and the deposit can therefore be a reflection of poor oral care. Calculus predisposes
to periodontal disease and caries as has already been seen. Calculus on archaeological teeth may
become lost during post mortem processes, especially during enthusiastic cleaning of teeth post-
excavation.
At BAL-1, 60 individuals had some calculus on their teeth. Table 103 shows the age and sex distribution
of the deposits, 68% (26) of the male population and 40.5% (16) of the females had calculus on their
teeth. Table 104 shows the teeth affected. Only the teeth in situ were used for the analysis of the calculus
and loose teeth were not considered. Of the 1265 in situ teeth, 603 (48%) had calculus adhering to them.
The 2nd premolar and the 1st molar were marginally more affected than any other tooth. Mandibular teeth
were more affected than maxillary teeth. This latter observation was also the case at Gloucester where
40% (111) of the mandibular teeth and 20.7% (36) of the maxillary teeth were affected.
Age Totals
Immature 1
Young adult 8
Young-mature adult 18
Mature adult 7
Older Adult 4
Adult 8
Elderly adult 5
Sex Totals
Male 26
Female 16
?Male 1
?Female 2
?Sex 7
Table 103: calculus: age and sex distribution (numbers of individuals affected), BAL-1
Permanent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Totals
Mandible 36 45 50 43 44 39 43 30 349
Maxilla 23 26 33 32 37 36 25 20 232
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 Totals 59 71 83 75 81 75 68 50 581
Deciduous a b c d e Totals
Mandible 0 0 0 0 1 1
Maxilla 0 0 1 1 2 4
Totals 0 0 1 1 3 5
Table 104: calculus: teeth affected (laterality not considered), BAL-1
Table 105 shows the position of the calculus on the teeth. In living populations, calculus usually forms on
the lingual surfaces of the lower incisors and the buccal surfaces of the upper molars (Hillson 1986). The
buccal surfaces of the maxillary teeth were the most affected (49.2% or 118 teeth). There was little
calculus found between the teeth and no calculus was identified on the occlusal surfaces. The most
commonly affected tooth was the mandibular and maxillary 1st molars. The lack of interstitial and occlusal
calculus suggests that the diet being eaten was self-cleaning, i.e. contained particles of sand, maybe from
a quernstone used to grind grain into flour, or that some attempt was being made to clean between the
teeth.

Plate 35: Calculus on the lingual surfaces of molar teeth from skeleton F466 <4173>
Mandible 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 totals
lingual 8 10 10 8 14 15 12 7 84
buccal 12 13 15 13 9 7 3 4 76
mesial 1 2 3 3 1 1 3 1 15
distal 2 2 3 3 2 1 1 2 16
ling/buccal 12 13 11 8 8 11 14 4 81
ling/mesial 1 1 0 2 2 1 2 0 9
ling/distal 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 7 10
buccal/mesial 0 0 2 1 2 0 0 0 5
buccal/distal 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 3 5
mesial/distal 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
> 2 sides 6 10 9 10 6 6 3 5 55
totals 42 51 53 48 45 42 43 33 357
Maxilla
lingual 2 2 4 4 6 6 3 1 28
buccal 17 20 24 18 16 12 8 3 118
mesial 0 0 2 2 2 0 0 1 7
distal 1 0 2 1 4 1 0 3 12

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 ling/buccal 3 4 2 5 8 13 7 2 44
ling/mesial 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 3
ling/distal 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 3
buccal/mesial 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
buccal/distal 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 3 6
mesial/distal 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 2
> 2 sides 0 1 1 0 2 5 3 4 16
totals 23 27 36 33 41 38 23 19 240
Table 105: calculus: position on the tooth (laterality not considered), BAL-1

Dental enamel hypoplasia

The most common dental enamel defect is enamel hypoplasia (Table 106), which occurs as a line, pit or
groove on the tooth surface. These defects are believed to be caused by stress, nutrition/pathological,
during the growing period (see Hillson 1986, 131). In archaeological populations, it is difficult to be
precise as to cause.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 totals
mandible 8 11 25 8 1 0 1 0 54
maxilla 9 3 5 7 0 0 0 0 25
totals 17 14 30 15 1 0 1 0 79
Table 106: dental hypoplasia: teeth affected, BAL-1

Plate 36: Dental enamel hypoplasia on the mandibular canine tooth of skeleton F475 L2 <4443>
33 individuals at BAL-1 had enamel hypoplastic defects in a total of 79 teeth; 6.2% of the total teeth were
affected, or 8.0% (54) of the total mandibular teeth and 4.2% (25) of the total maxillary teeth. The central
incisors and canine teeth were the most affected teeth. At Gloucester, the prevalence was much higher at
48.2% (132) of the mandibular teeth and 56.9% (99) of the maxillary teeth. This suggests that there were
less stressful conditions at Baldock than at Gloucester but it is impossible to be more precise than this.

Dental caries
The necessary factors for the production of dental caries are plaque and fermentable carbohydrates in
the diet (Hillson 1986, 287). At BAL-1, 41 individuals suffered carious lesions. Table 107 shows the teeth
249
affected by sex. 102 teeth were affected, 8% of the total number of teeth in situ. Female teeth were more
affected than male teeth, 8.5% as opposed to 7.7%. This is seen even today in living populations.
?Age Immat. YA Y/MA MA M/OA A OA Totals
Male 0 0 3 7 3 2 1 1 17
Female 1 0 2 5 0 4 1 2 15
?Male 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
?Female 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 3
?Sex 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 2 5
Totals 2 0 6 15 4 6 2 5 39
Table 107: dental caries: age and sex distribution, BAL-1
The frequency of caries is much lower than at Gloucester, 11.1% (50) of 451 teeth. However, at
Cirencester, Wells found 5.0% caries in male teeth and 5.4% caries in female teeth. The total frequency
was 5.1%. The figures for BAL-1 and Cirencester compare with the Romano-British cemetery at
Trentholme Drive, York (Cooke & Rowbotham 1968). Mean caries rate for Romano-British populations
(Roberts & Cox 2003) was 7.5%, a similar figure to that seen at BAL-1.
Although in Table 85 an increased frequency of caries in the young adult age group is seen, this is
reflected in the larger number of skeletons in that age range in the population. In fact, 85.7% (6) of the
elderly adult age group and 71.4% (5) of the middle aged-elderly adult age group had caries. Only 46.9%
(15) of the middle aged group suffered this dental disease.

Plate 37: Carious lesion on 3rd mandibular molar from skeleton F632 80:110
At BAL-1, the 2nd and 3rd molars were the most frequent teeth for carious lesions and the site of attack
tended to be equally on one of four surfaces, buccal, mesial, distal or occlusal. The low frequency of
caries suggests that a diet low in carbohydrates was being eaten by the majority of individuals buried at
BAL-1. It is interesting to note that 31 (75.6%) of the 41 individuals suffering from caries had associated
calculus.
Permanent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Totals
mandible 1 2 4 3 3 1 7 7 28
Male
maxilla 2 0 3 2 2 1 4 3 17
mandible 0 0 1 0 2 2 9 5 19
Female
maxilla 1 0 2 2 2 4 6 1 18
?Age/sex mandible 1 0 0 1 0 2 6 3 13
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 maxilla 0 0 0 1 1 3 1 0 6
Totals 5 2 10 9 10 13 33 19 101
Deciduous a b c d e Totals
mandible 0 0 0 1 0 1
Table 108: dental caries: teeth affected (laterality not considered), BAL-1
Permanent Occl. Buccal Ling. Mes. Distal ?side Multi Totals
mandible 10 11 1 1 5 2 1 31
Male
maxilla 3 1 0 5 6 0 1 16
mandible 3 6 0 4 2 0 1 16
Female
maxilla 4 2 1 7 4 0 0 18
mandible 2 2 2 1 3 0 1 11
?Sex
maxilla 1 0 0 3 2 0 0 6
Totals 23 22 4 21 22 2 4 97
Deciduous a b c d e Totals
Mandible 1 0 0 0 0 1
Table 109: dental caries: site frequency (laterality not considered), BAL-1

Dental abscess
Dental abscesses can form as a complication of caries or from severe attrition (Hillson 1986, 316). Local
inflammation develops at the end of the tooth root and pus starts to collect. The infection can then spread
to the bone of the jaw and eventually a channel or sinus is formed to the surface of the bone to allow the
pus to escape. Dental abscesses were identified on the Baldock skeletons by these sinuses. A total of 24
sinuses from abscesses were observed in 16 individuals. All sinuses appeared to drain buccally (Table
110). There was no particular predilection for site of attack or attribution to sex. 12 individuals had
associated caries. Table 111 summarises the dental conditions for each skeleton at BAL-1.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Totals
Mandible 5 1 0 0 2 1 0 0 9
Male
Maxilla 0 2 0 1 1 0 0 1 5
Mandible 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 2
Female
Maxilla 1 1 1 3 0 2 0 0 8
Totals 6 4 1 5 4 3 0 1 24
Internal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
External 6 4 1 5 4 3 0 1 24
Table 110: dental abscess: teeth affected, BAL-1
Periodontal Ante mortem
Calculus Hypoplasia Caries Abscess
disease loss
F18 L2 <1330> x x x
F18 L2 b.1 X
F18 L2 e.2 x x x
F18 L2 skull 1 x x x x X
F18 L2 skull 3 x x x x X
F18 L2 skull 4 x x x X
F92 x x X
F466 <4173> x x x X
F475 <4443> x x x x
F484 L10 <5832>
x x
and <5833>
F488 L2 <4507> 1 x x
F488 L2 <4507> 2 x x X
F516 L1 <4369> x x x x X
F544 <4673> x x
F550 L1 <4476> x x
F557 L2 <5868> x x x x X
F632 80:110 x x x x
F637 L2 x x x
F642 L2 x x
F642 L3 x x
F643 L3 x x x x
F643 North end x x x
F649 <5739> x x x x
F653 L1 <5714> x x x x x
F? x x x
1022 x x x x x
1028 x x x x

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 1040 x x x x
1047/1071 (1) x x x
1047/1071 (2) x x x x x
1047/1071 3 x x
1049 x x x
1070 x x x x x
1072 x x x
1077 x x x x
1078 x
1087 x x
1090 x x x
1093 x
1107 x x x
1122 x x x x
1124 x x x x x
1127 x
1136 x x x
1151 x x x
1190 x x
1191 x x x
1203 x x
1237 x x x x x x
1263 x x x x
1281 x x x
1282 x x x x
1300 x x x
1319 x x x
1320 x x x x x
1328 (1) x
1328 (2) x x
1331 x x x x
1342 x
1361 x x
1372 x x x x
1374 x x
1382 x x x x x
1386 x x x
1391 x x x
1426 x x x x
1446 x x x x
1485 x x
1488-1485 x x
1487 x
1496 x
1702 x x x x x x
1703 x x
2225 x x x x x x
2229 x x x x x x
2343 x x x x x
2602 x x x x
2619 x x x x x
3606 x x x
3638 x x x
Table 111: dental disease (individuals affected), BAL-1

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Plate 38: Supernumerary tooth in anterior mandible of skeleton (1446)

Dental anomalies
There were few dental anomalies present in the Baldock skeletons. The lower lateral incisor of skeleton
(1075) was deflected inwards. The lower right canine from skeleton (1300) was situated anterior to the
rest of the teeth in the jaw. Skeleton (1446) had a supernumerary tooth in the anterior mandible (Plate
38). F466 displayed rotation of the upper right canine tooth and F610 L1 <4647> appeared to have an
upper right lateral incisor impact against the medial incisor (Plate 39). This latter skeleton had very worn
teeth on the left side of the mandible compared to the right. The right maxillary teeth, however, had been
lost ante mortem. There was also heavy calculus deposits on the right mandibular teeth as opposed to
the light deposits on the left side. This pattern suggests that the left side of the mouth was being used for
eating, probably exclusively, and the right side was so little used that calculus developed.

Congenital abnormalities
Congenital abnormalities develop in the soft tissues and skeleton of the body and commence in the early
of foetal development. They present themselves at birth or shortly afterwards (Roberts & Manchester
2005). There was little evidence of congenital abnormalities at BAL-1. However, without soft tissue
evidence, this will not be a true reflection of congenital disease in the population.
Skeletons 1141(1136), 1175(1203) and 1267(1319) had an opening of the posterior part of the sacrum at
the 3rd-5th sacral pieces. This is a condition termed spina bifida occulta, a less severe form of spina
bifida. This minor form of spina bifida does not produce any symptoms in life and the defect would have
been covered over with cartilage.

Stress indicators
Dental enamel hypoplasia has already been considered above as an indication of stress. Three further
pathological changes of the skeleton can be identified which also indicate a stressful period during the
growing years.
Cribra orbitalia is a condition identified in the orbits of skulls by pitting of the bone surface and is
consistent with anaemia, probably of iron deficiency type, in childhood (Roberts & Manchester 2005). A
lack of iron stimulates a proliferative reaction in the marrow to produce more red blood cells. This change
can be seen in the orbits and as the marrow enlarges the outer layer of the bone becomes thin and
porous. The same feature is seen in the vault of the skull and is termed porotic hyperostosis.

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Plate 39: Impacted lateral incisor in skeleton F610 L1 <4647>
There were 77 left and 76 right orbits to examine for cribra orbitalia. 16 (20.8%) left and 10 (13.2%) right
orbits had evidence of this lesion. A total of 18 individuals were affected. The age and sex distribution of
the lesion is shown in Table 112.
Sex Age
Male 6 older child 4
Female 6 young adult 1
?male 1 young to middle aged adult 8
?female 2 middle aged adult 0
?sex 3 elderly adult (?older) 0
Adult 4
elderly adult 1
Table 112: incidence of cribra orbitalia by sex and age
7 individuals had porotic hyperostosis and 4 of these skeletons had associated cribra orbitalia. This low
prevalence of cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis suggests, as for the low prevalence of dental
enamel hypoplasia, that stressful episodes were not abundant in the lives of the BAL-1 population. As
iron is found particularly in red meat and fresh green vegetables, it must be postulated that the people
254
buried at BAL-1 were eating a diet with sufficient iron content. The animal bone evidence supports this. At
Cirencester, the animal bone report also suggested that the population there were eating a diet consisting
of a large proportion of meat (Thawley 1982). The individuals suffering from iron deficiency anaemia were
probably the ones who could not acquire meat to eat or preferred a more vegetarian diet, or they may
have had a parasitic infection of the gut which prevented absorption of iron or led to massive blood loss,
or had associated infectious diseases (Stuart-Macadam 1992).

Plate 40: Cribra orbitalia in orbits of skeleton F557 L2 <5871>

A further indicator of stress of unknown specific cause are lines of arrested growth or Harris Lines, which
are evident on radiographs of, particularly, the proximal and distal shafts of the tibia. Apart from there
being some problems in analysing Harris lines on radiographs and then interpreting what they mean
(Roberts & Manchester 2005), to undertake a proper study would necessitate radiographs of all the tibiae.
This would prove too expensive for a standard human bone report and was therefore not undertaken.

Trauma
The evidence for trauma in human skeletal material comes in the form of fractures, a complete or partial
break in the continuity of any bone, and soft tissue injuries, tendon, muscle or ligament, which manifest
themselves on the bone.
At BAL-1 the following individuals sustained fractures or soft tissue injuries.

Rib fractures
8 individuals, 1018(1028), 1231(1237), 1361(1372), 1435a(1391), 1476(1480), F18 L2 skeleton 1 group
5, F544 (Plate 41) and F466, sustained fractures to the shafts of ribs. In the case of 1361(1372), 6
fractures, 1018(1028), 2 fractures, F544, 3 fractures and F466, 4 fractures, the fractures were multiple. All
had healed well and appeared to be long standing. Two skeletons had other associated injuries.
1018(1028) had an unhealed blade injury to the skull and F466 had bilateral fractures to the tibiae and
fibulae, the latter of which probably occurred at the same time.
Even in modern populations, fractured ribs usually heal without treatment and do not cause any
problems, apart from some chest discomfort. The only potential complication is a punctured lung. It was
255
obviously not possible to assess the BAL-1 skeletons for this complication due to lack of associated soft
tissue.

Plate 41: Healed rib shaft fractures in skeleton F544 <4673>

Radial fractures
3 individuals, 1175(1191), 1463(1487) and F18 L2 group 2, had healed fractures to the radius, two right
and one left. These fractures are usually caused by falling on the outstretched hand. The distal radial
shaft of 1463(1487) had healed exceptionally well and appeared to be of long duration. F18 radius, again
of long standing, had healed with some deformity and displacement of the distal fragment posteriorly
(Plate 42). (1191) radius, a distal third of the shaft fracture, had healed with displacement of the distal
fragment laterally. All these fractures were probably naturally splinted by the ulna, the other bone of the
forearm.

Hand and foot fractures

5 individuals suffered fractures to hand or foot bones. Fractures of the hand are usually caused by falling
on the hand or by sustaining a blow to the knuckles, and fractures to the foot are caused by direct
violence, stress or muscular violence (Crawford-Adams 1983, 183 and 283). They were as follows:
 1033(1040) – healed fracture to 1st right metacarpal shaft
 F88 1360 – healed fracture to 5th right metacarpal shaft
 1464(1496) – healed fracture to 1 proximal foot phalanx shaft
 2211(2225) – healed fracture to left 3rd metatarsal shaft
 F18 L2 – avulsion fracture to proximal left metatarsal (peroneus brevis attachment)

256
Plate 42: Healed distal radial fracture from skeleton F187 L2 Group 2
All these fractures would have caused little problem to the individuals and would have healed with no
treatment.

Tibia and fibula fractures

One individual, F466, sustained fractures to both tibiae and fibulae as follows (Plates 43 & 44):
 Left tibia – spiral fracture to the distal third of shaft with subsequent osteomyelitis, infection of the
medullary cavity of the central part of the fracture. There was gross spiral and angulatory
deformity and fracture site.
 Left fibula – spiral fracture to the proximal third of the shaft. The fibula has healed in a bowed
position to compensate for the tibial deformity.
 Right tibia – spiral fracture of the distal third of the shaft. Spiral and linear deformity were present
on healing and the tibia had fused to the fibula.

257
  Right fibula – spiral fracture to the proximal third of the shaft and healing was evident with
deformity.

Plate 43: Healed fractures to both tibiae and fibulae of skeleton F446 <4173>
All the fractures had healed and were of fairly long standing. However, the gross deformity and loss of
length on healing, probably led to the development of degenerative joint disease at the knee joint

258
evidenced by osteophyte formation and eburnation of the joint surfaces. There was obviously no attempt
to treat these fractures.

Plate 44: Osteomyelitic sinus posterior to right tibial fracture of F466 <4173>
Skeleton F488 sustained a distal third of the shaft fracture to the right tibia which had healed in good
alignment (Plate 45). A spiral fracture such as this would have been caused by indirect torsional force. It
appears that it was possible that this fracture had been treated, as seen by the successful alignment.
3 individuals suffered isolated fractures to their fibulae, 1075(1071), 1041(1049) and 2211(2225). These
types of fractures occur when a direct blow is sustained to the side of the leg. All the breaks had healed
well and in good alignment and were probably naturally splinted by the tibia, the other bone in the lower
leg.

259
Plate 45: Healed fracture to tibia of skeleton F488 <4507>
Skeleton F516 sustained a soft tissue injury to the left tibia and fibula. Fusion of the two bones at the
distal shaft suggests that some damage occurred to the interosseous ligament (Plate 46).

Vertebrae
3 individuals had fractures to some part of the vertebral column. In 2 cases, 1141(1136) (Plate 47) and
1128(1151), the body of one or more vertebrae was compressed due to osteoporosis.

260
Plate 46: Fusion of left tibia and fibula due to soft tissue damage and ossification in skeleton F516
L1 <4369>
1141(1136) (Plate 47), had compression of the 12th thoracic and 4th and 5th lumbar vertebrae.
(1551) had a fragmentary vertebral column but of the 6 vertebrae present, one thoracic vertebral body
was compressed and appeared osteoporotic in section.
Skeleton 1175(1203) had an unusual fracture of the spinous processes of cervical 7 and thoracic 1. In
modern populations, this type of fracture is termed the 'clay shoveller‟s fracture' and is associated with the
muscular action involved in digging heavy soils (Plate 48; Crawford-Adams 1983, 96). The muscles
attached to the spinous processes are strained and pull, or avulse, the bone end away from the rest of
the vertebra (Knusel et al. 1996). Severe pain and tenderness at the site is experienced. Today
conservative, i.e. rest, and operative procedures, i.e. excision of the avulsed bone, are carried out to treat
the condition.

261
Plate 47: Compression of vertebral body in skeleton 1141(1136) due to osteoporosis

Plate 48: Clay shoveller‟s fracture in skeleton 1175(1203)

Spondylolysis
Spondylolysis is a common condition found in some populations in antiquity, as today. It is a condition
where the neural arch of the vertebra separates at the pars interarticularis probably due to a congenital
weakness at the site (Roberts & Manchester 2005). Two individuals, 1060(1090), F18 L2 group 5 B,

262
suffered spondylolysis of lumbar vertebrae 4 and 5 respectively. This condition would not have caused
any particular problem to the individuals concerned, unless the complication of spondylolisthesis
occurred.

Skull
One individual, 1018(1028), a young to middle aged adult female, had suffered fatal blade injuries to parts
of the fragmentary skull available for examination. The following was observed:
1. Injury to left zygomatic process adjacent to the mandibular fossa.
2. Injury to the left side of the frontal bone close to the coronal suture.
3. Injury to fragment of left orbit.
4. Possible blade injury adjacent to the left side of the coronal suture, running obliquely to the
Lambdoidal suture.
None of these injuries had healed. Two healed rib shaft fractures were found in the same skeleton.

Scapula
One individual, F4B, had os acromiale of the left scapula. This condition occurs when the epiphysis of the
acromion does not fuse to the rest of the bone. It is believed that activities such as archery in
subadulthood may prevent this fusion. Stirland (2000) found an unusually high percentage of individuals
from the Mary Rose Tudor ship with os acromiale and it is known that these men were archers.

Infections
There are basically two types of infections which can affect populations, those caused by a known
pathogen, or specific infections such as leprosy, tuberculosis and treponemal disease, and those caused
by an unknown pathogen, non-specific infection).
There were no skeletons at BAL-1 with specific infections. However, there were a number of individuals
with non-specific infections or periostitis of some of their bones (or inflammation of the outer membrane,
periosteum, of the bones). Identification of this condition depends on the production of new bone on the
outer surface of the cortex. The appearance of this new bone ranges from pin prick pitting to irregular
plaques of new bone. The skeletons affected at BAL-1 were as follows:
 1075(1047) periostitis of inferior aspects of zygomatic bones
 1141(1124) periostitis of visceral surfaces of rib (Plate 49)
 1476(1480) periostitis of right maxillary sinus (sinusitis)
 3640(3644) periostitis medial shaft of both tibiae
 F18 L10 periostitis medial shaft of right tibia
 F18 L2 periostitis lateral shaft right 4th metatarsal
 F18 L2 periostitis medial aspect both calcanea
 F92 periostitis shaft of right fibula
 F475 L3 periostitis shaft of left tibia
 F516 L1 periostitis both tibial shafts and right fibular shaft
 F550 SF 5872 periostitis shaft right tibia, left fibula and left scapula blade
 F550 SF 5874 periostitis shaft of right tibia
 F550 SF 5874 periostitis medial left calcaneum
 F550 SF 5875 periostitis shaft of left humerus
 F642 periostitis shaft of right tibia
 F643 periostitis shaft of both tibiae, fibulae and medial aspect of left calcaneum

263
Plate 49: Periostitis on visceral surfaces of ribs from skeleton 1141(1124)
There is, as yet, no clear idea about what causes periostitis, although trauma and infection are frequently
cited (Roberts & Manchester 2005). In other cemeteries, e.g. Cirencester and at Gloucester, there was a
high frequency of tibial and fibular periostitis but here at BAL-1, there were relatively few cases. As
mentioned above, the erosion of the surfaces of the majority of the bone probably obliterated a lot of the
evidence and it was only on the better preserved skeletons that identification was possible.

264
Skeleton 1141(1124) with affected rib surfaces may have been suffering from a lung infection (e.g.
bronchitis, pneumonia, tuberculosis), which subsequently spread to the ribs.
In view of the presumed loss of data on periostitis, it was not considered appropriate to discuss this
disease in any more detail.

Degenerative joint disease (DJD)

As the body ages, it deteriorates through wear and tear. Both soft tissues and bone are affected but in
skeletal remains, only the latter is seen. The skeletons from BAL-1 were examined for evidence of DJD in
all the joints of the body. DJD can be identified on any of the joints and may be recognised by porosity of
the joint surface, osteophyte, or new bone growth, formation around the joint margin or on the joint
surface, and eburnation, or polishing, of the joint surface. A combination of two or more of these features
ensures a reasonable diagnosis of osteoarthrisits (OA), one of the commonest joint diseases (Rogers &
Waldron 1995). Osteophyte formation alone may only be considered as an ageing phenomenon; i.e. the
older one gets, the more osteophytes are produced.
Osteophytes of the spine are stimulated to grow when degeneration of the intervertebral discs occurs. It is
an attempt to strengthen the spine. In addition to being related to age this condition is also associated
with obesity (Kellgren & Lawrence 1958). In many cases Schmorl‟s Nodes are associated with
osteophytes of the spine where the contents of the weakened fibrous capsule protrude into the vertebral
body and leave a depression. Schmorl‟s Nodes are usually found in the lower thoracic and lumbar
vertebral bodies, usually in adjacent bodies.
Associated with spinal osteophytosis, there is often porosity of the body surfaces and apophyseal joints,
and eburnation of the latter. The cartilage, in life, is worn away revealing the underlying bone, which is
further eroded leaving a porous eburnated surface.

Spinal DJD
Table 92 shows the number of vertebrae present was 794, including the 1st sacral vertebra. There were
262 cervical, 315 thoracic, 184 lumbar and 33 1st sacral vertebrae. At BAL-1, there were 8 individuals
with total/partial spines present but no pathological changes observed. 33 individuals had no spinal
column available to examine and 55 individuals with total/partial spines with pathological processes
present (Table 113).
Cervical 1 33
2 44
3 37
4 36
5 34
6 31
7 35
Thoracic 1 31
2 27
3 22
4 22
5 23
6 22
7 22
8 24
9 24
10 25
11 26
12 30
Lumbar 1 30
2 30
3 35
4 37
5 42
Sacral 1 32
cervical thoracic lumbar
vertebral bodies 16 62 15
vertebral neural arches 0 48 6
level of vertebra 20 58 19
Table 113: number of adult vertebrae observable, BAL-1
Individuals with spines present but no
pathology
F18 L10 <1330>
265
 F484 L10 <5990>, <5998>
F632 80:110
1086
1107
1151
1329
1702
Individuals with no spine available to examine
F7
F18 skull 1
F18 skull 2
F18 skull 4
F484 L10 <5832>, <5833>
F484 L10 <5879>, <5880>
F488 L1 <4507>
F488 L2 <4507>
F550 L1 <4456>, <4457>
F550 L1 <4476>
F557 L2 <5868>
F642 L2
F642 L3
F643 Northern end
F649 <5739>
1087
1093
1127
1133
1250
1252
1282
1283
1331
1418
1421
1425
1703
2336
3255 u/s
3614
well burial
Table 114: spinal preservation and occurrence of disease (discrete individuals only and all adult
skeletons), BAL-1
Table 115 shows the age and sex distribution of the individuals with spinal joint disease, minus one
individual, 1075(1047), where there was a mixture of two skeletons. 68.4% of the total definite males and
47.6% of the total definite females had joint disease of the spine. 33.3% of the young adults, 65.6% of the
young to middle aged, 71.4% of the middle aged and 85.7% of the elderly adult age group were affected
by one or more of the spinal joint disease changes. There appears to be an increase in prevalence with
age. This suggests that the disease which is being observed was perhaps more an ageing phenomenon.
Sex
male 25
female 19
?male 1
?female 3
?sex 4
Total 52
Age
immature 0
young adult 3
young to middle aged adult 20
middle aged adult 4
elderly adult 6
adult 12
elderly 7
Total 52

266
Table 115: age and sex distribution of joint disease of the spine
Observation of the prevalence of disease on the individual vertebrae (Table 116) indicated the following.
The percentage affected by porosity of the joint surfaces of the cervical vertebrae ranged from 2.9-30.5%,
for the thoracic vertebrae 8-33% and for the lumbar/sacral 9.4-20.4%. The cervical vertebrae appeared to
be the most affected with a peak on thoracic vertebra 5 of 33.3%.
Porosity Fusion Osteophytes Eburnation Schmorl‟s
Cervical 1 1 4 1
2 4 1 6 3
3 10 1 11 2
4 11 1 12 1
5 11 2 16 2
6 9 2 12 1
7 10 1 11
Thoracic 1 9 2 8
2 3 8
3 3 11
4 4 9 2
5 8 1 11 2
6 4 1 11 8
7 4 11 7
8 4 12 11
9 2 1 14 11
10 7 2 18 7
11 6 2 19 10
12 7 1 19 15
Lumbar 1 3 1 16 11
2 4 1 21 1 11
3 4 1 25 1 7
4 7 27 2 6
5 9 31 2 2
Sacral 1 4 12 1 1
Table 116: spinal joint disease (body and/or processes): vertebrae affected (minus additional
contexts), BAL-1
The percentage of vertebrae affected by fusion ranged from 2.2-6.1% for the cervical vertebrae, 3.1-7.7%
for the thoracic and 2.7-3.1% for the lumbar/sacral vertebrae.
The percentage of vertebrae affected by osteophytes ranged from 11.4-44.4% for the cervical vertebrae,
24.2-69.2% for the thoracic and 36.4-69.2% for the lumbar/sacral vertebrae. There was a peak in
prevalence at the thoracic 9-12 levels and the lumbar 2-5 levels. Two other peaks at cervical 5 and
thoracic 3 were also present.
The percentage of vertebrae affected by eburnation was very small and mainly occurred in the cervical
vertebrae, range of 2.6-6.7%, and at the lumbar 3-sacral 1 levels (range of 2.7-5.1%).
Vertebrae affected by Schmorl‟s Nodes started at the 4th thoracic vertebra level peaking at the 6th
thoracic to 1st lumbar vertebra and falling off from the 2nd lumbar to 1st sacral vertebra.
Compared with Gambier-Parry Lodge, Gloucester, skeletons, the prevalence of osteophytes is lower
(45.1% as opposed to 62%). The prevalence of Schmorl‟s Nodes (Table 117) was 14.1% at BAL-1 and
16.5% at Gloucester; 1.8% (13) of the vertebrae at Gloucester were eburnated, 2.1% at BAL-1, and
11.8% (83) had porosity of the vertebrae (18.6% at BAL-1). Table 118 shows the skeletons with spinal
joint disease changes.
Superior Inferior Both surfaces
Cervical 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Thoracic 1
2
3
4 1 1
5 3
6 5 2

267
 7 6 2
8 2 7 2
9 5 5
10 2 5
11 6 3
12 3 6 4
Lumbar 1 2 3 4
2 4 3 3
3 3 2
4 2 2 2
5 1 1
Sacral 1
Table 117: Schmorl‟s Nodes distribution, BAL-1

Plate 50: Spinal osteophytes in skeleton F92

The pattern of occurrence of spinal joint disease at BAL-1 suggests that the majority of the change is due
to age.
Joint porosity Osteophytes Eburnation Schmorl‟s
nodes
4B x x
F18 L2 group 5 x x
F18 L2 group 6 x x
F18 L2 skeleton 2 x
F18 L2 skull 3 x x
F18 L2 group a-e x
F92 x x x

268
 F466 <4173> 1 x x
F475 L2 <4443> x x
F516 L1 <4369> x
F544 <4673> x x
F557 L2 <5872> x x x
F557 L2 <5875> x x x
F653 no. 1 x x x
F654 in F557 L2 <5869> x
1022 x x
1028 x
1040 x x
1047 x x x x
1049 x x x
1070 x x x
1071 x x x
1072 x x x
1077 x x x
1090 x x x
1122 x x
1124 x x x
1136 x x x x
1190 x x
1191 x x
1194 x x x
1203 x x
1237 x x x x
1263 x x
1281 x x
1317 x
1319 x x x
1320 x x
1342 x x x x
1365 x x
1372 x x x
1374 x x
1386 x x x
1391 x x
1426 x x
1446 x x
1487 x x x
1704 x x x
2225 x x x
2264 x x
2343 x
2602 x x
2619 x
3644 x
Table 118: individuals with joint disease of the spine, BAL-1

Non-spinal joint disease

Other joints of the body were affected by degenerative change apart from the spine. Many factors can
lead to these changes e.g. biological ageing, wear and tear, genetic factors, obesity, occupation or
disease, and through these factors the joint becomes inadequate to meet the mechanical stress placed
on it. As the joint becomes more affected pain, stiffness and limited movement ensue. Table 119 shows
the skeletons affected, by bone element. The presence of degenerative change was considered if one or
more of the features of the disease were present e.g. porosity, eburnation, osteophytes. Each bone will
be treated separately.

Rib
31 individuals had evidence of joint disease on the costo-transverse or costo-vertebral joints of the ribs.
All skeletons affected had associated DJD of the spine.

Clavicle
14 individuals had joint disease of the clavicle in a total of 10 acromial and 11 sternal articular surfaces
(10.9% and 11% respectively, or 11% together). Skeletons 1009(1070) and F516 had corresponding joint

269
disease on the acromion of the left scapula. Skeleton 1231(1237) had corresponding joint disease on the
acromion of the right scapula. At Gloucester, 9.9% (11) of the joint surfaces of the clavicle were affected.

Scapula
16 individuals had evidence of joint disease on their scapulae, either on the glenoid cavity or the
acromion. 118 glenoid cavities were available for examination and, of those, 20 (16.9%) had joint
disease. The acromions of 5 individuals also had joint disease of the articular surface. 3 individuals,
1075(1071), 1231(1237) and 1305(1320), had associated joint disease of the corresponding humeral
heads.

Humerus
7 individuals had evidence of joint disease of the humerus, proximal and/or distal articulations. There
were 124 humerus heads and 121 distal articulations to examine and of those, 5.6% (7 proximal and
2.5% (3) distal) were affected. Skeleton 1247(1282) has associated joint disease on the left radial head in
the form of porosity, eburnation and osteophytes and on the left ulna head in the form of osteophytes. 466
had associated osteophytes of the right ulna head. There were likewise few individuals (3) at Gloucester
affected with joint disease of the humerus.

Radius
10 individuals had joint disease of the radius, proximal and/or distal articulations. There were 80 radial
heads and 73 distal articulations to examine and of those, 2 heads (2.5%) and 14 distal (19.2%)
articulations were affected. Again, only 3 individuals at Gloucester had joint disease of the radius.
Skeletons 1169(1122) and 1196(1190) had associated joint disease of both hands.

Ulna
14 individuals had joint disease of the ulna, proximal and/or distal articulations. There were 113 heads
and 95 distal articulations and, of those, 20 (17.7%) and 7 (7.4%) were affected, respectively. 2
individuals at Gloucester were affected. Skeleton 1196(1190), as mentioned above, had associated joint
disease of the hands, especially the carpals. Skeleton F466 had associated joint disease of the left hand.

Hand
27 individuals had joint disease of the hands seen on the carpals, metacarpals, or phalanges or all the
bones. Most of the joint changes were of osteophytes around the joint margins, but 8 individuals had
porosity and/or eburnation – skeletons 1075(1047), 1196(1190), 1231(1237), 1198(1281), 1411(1386),
F18 L2 skull 3, 466 and 557. At Gloucester, only 5 individuals had joint disease of their hands.

Pelves
15 individuals had joint disease of their acetabulae. There were 137 acetabulae to examine and of those,
20 (14.6%) had joint disease. One individual, 1411(1386), had joint disease of the sacro-iliac joints. Most
of the acetabular change was in the form of osteophytes. 5 individuals had more severe changes in the
form of porosity and eburnation of the joint surface, 1231(1237), 1196(1281), 2336, 2489(2602) and F92
(Plate 51). 4 individuals had corresponding joint disease of the femoral heads. At Gloucester, 3
individuals had acetabular joint disease.

Femur
9 individuals had joint disease of one or both femurs, proximal and/or distal articulations. There were a
total of 168 femoral heads and 139 distal articulations and of those, 4.8% (8) and 3.6% (5) respectively
were affected. One individual, 1122, had corresponding joint disease of the proximal tibia.

Patella
5 individuals had joint disease of their patellae. There was a total of 56 left and 55 right patellae to
examine and of those, 5.4% (3) and 7.3% (4) were affected respectively.

Foot
16 individuals had joint disease of their feet seen on the tarsals, metatarsals or phalanges or all of the
bones. Most of the changes were osteophytes around the joint margins. However, one individual,
1196(1190), had porosity and eburnation of the distal surface of the right 1st metatarsal and skeletons
1169(1122) and 1267(1319) had fusion of 1 mid and 1 distal foot phalanges. 3 individuals at Gloucester
had joint disease of their feet.

270
Plate 51: Joint disease in the hips of skeleton F92

Mandible
3 individuals, 2489(2602), F632 and F4B, had joint disease of the mandible in the form of osteophytes of
the mandibular condyle(s).
The pattern of joint disease in the skeletons at Baldock suggests, as for the spinal pattern, that the
majority of the disease was due to age. The preponderance of osteophytes at all the joint margins and
little evidence of porosity and/or eburnation of joint surfaces seems to support this suggestion. Table 97
summarises the skeletons and joints affected.
Rib
F18 L2 group s, F18 group 4*, F92, F475 L3 <4443>*, F544 <4673>*, F653 no. 1*, 1022, 1047, 1049, 1071, 1077,
1090, 1107, 1122, 1190, 1191, 1203, 1237, 1263, 1319, 1320, 1342, 1365, 1372*, 1386*, 1391, 1446, 1487*,
2225*, 2602*, 2619
Clavicle
F230*, F466 <4173>*, F516 <4369>*, 1047, 1049, 1070, 1071, 1122, 1190, 1203, 1237, 1320, 1481, 2225
Scapula
F18 L2 group s*, F4B, F466 <4173>, F516 L1 <4369>*, 1070*, 1071*, 1090*, 1122, 1191, 1237, 1282, 1320, 1374,
1391, 1704, 2602
271
 Humerus
F18 L2 a-e, F466 <4173>, F544 <4673>, 1071*, 1237*, 1282*, 1320
Radius
F466 <4173>, F544 <4673>, 1071, 1122, 1190*, 1237, 1282*, 1320, 1372, 2619
Ulna
F92, F466 <4173>, F544 <4673>, 1071*, 1190*, 1191, 1281, 1282, 1319, 1320, 1374, 1391, 1481, 2225
Hand
F18 L2 1 group 5*, F18 L2 skull 3*, F92, F466 <4173>*, F475 L3 <4443>, F557 L2 <5872>*, 1047, 1049, 1071,
1122, 1190, 1194, 1237, 1281*, 1282, 1300, 1319, 1320, 1342, 1374, 1386*, 1487, 2225, 2264, 2602, 2619
Pelvis
F92*, F544 <4673>, 1122, 1124, 1191, 1194, 1237*, 1281*, 1282, 1317, 1320, 1372, 1386*, 2336*, 2602*
Femur
F92*, F466 <4173>, F475 L3 <4443>, 1122, 1191, 1237*, 1317*, 1331, 1342
Tibia
1122
Patella
1122, 1281*, 1317, 1319, 1487
Foot
F466 <4173>, F475 L2 <4443>, F544 <4673>, F632 80:110, 1077, 1122, 1190*, 1191, 1194, 1282, 1300, 1319,
1418, 2225, 2602
Mandible
F4B, F632 80:110, 1386, 2602
Table 119: diarthrodial joint disease: skeletons affected (* denotes porosity and/or eburnation in
addition to osteophytes)

Miscellaneous conditions
Skeleton 1435c(1365), ?female adult, had fusion of three thoracic vertebral bodies down the right antero-
lateral surface. The intervertebral spaces were normal. These findings are suggestive of DISH, Diffuse
Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis, or Forestier's Disease (Rogers & Waldron 1995), an autoimmune
disease of unknown cause, but associated with obesity and diabetes and often seen in monastic
cemeteries (Rogers & Waldron 2001).
A more convincing case of DISH was seen in skeleton 1018(1020), male elderly (Plate 52). Changes of
DISH in the form of a new bone growth on the vertebral bodies was present particularly on the right side
of the column. This was associated with porosity of the apophyseal joints and Schmorl‟s Nodes of some
of the vertebral bodies. Cervical vertebrae 5 and 6 and thoracic vertebrae 10 and 11 were fused. Extra-
spinal manifestations included new bone growth on the sternum, ossification of the costal cartilages of the
right 1st rib, new bone at the subscapularis insertions on the humeri, at the triceps insertions on the
ulnae, at the biceps insertions on the radii, on the iliac crests of the pelves and where the sacro-tuberous
ligament inserts, on the patellar ligament insertion on the right tibia, at the interosseous ligament
attachment, distal, on the right tibia, at the rectus femoris insertions on both patellae and at the Achilles
tendon insertions on both calcanea. The skeletal features are consistent with a diagnosis of DISH
(Rogers & Waldron 1995).
Skeleton 1367(1446), female young to middle aged adult, had partial obstruction of the left jugular
foramen. The right side was enlarged to compensate for the obstruction. As Manchester (1980) discussed
in his Bronze Age specimen, there would probably have been no symptoms resulting from this partial
blockage as a collateral (alternative) system of blood drainage would have developed.
Skeleton 1381(1382), a female elderly adult had an unusual ridge of compact bone partially
corresponding with the inferior attachment of the gluteus minimus muscle, along the lower end of the
inferior gluteal line and extending up to the anterior superior iliac spine ending adjacent to the origin of the
sartorius muscle. This has only been noted in 3 other individuals, one from an Iron Age cemetery at
Beckford (Roberts 1987 unpublished) and two from an Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Eccles, Kent. Genetic,
pathological and occupational causes have been suggested for these ridges (Roberts 1987), but they
have not appeared in the relevant literature to date.

272
Plate 52: DISH in the spine of 1018(1020)
Skeletons 1060(1090), 1196(1190) and F488 had hyperostosis frontalis interna or new bone on the
endocranial surface of the frontal bone (Plate 53). This is a common finding in ageing females (Ortner &
Putschar 1981, 294), especially after the menopause. However, only one of these skeletons was female
(elderly adult).
The mandibular condyles of skeleton 1066(1077) were flattened and very atrophied (Plate 54). It is
unknown what was the cause of this condition. It did not appear to affect the dentition although some
lower molars had been lost ante mortem. It is possible that it may have been a congenital malformation.

Comments on the palaeopathological data

There were no outstanding prevalences of any pathological lesion on the BAL-1 skeletons. However, the
pathological data does suggest the following:
1. Poor oral hygiene (periodontal disease, calculus).
2. Diet high in carbohydrates (periodontal disease and calculus).
273
3. Self-cleaning diet (lack of interstitial/occlusal calculus).
4. Few stress episodes (lack of enamel hypoplasia, cribra orbitalia, porotic hyperostosis).
5. Diet low in carbohydrates (low caries rate – a contradiction to 2).
6. Trauma - there were no unusually high rates of trauma observed. Falls, interpersonal violence,
dropping heavy objects on the feet and blows to the legs were the major incidents causing the
fractures. One skeleton however did suffer a fatal blade injury. Clay shovelling and ?archery may be
indicated as possible causes for the spinous process fracture and non-union of the acromion.
7. Infections - no major infections were identified and all were non-specific in nature. One individual,
1476(1480), had maxillary sinusitis, cold, damp and possibly smoky conditions, and one individual,
1124, possibly had a pulmonary infection.
8. The pattern of joint disease in the skeletons at BAL-1 suggests that the changes are due to ageing,
as most of the pathological lesions were osteophyte formation rather than associated eburnation and
porosity of joint surfaces. The former alone is considered merely a sign of age. The population at
BAL-1 was reasonably healthy, stress free and suffering from the diseases and injuries we see today.

Plate 53: Hyperostosis frontalis interna on the frontal bone of skeleton 1196(1190)

274
Plate 54: Flattened and atrophied mandibular condyles of skeleton 1066(1077)

Acknowledgements
Thanks to Gil Burleigh of North Hertfordshire Museums for supplying all the requested information and to
the Photography Department, University of Bradford for the photographs

The inhumations from Brewery Field

C B Denston † [1976]
The remains consisted of three adults and four infants; repair work was performed on the adult bones,
especially the skulls, to enable as comprehensive report as possible.

Burial D3 (135): female

These remains consisted of a skull with very few post-cranial remains. The age at death of the individual
could not be ascertained satisfactorily, owing to ante mortem loss of teeth, but the general impression
was one of advanced age. Possibly twelve of the sixteen teeth of the maxilla were lost ante mortem, four
remaining in situ, abscesses involving the sockets for the medial and central incisors and second right
premolar. All the molar teeth and the left central incisor were lost from the mandible ante mortem, the rest
of the teeth remaining in situ. Periodontal disease of the alveolus of upper and lower jaws was medium to
extensive.
Osteoarthritis was discernible throughout the bones preserved, occurring at the mandibular fossae of the
cranium and contiguous surface of the mandibular condyles; extensive and medium degrees involving the
cervical vertebrae, including the axis and atlas, these bones to a lesser degree, and eburnation at the
clavicular facet of the acromial process of the right scapula.
With the adult remains were two bones of an infant, the squamous portion of a left temporal bone and a
left radius. Measurements taken on the radius suggested that these remains were of an infant of the
neonatal period: birth to a few weeks.

275
Burial C2 (324): male, 25-30 years, 5 feet 8½ inches
These remains consisted of a skull and postcranial bones consisting of most parts of the skeleton. One
tooth – third left molar – was lost from the maxilla ante mortem, with an abscess cavity occurring at the
root socket, the second right molar lost post mortem and the rest of the maxillary teeth in situ. The left
central and medial incisors were lost from the mandible post mortem, the remainder in situ. Slight
resorption of the alveolar border of the maxilla indicated a slight degree of periodontal disease.
Slight involvement with osteoarthritis: thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, and rims of acetabulum of the
innominate bone.
Malformation of the odontoid process of the axis, with a spur of bone to compensate at the odontoid facet
of the atlas. Osteitis is visible on all the shafts of the long bones except a humerus; also a calcaneum.
Striations and new bone formation, the bones of the legs more involved. Skull seems normal. Exact
aetiology unknown.

Burial B1 (402): ?male, approximately 45 years, 5 feet 5 inches

These remains consisted of skull and postcranial bones. The teeth in situ in the mandible displayed very
irregular occlusal attrition, the first and second left molars reduced to the roots by the destructive action of
caries, abscesses occurring in the tooth sockets, an abscess also having formed at the root apex of the
left medial incisor; the left lateral incisor lost post mortem. The mandibular third molars were congenitally
absent. Six teeth in the anterior half of the maxilla were in situ, these reduced to the roots by attrition with
the exception of the left canine. The right canine was lost post mortem and the right lateral incisor ante
mortem, both of the areas of these teeth, with also the socket for the medial incisor, displaying evidence
of abscesses. The second premolars and all the molars were lost from the maxilla ante mortem.
Periodontal disease had extensively affected both dental arcades.
Medium degrees of osteoarthritis had affected the cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae. Other bones
affected were the femora, tibiae, humerus, radii and ulnae, glenoid fossa of the scapulae, innominate
bones and some bones of the hand and foot. The degree of osteoarthritis of these bones varied from
slight to medium.

Infant skeletons
There were four lots of infant remains; one has been mentioned, which was associated with the adult
remains of the female D3 (135). The others were Skeleton I, Skeleton IV and burial F4 (306).
In 1972, I received a chart from Rosemary Powers of the British Museum (Natural History) – a table of
skeletal growth which was compiled by her – of certain bones ranging from foetal age through to
adolescence. Measurements taken on those bones which were preserved among these remains
suggested that all were of neonatal age at the time of death. The measurements were very uniform and
with one lot of remains, a central mandibular incisor existed, along with a central and a medial mandibular
incisor of a second lot of remains. The degree of formation of these teeth suggested a similar age as that
from the measurements of the bones.

The inhumations from BAL-31

C B Denston † [1978]

Introduction
The material consisted of remains of adults, with just one non-adult individual. The amount of remains
varied from grave to grave, in some cases represented by postcranial or cranial material only, but at least
half represented by the skull and postcranial remains.
Measurements of the skull and long bones were taken according to the techniques of Buxton & Morant
(1933), Morant (1936) and Mukherjee et al. (1955). The statures of the individuals were computed
employing the regression formulae of Trotter & Gleser (1952), the maximum length measurements of all
the long bones utilised where possible. As much data as possible was recorded on record sheets and is
available for study in the archives in the department of Physical Anthropology, University of Cambridge.

Sex and Age at Death

Nineteen adult and one immature individual were presented by the remains; this includes the remains of
skulls and postcranial bones from the disturbed burials which it seemed were highly probably associated.
Of the nineteen adults, thirteen were possibly males and six females. Nine of the males which could be
aged with a certain degree of assurance would seem to have reached the fourth, fifth or even sixth
decade of life. The females' life span was not so extended, though two possibly attained an age between
40-60 years. The other ages were 35-40, 30-35, 20-25 and approximately 20 years.

276
Osteometric variability
Worthwhile measurements were able to be recorded on eight crania and nine mandibles, eight of the
mandibles associated with crania. Of these, five were male skulls and four females. The cephalic indices
of the male skulls ranged from 71.0 mm to 80.3 mm, with a mean of 75.7 mm. The female cephalic
indices ranged from 79.3 mm to 82.0 mm, with a mean of 81.1 mm. The mean cephalic index for the
males compares favourably with 74.4 (Belgae), 76.6 (Dobunni) and 75.7 (Brigantes) of the Romano-
British period (Goodman and Morant 1940). The mean of 81.1 for the females is way above that of 75.8
for the females of the Iron Age and Romano-British period from Maiden Castle.
The reconstructed stature for four females ranged from 1.4475 m to 1.5575 m, with a mean of
approximately 1.52 m, which is 1.25 cm more than the combined Iron Age, Romano-British females from
Maiden Castle. The stature of the males ranged from 1.6075 m to 1.73 m, with a mean of approximately
1.665 m. In the case of the males this is 1.25 cm in excess of the 1.6525 m for the males from Maiden
Castle.

Oral health
Periodontal infection, as judged from alveolar recession, affected 12 out of 13 individuals, one to a slight
degree, seven a medium degree and five to an extensive degree. Ante mortem tooth loss was not
uncommon and loss occurred of incisors, canines, premolars, and more frequently the molar teeth. Ante
mortem tooth loss occurred in 12 out of 13 dentitions. Abscesses were relatively common and were
present in 11 out of 13 dentitions and dental decay in nine out of 13 dentitions. The frequencies were:
caries 19/189 (10.2%), ante mortem loss 68/315 (21.6%) and abscesses 44/252 (17.5%).

Evidence of disease and injury

Bones possibly representing 12 individuals displayed varying degrees of osteoarthritis, affecting the
vertebral column mostly from slight to medium degrees of nine individuals. It was also evident in ten lots
of other postcranial remains, with one male individual displaying an extensive degree of involvement of
the head of the right femur and acetabulum of the innominate bone, with possibly some pyogenic
infection.
Trauma had occurred of various bones of four individuals; nasal bone; ribs; clavicle; and the descending
ramus of an innominate bone. The innominate bone was the same as involved with the extensive
osteoarthritis, and also displayed exostoses at the area of the trauma. Another male individual displayed
exostoses at the area of the trauma. Another male individual displayed disorder of bones from four areas
of the body.
1. Eighth and ninth thoracic vertebrae compressed superior-inferiorly and anteriorly causing
excessive forward curvature of the vertebral column 'Kyphosis'.
2. A disorder near to the head of the humeri in the area of the lesser tuberosity and subscapular,
?dislocation.
3. Roughened area of the epicondyle of the right humerus, opposed to the left, ?Epicondylitis.
4. Possibly some pyogenic infection of the body portion of the sacrum in association with
osteoarthritis.
The distal epiphysis of the right femur of the immature individual displayed what appeared to be a
punched-out hole 21 mm diameter in the epiphyseal surface, displaying no evidence of bone
regeneration. This was possibly a case of Hystiocytosis X, or Eosinophitic granuloma (Steinbock 1976).
A lesion in the articular surface of the medial condyle of the femora were typical of osteochondritis
dissecans (Wells 1974). “Osteochonrditis Dissecans, which is not to be confused with osteochondritis
juvenilis, is a common disease but is also a mysterious one. Its essential pathology consists of avascular
necrosis occurring in the sub-chondral bone of a joint followed by degenerative changes in the overlying
cartilage. As the disease progresses, a zone of demarcation forms around the avascular area and the
necrotic fragment separates from the rest of the bone, forming a loose body within the cavity of the joint. It
usually first presents itself clinically between the ages of 12-25 years, the great majority of cases
occurring from 15-18” (Wells 1974). He continues – “In earlier populations at least 95% of all
osteochondritis lesions occur in the knee or foot. There are, however, well marked differences between
different racial groups. In general, the disease is much more common among the Romano-Britons, that is,
in the Old Iron Age population of Britain which survived into the period of the Roman occupation, and in
Anglo-Saxons than among the earlier Bronze Age peoples. It is extremely difficult to assess the precise
status of these various lesions. Modern clinical material suggestive of osteochondritis of the navicular,
metatarsals or phalanges is hardly available. It should be noted here that in using the feet for very heavy
work, including weight bearing, thrusting and turning movements, the principal line of force is directed
through the big toe, the first cuneiform, the navicular, the head and trochlear surface of the talus, to the

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distal articular surface of the tibia. This is the line along which most of the osteochondritis defects are
found in early feet."

Introduction
Jacqueline I McKinley [1990]
This chapter presents the results of the analysis of cremated and unburnt human bone recovered from
the remains of burials and other mortuary-related contexts from five separate cemeteries. The reports
were produced over a nine-year period commencing in 1984 and ending in 1993.
The reports presented here are as written at the time of the original analysis (see date given on individual
reports) with some division of reports from individual sites into inhumed unburnt remains and cremated
remains by Keith Fitzpatrick-Matthews. There was no provision as part of this publication programme for
any substantial editing or updating of the reports other than a rapid scan to remove any clearly erroneous
and potentially misleading text. In the intervening years since writing these reports some aspects of
osteological report presentation have changed and much more work has been undertaken on material
from cemeteries of this date which would have provide comparative data, but there has not been the
opportunity (funding) to update the reports accordingly. Standardised methodologies for the analysis of
human remains and presentation of data have been developed (Buikstra & Ubelaker 1994; Brickley &
McKinley 2004) which have not strictly been followed in these earlier reports; for example, while it is now
common practice for the writer to give an age range in years for individuals in the summary tables, at the
time of writing these reports it was common practice to use age categories and these have been used
throughout (see methodology). In particular, the writer has undertaken a substantial body of work with
cremated remains both in terms of developing methodology (e.g. McKinley 1994), research and analysis
of other assemblages, which these reports have not benefited from. There has for some time, for
example, existed a standard terminology for use with cremation-related contexts which is not
comprehensively adhered to in these early texts. For more up-to-date discussions of the Romano-British
cremation mortuary rite, the reader is referred to the major publications on the cemeteries of Eastern
London (McKinly 2000a) and Brougham, Cumbria (McKinley 2004), and shorter papers on specific
aspects of the rite (including McKinley 2000b), all of which include comparative discussion incorporating
the material from these Baldock sites.
Irrespective of these points of presentation, terminology and comparative discussion, the basic results
remain unchanged, and this substantial body of data – still comprising one of the largest from a Romano-
British cemetery/related cemeteries, particularly cremation cemeteries – will hopefully prove of assistance
to those undertaking analysis of mortuary deposits from this period.

Methods
Age of immature individuals was assessed from the stage of tooth development and eruption (van Beek
1983), the stage of ossification and epiphyseal bone fusion (Gray 1977, McMinn and Hutchings 1985)
and the length of long bone diaphyses/metaphyses (Bass 1987). The age of adults was assessed from
the degree of epiphyseal bone and cranial suture fusion (McMinn and Hutchings 1985, Webb and Suchey
1985); pattern of degenerative changes in the public symphyses (Brooks 1955, Gilbert and McKern 1973,
Katz and Suchey 1986) and in the iliac auricular surfaces (Lovejoy et al. 1985); tooth wear patterns
(Brothwell, 1972); and the general degree of degenerative changes to the bone.
Age categories, rather than age in years are used in view of the difficulties surrounding the accurate
assessment of age for adults over 25/30yr, that is following final epiphyseal fusion, a problem
compounded where the entire skeleton has not been recovered. Tooth wear patterns and the degree of
degenerative changes in the bone particularly, may vary considerably dependent on the individual and/or
the group.
Where possible a combination of methods were used to achieve the most accurate assessment. The age
categories used are:
Neonate
Infant 0-4 yr
Juvenile 5-12 yr
Subadult 13-18 yr
Young adult 18-25 yr
Mature adult 25-40 yr
Older adult 40+ yr
Old adult 50+ yr
It was occasionally possible to subdivide the categories if adequate evidence survived, and conversely,
particularly with the cremated remains, groups sometimes had to be linked because of poor bone
recovery resulting in reduced evidence of age.

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The sex of the adults was assessed from the sexually dimorphic traits of the skeleton (Bass 1987),
including in the inhumations measurements of the diameter of the humerus head (Dwight 1905 and
Stewart 1979) and the bi/epicondylar width (Thieme 1957), and the diameters of the femoral head and the
bicondylar width (Pearson 1919). With the cremated remains, cranial vault thickness may also have been
measured (Gejvall 1981). As with age assessment, a combination of methods and scoring of traits have
been used where possible. Three levels of reliability have been used; ?? for possible, ? for probable and
unquestioned. These levels are felt necessary because of the paucity of information in some cases and
unclear or contradictory dimorphism in others. The sexing of immature individuals has not usually been
attempted as sexual dimorphism does not tend to develop until after puberty.
Cranial index was calculated where possible (Bass 1987). Other cranial measurements were taken
according to Brothwell (1972).
Stature was estimated where possible using Trotter and Gleser's regression equations (1952, 1958). It
should be emphasised that these are just estimates with plus or minus factors of between 32.2 and 50.5
mm depending which long bones are used: the lower limb bones provide a more accurate assessment
than the upper limb bones. Stature was not estimated for the cremated individuals: as long bones do not
survive intact for measurement, it is not possible to use Trotter and Gleser's regression equations and the
alternative methods available for use with cremations are felt to be too unreliable (McKinley 1989; 1994).
Pathological lesions and morphological variations were recorded and diagnoses suggested where
appropriate.
Full details of identification are available in the archive.

Inhumation burials
Inhumation and cremation burials from The Tene cemetery, Icknield Way East cemetery and
scattered burials (BAL-10, BAL-28 and BAL-32)
Jacqueline I McKinley [1990]
The human remains discussed in this report included both inhumation and cremation burials from a
number of excavated areas in Baldock. BAL-30, BAL-31 and BAL-48 all form part of The Tene cemetery.
The first area was excavated, or more correctly salvaged by Stead in 1968, the graves in the latter areas
being excavated in 1978 and 1988 respectively. Inhumed bone from twenty-one numbered burials were
examined from BAL-30; the cranium from one burial in BAL-31 was examined; the rest of the burials,
including the postcranial elements of the one received by the writer, had been examined and reported by
C B Denston in 1978 (see above). Three inhumations from BAL-32 were also received and two from
graves in BAL-48. BAL-10, BAL-28 and BAL-45 were all either excavated or subject to watching briefs in
1983-8. Three contexts in BAL-10 produced what was presumed to be redeposited inhumed bone, only
one of which proved to be human, and one context in BAL-28. Cremated bone from twelve contexts,
including four urned/unurned burials, and inhumed bone from thirty-three contexts including twenty-five
graves, with an additional four unstratified collections were received from BAL-45, the Icknield Way East
enclosure and Icknield Way East cemetery.
Although the state of preservation of the bone was, with a few minor exceptions, good, in the majority of
cases bone recovery was very poor with less than 50% of the skeleton being collected. In BAL-30 and
BAL-31, the inhumations were salvaged from discrete graves cut by house footings and only bones in the
exposed parts of the graves were recovered. This means that none of the inhumations from these two
areas are complete, often being represented by only a few bones from one or two skeletal areas, i.e.
skull, axial, upper or lower limb. There are many fresh breaks where the JCB digger went too deep, so
many of the bones are fragmentary and incomplete. Some of the burials in BAL-45 were subject to the
same problems attendant on salvage in advance of housing development. Earlier disturbances such as
service trenches and quarry assessment had also damaged parts of the area. In BAL-45, it became
apparent during excavation that the cemetery had been in use for some time, with several of the
cremation and inhumation burials being disturbed by subsequent graves, the bone from the earlier burials
being scattered and redeposited.
Incomplete skeletal remains place restrictions on the quality and quantity of information it is possible to
derive particularly with regard to pathology.

Discussion

The 'population'
The bones from BAL-10 and BAL-28 were redeposited and do not form part of a cemetery group.
Assuming the apparently discrete graves noted by Stead on Site J (BAL-30) can be taken as correct, the
Tene (BAL-30, BAL-31 and BAL-48) yielded twenty-eight, four and two individuals respectively,

279
discounting unstratified bones. BAL-31 has been excluded since there was only one and that formed part
of a skeleton in the group already examined by Denston (see above). From BAL-45, twenty-seven
inhumed individuals were identified, excluding those redeposited in modern features and unstratified
deposits, and ten cremated individuals, including the four redeposited in grave fills. A total of sixty-one
inhumed and ten cremated.
MNI Age Male Female
BAL-30
1 Young infant (c 6 months)
1 Young juvenile
3 Older juveniles
1 Older juvenile/young subadult
2 Young subadults 1??
1 Subadult
1 Older subadult 1
1 Young adult 1
2 Younger mature adults 1 1
1 Young/mature adult 1
1 Mature adult 1
3 Mature/older adults 1 1
2 Older mature/older adults 1 1
1 Older adult 1
7 Adults 2 5
BAL-32
1 Foetus/neonate
1 Neonate
1 Neonate (6 months)
1 Young Infant (>= 6 months)
BAL-45
1 Infant (<1 year)
4 Young infants
1 Older infant
1 Young adult 1
1 Younger mature adult 1
2 Mature adults 1 1
3 Mature/older adults 1 2
3 Older mature/older adults 2
7 Older adults 2 5
2 Old adults 2
2 Adults 2
BAL-48
1 Older adult 1
1 Old adult 1

Table 120: Age and sex distributions, BAL-30, BAL-31, BAL-45 and BAL-48
Twenty (32.8%) skeletons were immature, including six foetus/neonates/young infants <1 year, five
infants >1 year, four juveniles and four subadults. Of the adults, there were two (3.3%) young adults, six
(9.8%) mature adults, twelve (19.7%) older or old adults. Nine (14.7%) could only be assessed as adults;
the remainder were split between adult groups.
Of the forty-one adults, twenty-four (58.5%) were female and thirteen (31.7%) male. Although both young
adults identified were females, the average age at death for both females and male was in the older
mature/older adult range and more females than males were present in the older/old adult groups.
This suggests that, unlike Denston's findings from The Tene BAL-31, there was no noticeable difference
in life expectancy for female and male adults.
It was possible to estimate the stature of eight females and six males. The range for females was 1.4375
m (4 feet 7 inches), to 1.59 m (5 feet 2 inches), with a mean of 1.53 m, (5 feet). For males, the range was
1.60 m (5 feet 2½ inches), to 1.68 cm (5 feet 5 inches), with a mean of 1.65 m, (5 feet 4 inches). The
estimates for females are close to those reported by Denston on BAL-31 but 50 mm (c 2 inches) shorter
than Roberts found on BAL-1; the male average was less than on both areas by 25 mm (1 inch),
compared with Roberts' findings and by c 40 mm (1½ inches), compared with Denston's.
The cranial index of four female skulls and one male skull was calculated. Three were Mesocrany, all
female, and two Dolichocrany, one female, one male.
280
Pathology
Only three inhumations were represented by more than 75% of the skeleton, thirty-three having less than
10%. Incomplete skeletal recovery severely limits diagnosis as many diseases produce similar lesions
and it is necessary to see how they relate in the skeleton as a whole. None of the cremations presented
any pathological lesions.

Dental diseases
Less than half the individuals identified retained the mandible and less than a quarter the maxilla. 316
teeth remained in situ with a further twenty-four loose teeth. 168 tooth positions were noted with either
ante mortem or post mortem tooth loss. Tables 121-123 show age and sex distribution of
mandible/maxilla and teeth.
Mandible Maxilla
Left Right Left Right
Female 10 8 4 6
Male 4 4 4 4
Unsexed 0 1 0 0
Immature 9 12 5 5
Total 23 25 13 15
Table 121: number of mandibles and maxillae identified, BAL-30, BAL-31, BAL-45 and BAL-48
Mandibular Maxillary
in situ loose empty in situ loose empty
positions positions
Female 89 2 52 52 4 28
Male 46 / 24 19 2 7
Unsexed 3
Immature 59 4 42 51 12 12
Total 194 6 121 122 18 47
Table 122: teeth in situ, loose and empty tooth positions (including ante and post mortem tooth
loss, and congenital absence), BAL-30, BAL-31, BAL-45 and BAL-48
Mandibular Maxillary
ante-mortem loss congenital absence ante-mortem loss congenital absence
Female 16 5 11 1
Male 15 2 3 0
Total 31 7 14 1
Table 123: distribution of ante mortem tooth loss and congenital absence.
Calculus deposits, calcified plaque, were noted in eleven dentitions (44%): eight females, two males and
one unsexed. Deposits may well have been more common however: calculus is very easily knocked off in
post-excavation and its presence is often only demonstrated by a faint 'tide-mark' around the tooth crown.
Deposits were usually slight-medium on all teeth but in two cases, BAL-30 Burial 7 (male) and BAL-31
Burial F79 (female), deposits were gross, covering the occlusal surfaces of several teeth. Both these
instances were associated with gross destructive lesions in the teeth and probably reflect the absence of
self-cleaning mastication using the affected teeth, it being too painful. The deposits are linked with dietary
intake and their presence reflect a low level of oral hygiene as cleaning the teeth will limit build-up.
Calculus encourages the bacteria which cause carious decay and predisposes to periodontal disease.

Ante mortem tooth loss

Of 325 possible teeth in the mandibles and maxillae of sexable adults, all ante mortem tooth loss
occurred in adults, forty-five were lost ante mortem (Table 101). The females had lost 16/143 mandibular
and 11/84 maxillary teeth, 11.2% and 13.1% respectively; for the males the percentage loss was higher,
particularly for the mandibular teeth with 15/70, i.e. 21.4%, and 3/28, 10.1%, maxillary tooth loss. The
overall percentages of 11.9% tooth loss for females and 13.8% for males are considerably lower than
those found by Roberts in BAL-1, 43.4% and 29.5% respectively, being closer to the figures she quotes
for Cirencester, 11.4% female and 7.3% male, and Gloucester, 3.5% female and 8.4% male. The
percentage of 13.8% for all ante mortem tooth loss is also lower than that of 21.6% noted by Denston for
BAL-31 (see above).
Ante mortem tooth loss increases with age and may occur as a result of one or more factors. Excess
wear of teeth will eventually lead to their loss as is probably the case with some of the old individuals
identified, but is often precipitated by periodontal disease, an infection of the gums, pyorrhoea, which may
cause resorption of the alveolar bone and thereby loosening and loss of the tooth. Nine females and two
males (40%) were noted as having periodontal disease, including eight of the ten individuals having
suffered ante mortem tooth loss. In most cases alveolar recession was only slight-medium but in three
281
individuals (F79, (6190) and (6269)), recession was heavy-gross, and periodontal disease was probably
the direct cause of tooth loss in the latter. Periodontal disease may also indirectly lead to tooth loss by
exposing more of the tooth surface to caries attack – particularly cervical caries.
Nine females one male and two unsexed immature individuals showed the presence of cervical or
occlusal carious lesions, that is 48% of the dentitions. Eight of these had lost one or more teeth ante
mortem, probably as a directly consequence of these destructive lesions. The number and severity of
lesions tend to increase with age, over half those affected were in the older adult categories. There were
at least six occlusal lesions, the rest probably being cervical although where there is gross destruction it is
often impossible to locate the origin of the lesion. Seven dentitions, including six of those with carious
lesions, had infected pulp cavities, mostly in anterior teeth, where infection probably followed exposure of
the pulp cavity by excess wear or damage to the tooth.
Eight dentitions also had dental abscesses, four in association with carious lesions or infected pulp
cavities. Five were in the incisors/canines, one in the premolar and four in molar teeth. The mandible and
maxilla were fairly evenly affected. In four individuals, all females, three older adults, dental abscesses in
the mandible and maxilla had led to the formation of a lesion in the surface of the bone as a sinus for
drainage of pus from the site of infection. (3953) had buccal lesions in the mandible and maxilla, with a
further lesion in the palate. (6190) also had buccal lesions in both the mandible and the maxilla, in
addition there was a fistula in the floor of the antrum from the first molar root though no sign of sinus
infection. (3846) and (3968a) had buccal lesions in the mandible and maxilla respectively. In all cases
there was surface new bone around the lesions demonstrating secondary infection.
Ten dentitions (40%), eight female and two male, had one or more faint lines of dental hypoplasia in tooth
crowns. These developmental defects illustrate periods of growth arrest in the tooth crown in response to
disease, nutritional problems, localised trauma or congenital defects (Hillson 1979).
Hypercementosis is a harmless condition involving the excessive formation of secondary cementation
usually in the lower two-thirds of the root. It may relate to a number of conditions such as ageing,
periapical inflammation or tooth trauma. Two adult males, one mature, one older, showed the presence of
this condition in the third molar roots.

Congenital abnormalities
The only evidence of congenital abnormality was in BAL-30 Burial 30, a younger mature adult male,
where the median sacral crest was absent at least as far up as the second segment of the sacrum. This is
a less severe form of spina bifida referred to as spina bifida occulta, where there would be no resulting
symptoms and the defect would be covered with cartilage.
The same abnormality was noted in three individuals in BAL-1 (Roberts, above).

Deficiency disease
Cribra orbitalia is manifest as sieve-like pitting in the roof of one or both orbits. Three adult females and
one subadult were affected by this condition to a slight or mild degree. It is thought to be a metabolic
disease resulting from childhood anaemia.

Trauma
Post-depositional breakage of bones can obscure evidence of ante mortem fractures, additional poor
bone recovery may be responsible for the scant evidence of trauma in the bones examined.
Only two clear fractures were noted. There is a well healed but slightly mis-aligned fracture to the right
clavicle of an adult female, BAL-30 TP/AP S. The lateral and medial portions of the shaft have a rather
sharper angle than normal between them with a bony callus on the distal side of the shaft. A fall onto the
shoulder is the most common cause of such fractures.
A mature/older adult male, BAL-30 Burial 15, has a well healed but slightly mis-aligned fracture in the
distal shaft of the left fibula. The tibia does not appear to have been broken but there are gross exostoses
along the distal interosseous border and fibula notch indicating luxation of the ligament. This type of
fracture is often as a consequence of a direct blow over the bone. The gross exostoses on the distal
interosseous border of the left fibula of BAL-30 Burial 6 (adult female), with exostoses in the tibia may
indicate a similar though less acute traumatic event.

Infections
The presence of non-specific infection was evident from areas of surface new bone on several bones.
Surface new bone has already been noted above in connection with the drainage of dental abscesses in
the mandible and maxilla where the infection was clearly caused by the pus from the abscess. In other
cases however, the cause of infection is difficult to deduce.

282
Two individuals, the older infant BAL-45 (3978) and either the older female or mature male in BAL-45
(3989), had areas of periosteal bone on the dorsal inner surfaces of two ribs, right in the latter. This may
have resulted from a lung infection such as pneumonia or bronchitis spreading to the ribs. There was a
covering of surface new bone over the adjoining surfaces of the fifth lumbar and first sacral vertebrae,
and over the auricular surfaces of the innominates and sacrum of BAL-30 Burial 10a, a mature male.

Degenerative joint diseases

There are many diseases which may affect the joints of the skeleton, a large number of which are
degenerative in nature. Likelihood of occurrence increases with age though there are other predisposing
factors such as trauma weight, previous disease and hereditary predisposition.
Osteophytes are irregular new bone growths which may proliferate around a joint. The lesion may occur
alone in which case it is largely related to age and is not classed as a clinical disease, or it may occur in
combination with other lesions such as eburnation, polishing and pitting in the joint surfaces, in which
case it may be indicative of a joint disease, the most common of which is osteoarthritis.
Osteophytes alone occurred most commonly in the lumbar vertebrae of the spine around the margins of
the bodies. Six of the twelve skeletons with lumbar vertebrae had lesions compared with two of the
eleven with cervical, three of the eleven with thoracic and three of the ten with sacral. Osteophytes on the
margins of vertebral bodies develop in response to wear-and-tear stress associated with increasing age
and the lower thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, being in the area of greatest mechanical stress, are usually
most grossly affected. The occurrence of osteophytes in all joints could be seen to increase with age not
merely in severity but also in the number of joint groups affected. Burials (3953) and (6269), both elderly
females, had osteophytes in six and eight joints groups respectively. Others joints affected included the
auricular surface, three individuals; the femur head, distal femur, atlas/axis joint, glenoid cavity of the
scapula, carpals and metacarpals, two individuals each; foot and finger phalanges, proximal tibia, ribs,
proximal radius, and proximal and distal ulna, one individual each.
Similarly age related wear and tear lesions to be seen at tendon and ligament insertions are exostoses.
This new bone, i.e. ossification of minor haematomas, develops in response to stress on the
tendon/ligament and may also reflect traumatic events or be related to other disease such as DISH (see
below). Here it was seen largely as an age related phenomenon, common sites being along the iliac
crest, ischial tuberosity and around the notch in the femoral head. The elderly female (6269) had
noticeable exostoses along the iliac crests, ischial tuberosities, humeral epicondyles, radial and ulnae
tuberosities, shafts of the finger phalanges, greater trochanters and posterior muscle attachments of the
femurs, anterior patella, tibiae and fibulae distal interosseous borders and metatarsal head. This
individual also has osteophytes in eight joint groups and osteoarthritic lesions in ten joint groups.
Degenerative disc disease is manifest by pitting in the body surfaces of the vertebrae following break-
down of the intervertebral disc. Five individuals of the eleven with cervical vertebrae had pitting in one or
more as compared with two of the eleven with thoracic, three of the twelve with lumbar and two of the ten
with sacral vertebrae. In only one, the elderly female (6269), were cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae
affected.
Schmorl's nodes develop in response to the herniation of the intervertebral disc allowing the nucleus
pulposus to protrude into the body of the adjacent vertebra. Three individuals had one or more of these
lesions. Two had lesions in one thoracic vertebra each and the other had lesions in three thoracic, five
lumbar and first sacral. All were older females.
Osteoarthritis is a disease affecting the synovial joints and is basically a wear-and-tear process. The
weight bearing joints of the spine and lower limb are most prone to development of the disease. Sixteen
individuals had some degree of osteoarthritic lesions in one or more joint groups.
Any discussion of the significance of distribution is severely limited by the poor bone recovery from most
of the inhumations. Eliminating two because they are from one of two individuals in a group, there is one
juvenile, one younger mature adult, female, one mature/older, female, two older mature/older, one female
and one male, nine older adults, five female and three males, and one adult female. Roughly equal
numbers of males and females were afflicted, 30.8% and 33.3% respectively, and incidence appears to
increase with age
Between one and ten joint groups may be affected in one skeleton, but as so little of most inhumations
was collected, it is difficult to comment further. The costo-vertebral, seven individuals, joints appear to
have been the most commonly affected, other joint groups include hip, lumbar and thoracic vertebrae,
each in five individuals; atlas/axis joint, sacral vertebra and sacro-iliac joints, each in three individuals;
temporo-mandibular, acromion-clavicular, cervical vertebra and shoulder joints, each in two individuals;
sterno-clavicular, elbow, wrist, proximal finger and calcaneum joint surfaces, in one individual each. There
is nothing to suggest any differences between the sexes in joints affected.

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Miscellaneous
The third and fourth cervical vertebrae in (3849a), older adult male, are fused together in the left articular
processes and along the left anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments.
The old adult male (7016) presents a probable case of DISH, Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis.
The spine is fused in the second to fifth and eighth to tenth thoracic vertebrae along the anterior and right
lateral aspects of the vertebral bodies by a thick layer of 'dripped wax' new bone. Disc space was
maintained but there is fusion of the second and third articular processes and around much of the left side
of the same two vertebral bodies. There is slight pitting and osteophytes in several of the articular
processes and in the rib facets of all bodies. The 'dripped wax' effect with gross intertwining new bone
continues in the lower thoracic and lumbar vertebrae particularly along the right side but there is no
fusion. There is also some pitting and osteophytes in several cervical and lumbar articular processes, and
pitting in several of the cervical body surfaces. Extra-spinal manifestations include exostoses in the ischial
crests, 'bridges' of new bone approaching from both sides of the acetabular notches, ossification of the
transverse ligaments, gross exostoses around the distal and superior iliac margins of the acetabulae;
slight bony spurs from the Achilles tendon attachments of calcanea and edge of flexor hallucis longus of
the tali. New bone along calcanean surface of left talus and plantar cuneiform surfaces of right navicular.
Exostoses in the right humerus lesser tubercle, along gluteal tuberosity and epicondyles; along posterior
sides of finger phalanges shafts; along posterior attachments of femurs; along interosseous ligament
attachments of tibiae and fibulae; along superior anterior tendon attachments of patella. A diagnosis of
DISH would be consistent with these features (Resnick et al. 1975), though they have to a certain degree
been masked and complicated by other lesions indicating the presence of other diseases including
osteoarthritis in all areas of the spine, both hip joints, shoulder, elbow and wrist joints.

Morphological variations
These variations may indicate family relationships within a skeletal group as the traits are believed to be
largely hereditary. However, no satisfactory links were noted and as so much of the bone from each
inhumation was missing, further comment could not be made.
Five-cusps mandibular third molar 7; 10b; (7016)
Five-cusp mandibular second molar 9
Shovel-form maxillary incisor 10b; 16a; (3849a)
Congenital absence of teeth (3989a); (6190)
Twisting of teeth (3953)
Retention of deciduous teeth (3968); (3989b)
Wormian bones, extra bones in cranial sutures 7; 18; 3849a
Palatine tori, a rare bony ridge running longitudinal down the mid-line of the palate (3953)
(Berry & Berry 1967)
Ossicle at lambda (3849a)
Occipital 'bunning' (3849a)
Depression at lambda (3849a)
Flattening of distal parietals (3849a); (3968)
Missing spinal processes (7016)
Pseudo-facets in vertebral spines (3953)
Partial sacralisation of the fifth lumbar 1; 7
Thirteenth rib (3953)
Meso-acromion, non-fusion of the acromion of the scapula 5
Vastus notch, patella 7016
Squatting facets, tibia 15; 16b; (3811)
Anterior talal facet absent in calcaneum 30/2
Reduced calcanean facets in talus 30/2
Os trigonum, unfused Stieda's process in talus (7016)
Talal notch (3804a)
Extra calcanean facet in navicular (3811)
Fusion of middle and distal foot phalanges (3953)
Table 124: Types of morphological variations and frequency of occurrence showing burial
number, BAL-30, BAL-31, BAL-45 and BAL-48
In BAL-30, as noted during excavation in BAL-45, there was clearly later cutting of earlier graves which
were overlooked probably as a result of the conditions of excavation. Eight of the graves in BAL-30
contained the remains of more than one individual, seven contained two, one three. Judging from Stead‟s
records, it would seem likely that in each case, the bones of the second individual were disarticulated in
the grave fill excavated by the JCB. Had any of these been genuine 'dual graves', it is more likely they
would have been noticed at the time of excavation.
In neither of the two cemetery areas was there any noticeable spatial organisation in terms of age and/or
sex of the individual except for some of the young infants of less than one year. Six such young infants
284
were recorded in the skeletal material examined, five from The Tene cemetery and one from the Icknield
Way East cemetery. Of the five from The Tene, four were found in shallow graves outside the cemetery
area in BAL-32, the other one being found within the cemetery area, as was the one in BAL-45. The
deposition in graves or other less formal circumstances of individuals of less than one year of age outside
cemetery precincts and often within those of a settlement is well attested in the Roman period (McKinley
forthcoming (b, c)). The deceased was not necessarily treated with disrespect or as of no importance just
differently and it may be that their deposition within the sphere of the living rather than that of the dead
may have borne some significance.
Animal bone was found with fifteen (44.1%) of The Tene burials and three (11.1%) of the Icknield Way
East burials. At least one part of BAL-45 is known to have been used as a butchery site in the recent past
and it may be that some of the bones have contaminated grave fills. However, by far the largest number
of graves with animal bone were in The Tene cemetery, with sheep being the most commonly recognised
species. Bird and horse/cattle bone were also present. Only small quantities of bone were noted and no
butchery marks, but in view of the poor recovery of human bone from this site there may have been larger
quantities of animal bone also. Animal bone did not seem to occur with individuals of certain age or sex.

The inhumations from BAL-15 (1986-89 seasons)

Jacqueline I McKinley [1993]
Bone from 286 contexts was received for examination from BAL-15 and examined between May and
November 1992. The vast majority of the material was inhumed bone, with two cremations, and a few odd
fragments of cremated bone included with some inhumations. The inhumations derive from two separate
and non-contemporary cemeteries, Stane Street and Royston Road.

Methods
Age of immature individuals was assessed from the stage of tooth development and eruption (van Beek
1983), the stage of ossification and epiphyseal fusion (Gray 1977, McMinn and Hutchings 1985), and the
length of long bones (Bass 1987). The age of adults was assessed from the degree of epiphyseal fusion
(McMinn and Hutchings 1985, Webb et al. 1985); pattern of degenerative changes in the pubic
symphyses (Brooks 1955); tooth wear patterns (Brothwell 1972); and the general degree of cranial suture
fusion and degenerative changes to the bone.
Age categories, rather than age in years are used in view of the difficulties surrounding the accurate
assessment of age for adults over 25/30 years - i.e. following final epiphyseal fusion. Tooth wear patterns
and the degree of degenerative changes in the bone may vary considerably dependent on the individual
and/or the group. The categories used are:
Foetal
Neonate 0-6 months
Infant 0-4 years (young 0-2 yrs: older 3-4 yrs)
Juvenile 5-12 years (young 5-8 yrs: older 9-12 yrs)
Subadult 13-18 years (young 13-15 yrs: older 16-18 yrs)
Young adult 19-25 years
Mature adult 26-45 years (younger 26-30 yrs: older 31-45 yrs)
Older adult 45+ years
Old adult 50+ years
Sex of adults was assessed from the sexually dimorphic traits of the skeleton (Bass 1987), including post-
cranial measurements. Additional measurements of skull vault thickness were taken according to Gejvall
(1981), for cremations. Three levels of reliability have been used; ?? possible, ? probable and
unquestioned sexing. These levels are necessary because of the paucity of information in some cases,
and contradictory traits in others.
Cranial, Platymeric and Platycnemic indices were calculated where possible (see Metrical Data Sheet in
archive). Cranial measures were taken according to Brothwell (1972), post-cranial measures were taken
according to Bass (1986).
Stature was estimated where possible, using Trotter and Gleser's regression equations (1952, 1958). As
the femur and tibia are considered the most reliable long bones on which to take these measurements,
these bones were used where possible. Where it survived, the right bone was always used. It should be
noted that these estimates are generally to ± 2-3 cm, and do not take into account other normal variations
in height e.g. dependant on the age of the adult individual.
Pathological lesions and morphological variations/non-metric traits were recorded, and diagnoses
suggested where appropriate.
Anatomical terminology used according to Pickering-Pick & Howden (1978), and McMinn & Hutchings
(1985).
285
Not all contexts represented discreet inhumations. Where bone had been redeposited, either as a result
of ancient or recent disturbance, an attempt was made to locate the inhumation of origin.

Results
A summary of the results is presented in Table 103.
All details of identification may be found in the archive/fiche report including skeletal records sheets of
identified bones, dental attrition and caries/abscess location charts, metrical data sheets, and detailed
description of pathology.
Quantif-
Number Qualifier Age Sex Pathology
ication
c.70%
224 neonate
s.a.u.l.
534 & c.75% older mature a.m.t.l.: caries: d.l. - ischial tuberosities, l. talus: o.a. - r.
566 female
551= s.a.u.l. adult scapula, r. distal radius: m.v. - os acromiale
c.80% young juvenile calculus: caries: cribra orbitalia: m.v. - 3rd centre ossification
659 662=
s.a.u.l. (6-7 yr.) 1st metacarpals
= 659,
662 674, 685 &
696
dental abscess: caries: calculus: p.d.: cribra orbitalia: d.l. -
c.85% younger mature mandibular incisor, l. finger phalangeal joint: o.a. - l. proximal
674 662= male
s.a.u.l. adult humerus, foot phalanx: pitting - radius tuberosity: m.v. -
wormian bones, absent 3rd molar
calculus: p.d.: caries: d.d.d. - cervical, thoracic: o.a. - costo-
vertebral, lumbar, r. metacarpals & phalanges: cyst -
proximal humerus: exostoses - l. patella, l. tibia: periostitis - l.
c.95% older mature distal fibula, l. & r. proximal foot phalanges: o.p. - l. talus &
685 662= male
s.a.u.l. adult calcaneum: pitting - l. 1st metatarsal, r. 1st proximal foot
phalanx: m.v. - metopic suture, retention mandibular r.
deciduous canine & non-eruption permanent 2nd incisor, 5-
cusp mandibular 3rd molar
c.90% young juvenile dental hypoplasia: calculus: m.v. - 3rd distal centres
696 662=
s.a.u.l. (c. 8yr.) ossification in 1st metacarpals and metatarsals
725 ?crem. no bone
754 no human bone
2702 no human bone
2711 no human bone
2820 no human bone
2841 no human bone
'outside
sq.21 vessel' 71.0 adult ?
crem.
c.65% older mature/ calculus: Schmorl's - thoracic: o.a. - costo-vertebral: m.v. –
4140 ?male
s.a.u.l. older adult wormian
caries: dental abscess: o.a. - temporo-mandibular, cervical,
hip joints: o.p. - l. distal ulna, thoracic, lumbar, rib facets: d.l.
c.75% older mature
4418 male - r. proximal ulna: vertebral body collapse - thoracic: cyst - l.
s.a.u.l. adult
tibia shaft: periostitis - tibiae: anterior bowing r. femur shaft:
m.v. - wormian
c.20%
4683 foetus/neonate
s.a.u.l.
4762 = 4799
4778 <1% ? ?immature
c.15%
4799 neonate
s.a.u.l.
c.15%
4809 neonate
s.a.u.l.
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: hypoplasia: dental abscesses: o.p. -
atlas, axis, thoracic, lumbar, r. acetabulum, l. scapula:
Schmorl's - thoracic: o.a. - cervical, l. hip, l. auricular surface,
r. metacarpo-phalangeal joints, bi-lateral calcanea-navicular
to talal joints: d.d.d. - cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral: d.l. -
c.93%
4827 older adult male lumbar, l. 1st proximal phalanx: pitting - medial clavicles:
s.a.u.l.
exostoses - femur heads, l. 1st metatarsal, calcanea: coxa
vara: ankylosis - axis and 3rd cervical, bi-lateral ankylosis of
calcanea and naviculars: m.v. - wormians, atlas double
facet, abnormal development l. ring-finger middle phalanx,
impaction 3rd molars
o.a. - costo-clavicular, bi-lateral shoulder joints, costo-
part c.15% vertebral, cervical, thoracic, lumbar: fracture - left ribs: d.d.d.
4837 older adult ?female
missing s.a.u. - cervical, thoracic: o.p. - 1st proximal finger phalanges,
atlas-axis

286
 a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: o.p. - cervical, thoracic,
lumbar, rib facets: d.d.d. - lumbar, sacral: calcified rib
cartilage: pitting - l. scapula, l. proximal humerus, ischial
c.96% older mature/
4843 female tuberosities: exostoses - distal humeri, l. proximal ulna, iliac
s.a.u.l. older adult
crests, patellae, l. calcaneum, r. 1st metatarsal: m.v. -
ankylosis l. 5th middle-distal foot phalanges, displacement
maxillary r. canine
c.12% young infant
4857
s.a.u.l. (c.6 months)
1) young infant
crem.
4892 122.9 2) older mature/ ? 2) caries
=4613
older adult
c.10%
4998 neonate
u.l.
c.50% young juvenile
5026 5868= calculus: hypoplasia: cribra orbitalia
s.a.u.l. (5-6 yr.)
5039 no human bone
5085 missing
= ?7405/
5098 u. adult
7680
c.30% older infant (2-
5102
s.a.u.l. 3yr.)
5126 no human bone
cribra orbitalia: caries: dental abscesses: p.d.: periostitis -
c.93%
young adult male mandible: m.v. - atlas double facet, malformation in
5132 a=? s.a.u.l. a)
a) older mat a) ? humerus-ulna joint:
c.10
a) a.m.t.l.: caries: p.d.: m.v. - atlas double facet
crem. +
subadult/adult
5161 inh. = <1% u./l. ?
infant
5360
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: dental abscesses: exostoses -
proximal femurs & shafts, patellae, fibulae shafts (r. heavy),
r. distal humerus, r. 1st metacarpal, r. ischial tuberosity:
pitting - r. finger phalanx, lumbar spinal processes: o.p. - l.
proximal tibia, femur heads & l. distal, l. patellae, l.
acetabular rim, cervical, lumbar: d.d.d. - cervical, thoracic,
lumbar: Schmorl's - thoracic, lumbar: ankylosis - 7th-8th
thoracic, 9-11th thoracic, 12th thoracic to 1st lumbar, 3rd-5th
c.75% lumbar, 'bridge' between r. tibia and fibula shafts: vertebral
5180 old adult male
s.a.u.l. body collapse - 1st lumbar: d.l. - r. distal tibia: o.a. - bi-lateral
costo-clavicular, shoulder joints, l. distal ulna, sacrum, costo-
vertebral, r. acetabulum, thoracic, lumbar; fracture - l. 2nd
metacarpal, l. rib shaft, r. tibia and fibula: periostitis - r. tibia
and fibula: calcified rib cartilage: m.v. - twisted maxillary
premolar, bony extensions in lateral naviculars, notch in r.
glenoid fossa, secondary facet in l. sacral lateral mass & 5th
lumbar left transverse process, absence mandibular 3rd
molar
c.40%
5181 neonate
s.a.u.l.
=5502/ c.1%
5216 neonate
5701 ?s.l.
c.30% young infant (3-
5230
s.a.u.l. 6months)
older a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: dental abscesses: extensive
5656a & c.23%
5247 mature/older ?male endocranial porosity - frontal: o.a. - r. temporo-mandibular:
?5796= s.a.u.l.
adult m.v. - wormian
p.d.: calculus: caries: exostoses - r. femur shaft & distal,
older
c.65% tibiae shafts: o.a. - costo-vertebral, thoracic: calcified rib
5248 mature/older male
s.a.u.l. cartilage: o.p. - lumbar, atlas, thoracic: Schmorl's - lumbar,
adult
thoracic: bone resorption - r. distal fibula: d.d.d. - thoracic
a.m.t.l.: cribra orbitalia: p.d.: calculus: caries: dental
abscesses: o.a. - l. temporo-mandibular: o.p. - cervical,
c.84% thoracic, acetabulae: d.d.d. - thoracic: ?osteomylitis - l.
older mature
5249 a) =? s.a.u.l. ?male metacarpal: periostitis - l. metacarpal: m.v. - occipital
adult
a)? a. 'bunning', wormian, exostoses in trochanteric fossa, absence
right 3rd molars
a) o.a. - atlas
5258 =? <1% s. subadult/ adult
5260 = 5310 <1% a. subadult/ adult
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: d.d.d. - cervical, thoracic: d.l. -
thoracic: o.a. - costo-vertebral, hip joints, r.1st metacarpo-
phalangeal joint: pitting - clavicles, scapula, proximal humeri:
Schmorl‟s - thoracic: surface new bone - thoracic: o.p. -
c.93%
5270 older adult male lumbar, r. scapula, distal humerus, proximal ulnae, distal
s.a.u.l.
femurs, r. proximal & distal tibia, l. proximal tibia: periostitis -
tibiae, fibulae: exostoses - iliac crest, ischial tuberosities, r.
proximal femur, r. distal tibia, l. calcaneum: m.v. - occipital
„bunning‟
287
 ?human/
5283 ?crem.
?animal
caries: hypercementosis: o.a. - l. hip, l. navicular-cuboid
c.32% older mature
5302 5180=? male joint: exostoses - proximal ulna, tibiae shafts, femur proximal
s.a.u.l. adult
and shafts, r. femur lesser trochanter, patellae
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: hypercementosis: dental
c.40% abscesses: o.p. - cervical, lumbar, l. proximal ulna: d.d.d. -
5310 5311= older adult male
s.a.u.l. cervical: exostoses - l. humerus shaft, patellae, proximal
femur: o.a. - r. 5th fifth finger phalanx
5311 =5310 <1% s.a. adult
5314 <1% a.u. adult ?
5320 =? <1% a.u.l. adult ??female
5322 no human bone
a.m.t.l.: dental abscesses: o.a. - cervical (gross), sacral, r.
c.50% knee: d.d.d. - cervical/thoracic: o.p. - l. proximal tibia:
5336 +5266 older adult ?female
s.a.u.l. exostoses - l. proximal femur: m.v. - flattening posterior
parietals, occipital „bunning‟
c.25% young infant (1-
5337
s.a.u.l. 2yr.)
p.d.: calculus: caries: dental abscess: exostoses - iliac crest:
older mature/ pitting - r. proximal foot phalanx: o.p. - sacrum, lumbar,
c.72%
5338 a) =5216 older adult ?female thoracic, cervical, r. scapula: Schmorl's - lumbar (extensive),
s.a.u.l.
a) neonate lower thoracic: d.d.d. - lumbar: m.v. - 2-cusp maxillary 3rd
molars, sixth lumbar partially sacralised
?animal/?
5342 ?crem.
human
5360 c.8% a.l. neonate
=5412/
5369 5213/ <1% a. subadult/ adult ?
7174
5384 no human bone
older subadult/
5389 ?= 5310 <1% l. ?
adult
5390 no human bone
5395 <1% s. neonate
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: dental abscesses: d.l. - incisor
& canine crowns, r. 1st proximal foot phalanx: o.a. - cervical
(heavy), thoracic, l. hip, proximal humeri, r. carpo-metacarpal
joint, r. & l. metacarpo-phalangeal joints: ankylosis - 3rd-4th
c.98%
5396 older adult male cervical: d.d.d. - cervical (gross), lumbar: reduced vertebral
s.a.u.l.
body height - cervical: o.p. - thoracic, lumbar, sacral,
scapulae: Schmorl's - lumbar: exostoses - patella, proximal
femurs, calcaneum: m.v. - non-fusion atlas posterior arch,
uneven spacing mandibular teeth
5405 =5412 ? s.a. adult ??female m.v. - wormian
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: dental abscesses: o.a. -
cervical (gross, extensive), thoracic (extensive), hips:
Schmorl's - thoracic, lumbar: d.d.d. - lumbar: o.p. - l. distal
c.65% ulna, r. proximal ulna: cyst - r. lunate: exostoses - r. distal
5406 old adult male
s.a.u.l. humerus, r. radial tuberosity, r. lesser trochanter, r. patella:
pitting - r. clavicle, foot sesamoid: d.l. - 5th lumbar, radial
tuberosities, r. 1st proximal foot phalanx: m.v. - abnormal
spacing mandibular teeth, os acromiale
c.18%
5406a =5420 young adult ??male calculus: hypoplasia
s.a.u.l.
a.m.t.l.: caries: dental abscesses: o.p. - atlas, r. scapula,
sacrum, thoracic, lumbar: d.d.d. - cervical, lumbar, thoracic:
Schmorl's - thoracic: d.l. - 5th lumbar (gross), lower thoracic:
7188 & c.75% exostoses - fibulae shafts (r. heavy & extensive), l. tibia
5412 older adult female
5405= s.a.u.l. shaft, patellae, femur shafts, calcanea: new bone - l.
proximal humerus: o.a. - r. knee, lumbar: m.v. - metopic
suture, partial sacralisation 5th lumbar, absent mandibular
3rd molar
5406a & caries: o.a. - costo-vertebral: exostoses - radial tuberosity:
5420 as 5406a young adult ??male
5513= o.p. - finger phalanx, scapula
c.15% foetus/neonate
5424 a) = 5085?
a.u.l. a) neonate
c.30%
5430 foetus/neonate
s.a.u.l.
5454 no human bone
c.18%
5476 neonate
s.a.u.
5502 5216= <1% s. neonate
5512 crem. no human bone
5513 =5420 <1% s. subadult/adult
c.60%
5518 older infant
s.a.u.l.

288
 c.10%
5527 neonate
a.l.
Schmorl's - lower thoracic: d.l. - lumbar, acetabulae:
c.72% young adult (18-
5532 male periostitis - six r. rib shafts: cyst - humeral heads, r. lunate:
a.u.l. 21yr.)
m.v. - os acromiale
mature/older
5630 =? <1% a.l. ? pitting - foot phalanx
adult
5632 =? <1% a.u.l. young subadult
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: dental abscesses:
hypercementosis: o.a. - l. temporo-mandibular (gross),
costo-vertebral, thoracic, r. proximal ulna: o.p. - lumbar,
older
c.96% thoracic, sacrum, proximal & distal ulnae: d.l. - 1st sacral:
5635 mature/older female
s.a.u.l. exostoses - iliac crests, ilia, l. humerus shaft, l. radial
adult
tuberosity, fibulae shafts, femur shafts & trochanters: m.v. -
metopic suture, wormians, flattening posterior parietals, bony
facet between two adjacent ribs
5650/ young infant (6-
5634/ c.5% s.l.
5651 12months)
1) adult 2)
5638 =? <1% s.
infant
5647 =5659 <1% s.a.l. subadult
5652 =? c.3% a.l. adult
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: dental abscess: Schmorl's - thoracic:
o.p. - lumbar, sacrum, acetabulum: d.d.d. - lumbar: o.a. -
older mature costo-vertebral: exostoses - r. proximal femur & shaft: m.v. -
c.95%
adult female sagittal groove, absence 3rd molars, absence/non eruption
5656 a)=5247 s.a.u.l. a)
a) older mature/ a)? mandibular 2nd premolars, absence/non-eruption maxillary
c.1%
older adult canines, retention maxillary l. deciduous canine, Vastus
notch:
a) o.a. - r. temporo-mandibular
c.75%
5659 5647= subadult male m.v. - 'pegging' maxillary incisor, maxillary 3rd molar 3-cusp
s.a.u.l.
a.m.t.l.: dental abscesses: o.p. - cervical: o.a. - cervical,
sacro-iliac, r. metacarpal & finger phalanges, r. knee: d.d.d. -
part c.75% cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral: spondylolysis: exostoses -
5661 older adult female
5689= s.a.u.l. radial tuberosities, tibia shafts, femur shafts: ankylosis - 3rd-
4th & 5-6th cervical: m.v. - flattening posterior parietals,
Vastus notch
young/younger
5665 =? c.12% s. ? m.v. - sagittal crest
mature adult
= 5686 & c. 8% older subadult & =5686) o.p. - atlas: d.l. - patella: m.v. - 6-cusped multi-
5673 ?
5675 s.a.u.l. young adult fissured mandibular 3rd molars
part c.95% hypoplasia: p.d.: decapitation through axis vertebra ?post
5675 older subadult ??female
5673= s.a.u.l. mortem
c.25% young/younger
5676 female
s.a.u.l. mature adult
o.a. - costo-vertebral: m.v. - misplaced maxillary teeth,
c.60% young/younger malformation in maxillary incisor, non-eruption of r. maxillary
5686 5673= female
s.a.u.l. mature adult canine & retention deciduous canine, ankylosis middle-distal
phalanges 5th toe
= 5661 &
5689 ? u.l. adult
5690
part c.76% younger mature a.m.t.l.: p.d.: caries: dental abscesses: calculus: exostoses -
5690 ??male
5689= s.a.u.l. adult l. ribs: cribra orbitalia: m.v. - absence maxillary 3rd molars
c.20% neonate/young
5698
s.a.u.l. infant
5701 5216= ? u. infant
c.12%
5708 neonate
s.a.u.l.
a.m.t.l.: dental abscesses: caries: exostoses - l. rib, r.
c.70% proximal ulna, femur, patellae, calcanea, r. tibia shaft: d.l. - r.
5770 older adult male
s.a.u.l. foot phalanx: o.p. - l. rib, cervical, thoracic, lumbar, proximal
& distal ulnae, r. finger phalanges: cyst - r. scaphoid
c.5%
5778 neonate
s.a.l.
a.m.t.l.: caries: dental abscesses: ?fistula in antrum: trauma -
parietal vault (wound/trepanation), l. ribs (fracture): reactive
new bone - endocranial surface (extensive): o.a. - costo-
vertebral, cervical (gross, extensive), lumbar, thoracic,
shoulders: o.p. - lumbar, sacral, thoracic, acetabulae, r.
c.97%
5779 older adult male distal radius: Schmorl's - thoracic: new bone - lumbar bodies:
s.a.u.l.
d.d.d. - cervical, lumbar: exostoses - iliac crests, femur
shafts & greater trochanters, tibia shafts, r. patella: d.l. - r.
1st distal foot phalanx: m.v. - six sacral body segments,
ankylosis middle-distal phalanges 5th toe, squatting facet,
metopic suture, wormians

289
 a.m.t.l.: caries: dental abscesses: p.d. calculus: secondary
sinusitis: cribra orbitalia: o.a. - costo-vertebral: fracture -
c.97% three l. ribs, r. clavicle: o.p. - thoracic, l. proximal femur:
5782 mature adult male
s.a.u.l. pitting - sacrum: exostoses - l. proximal humerus, r. proximal
ulna, patellae: m.v. - thirteen thoracic vertebrae, six lumbar
vertebrae, metopic suture, wormians
a.m.t.l.: caries: dental abscesses: p.d.: calculus: cribra
orbitalia: d.d.d. - lumbar: o.a. - r. finger phalanges: new bone
c.90% older mature/
5788 male - r. femur head, lumbar: exostoses - patellae, calcanea: d.l. -
s.a.u.l. older adult
r. 1st metatarsal: m.v. – ankylosis middle-distal phalanges
5th toe, malformed tooth root
5796 ?=5247 <1% l. adult
c.20% young infant (9-
5820
s.a.u.l. 12 months)
young infant (18
a)=5856/ c.60%
5832 months-2 yr.) m.v. - metopic suture
5867/5883 s.a.u.l.
a) neonat
c.60% a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: o.a. - thoracic, cervical: cribra
5855 older adult female
s.a.u.l. orbitalia
5867/5883 c.10%
5856/ neonate
5832a= s.a.u.l.
5863 =? <1% s. subadult/adult
5868 = 5026 <1% s. infant/juvenile
c.50%
5870 neonate
s.a.u.l.
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: dental abscesses: cribra
older
c.92% orbitalia: d.l. - l. lateral supra-orbit: o.a. - cervical, hips, l.
5896 mature/older male
s.a.u.l. proximal radius: o.p. - l. proximal tibia: exostoses - r. patella:
adult
fracture - r. rib: m.v. – six sacral segments, metopic suture
5913 no human bone
a.m.t.l.: caries: dental abscesses: p.d.: secondary sinusitis:
calculus: hypoplasia: calcified thyroid cartilage: o.a. - bi-
lateral temporo-mandibular, cervical, costo-vertebral:
Schmorl's - thoracic: d.d.d - cervical, lumbar, sacral: o.p. - l.
c.98%
5960 older adult male scapula, thoracic, lumbar: pitting - radial tuberosities: d.l. -
s.a.u.l.
thoracic: exostoses - radial tuberosities, r. anterior fibula:
fracture - r. distal ulna, r. distal femur, nasal bone, r. rib:
periostitis - r. distal ulna: endosteal new bone - r. distal ulna:
m.v. - thirteen thoracic vertebrae
6440 =? <1% u. adult ?female
a.m.t.l.: caries: dental abscesses: p.d.: calculus: exostoses -
femur lesser trochanters & shafts, r. distal tibia, patellae,
calcanea, r. proximal ulna, iliac crest: pitting - clavicles, r.
scapula: o.p. - scapulae, l. acetabulum, cervical, thoracic,
lumbar: o.a. - r. distal radius, l. metacarpo-phalangeal joints,
c.98% older mature/
6550 male cervical, costo-vertebral: d.d.d. - cervical: bony
s.a.u.l. older adult
protuberances - r. radius: ankylosis - r. auricular surfaces,
11-12th thoracic: vertebral body collapse - 12th thoracic:
pseudo-facets - lumbar spines: calcified thyroid cartilage:
fractures - four l. ribs: m.v. - metopic suture, wormians,
absence mandibular r. canine
c.20% cyst - l. scaphoid, l. ilium: exostoses - l. ilium: d.l. - r.
6625 older adult ?
s.a.u.l. proximal finger phalanx: o.a. - costo-vertebral: o.p. - lumbar
c.50%
6658 older juvenile caries: m.v. - metopic suture
s.a.u.l.
6768 ? ? ?
c.20%
6786 neonate
s.a.u.l.
c.15% young infant (c.
6794
s.a.u.l. 9 months).
c.50% young infant (c.
6832
s.a.u.l. 1yr.)
p.d.: hypoplasia: ankylosis - r. middle-distal finger
c.65%
6837 mature adult ?male phalanges: Schmorl's - thoracic, lumbar: m.v. - squatting
s.a.u.l.
facet
c.20%
6840 subadult ?
s.a.u.l.
6861 =? <1% a. ?infant
a.m.t.l.: o.a. - cervical, thoracic, l. scapula: o.p. - r. scapula:
c.10%
6869 =7117 older adult ? d.d.d. - cervical: d.l. - thoracic, lumbar: fracture - l. rib: m.v. -
s.a.u.l.
sacralised sixth lumbar
a.m.t.l.: o.a. - hips (l. heavy), costo-vertebral, l. lunate, l.
c.60% distal ulna: cysts - r. 1st metatarsal: o.p. - l. distal radius,
6902 older adult male
s.a.u.l. cervical, lumbar: Schmorl's - thoracic, lumbar: d.d.d. -
thoracic: pitting - r. clavicle
c.17%
6907 young adult ??female
s.l.
6921 c.45% mature adult ?female a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: dental abscesses: o.a. - l.

290
 s.a.u.l. shoulder, thoracic, costo-vertebral: calcified 'stone' -
gall/urinary
c.25%
6924 young infant
s.a.u.l.
d.d.d. - lumbar: exostoses - femur shafts and lesser
trochanters, l. tibia shaft, r. proximal ulna, iliac crests: o.p. - l.
c.55%
6932 older adult male patella, r. finger phalanges, r. proximal ulna, acetabular rims,
s.a.u.l.
lumbar: d.l. - l. proximal tibia (gross), l. navicular: new bone -
l. proximal tibia: o.a. - r. metacarpal, l. hip: fracture - r. rib
6934 =?7882 <1% a.u. adult
older
<1%
6946 =7295 mature/older
s.a.l.
adult
a.m.t.l.: caries: dental abscesses: p.d.: calculus: o.p. - distal
femurs, r. talio-calcaneal joint, proximal ulnae, r. lunate-
scaphoid joint, lumbar, thoracic, cervical: o.a. - l. navicular-
cuneiform joints, r. talio-navicular joint, costo-vertebral, bi-
c.95% older mature lateral shoulder joints, r. metacarpo-phalangeal (3) &
6948 female
s.a.u.l. adult phalangeal joints, l. sacro-iliac joint, r. hip, lumbar: d.d.d. -
sacrum, lumbar, cervical: exostoses - proximal ulnae, l. iliac
crest: d.l. - lumbar: ankylosis - axis-3rd cervical: m.v. -
wormian, squatting facet, angled mandibular 3rd molar,
single root branches in maxillary 3rd molars
6964 =? <1% u.l. adult
c.35% m.v. - five-cusped mandibular 3rd molars, maxillary 2nd
6969 subadult ??male
s.a.u.l. incisors large palatal cusps
6994 =6995 <1% a. subadult/adult
a.m.t.l.: caries: d.l. - l. distal tibia, l. femur shaft: cyst - l.
proximal tibia: o.p. - l. proximal tibia, cervical: d.d.d. -
thoracic: new bone - l. femur shaft (gross, extensive):
6994= c.80% older mature
6995 male fracture - l. femur shaft, four l. ribs: periostitis - l. femur shaft:
a)=? s.a.u.l. adult
osteomylitis - ?l. femur shaft: exostoses - patella: o.a. -
costo-vertebral, r. phalangeal joint: three calcified 'stones' -
one ?bladder/urinary, two ?gall
7103 =7120 <1% s. infant/juvenile
=7174
7108 <1% a.l. adult
group
a.m.t.l.: caries: p.d. calculus: hypoplasia: dental abscesses:
cyst - l. lunate: ankylosis - bi-lateral middle-distal ring-finger
c.98% older mature phalanges: bone resorption - bi-lateral distal ring-finger
7113 female
s.a.u.l. adult phalanges: exostoses - humerus shaft: o.p. - r. auricular
surfaces: o.a. - r. temporo-mandibular: m.v. - squatting
facets, enamel pearl
c.18%
7117 6869= older adult ??female fractures - l. tibia & fibula
a.u.l.
c.20%
7120 7103= infant
s.a.u.l.
c.73% hypoplasia: m.v. - ossicle at lambda, bi-partite mandibular
7155 7159= young adult male
s.a.u.l. canine root, impaction l. mandibular 3rd molar
7159 =7155 <1% a. subadult/adult
a.m.t.l.: dental abscess: hypercementosis: exostoses -
7281/7641
c.40% patellae: o.a. - hips (r. gross): o.p. - axis: d.d.d. - thoracic:
7174a /7679= older adult male
s.a.u.l. m.v. - 3rd molars absent, bony projections from two adjacent
see
ribs
7281/7641 a.m.t.l.: dental abscess: caries: exostoses - calcanea:
c.43%
7174b /7679= old adult female anterior & lateral bowing femur shafts: osteoma - r. femur
s.a.u.l.
see shaft: coxa vara
7641/7679
c.8% mature/older
7174c /7281= ?female fracture - r. clavicle: d.d.d. - cervical
a.u. adult
see
7174d <1% u./l. foetus
=?7366
7181 c.1% u. adult
(part)
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: new bone - patellae: d.l. - r.
navicular, thoracic: Schmorl's - thoracic: vertebral body
collapse - thoracic, lumbar: eburnation - r. patella: o.p. -
c.85%
7182 old adult ?male cervical, thoracic: exostoses - r. patella, r. lesser trochanter:
s.a.u.l.
o.a. - hips, cervical, costo-vertebral: d.d.d. - cervical,
thoracic, lumbar: cyst - r. scaphoid: m.v. - partial
sacralisation fifth lumbar
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: dental abscess: exostoses - patellae,
c.92% older mature/
7185 male calcanea: o.p. - cervical: m.v. - metopic suture, occipital
s.a.u.l. older adult
'bunning', 'gap-toothed'
mature/older
7188 =7412 c.1% u. ? new bone - humerus shaft
adult
c.55% young adult cribra orbitalia: p.d.: m.v. - retention maxillary deciduous l.
7204 a) ?=7398 female
s.a.u.l. a) foetus? canine, permanent canine erupting anterior angle

291
 a.m.t.l.: caries: p.d.: exostoses - patella, femur shafts: o.a. -
finger phalanges, shoulders, r. hip, thoracic, costo-vertebral,
c.90% bi-lateral temporo-mandibular: o.p. - proximal ulnae, cervical:
7205 older adult ??female
s.a.u.l. d.d.d. - cervical, thoracic: d.l. - thoracic, lumbar: m.v. - six
lumbar, pseudo-facet in left 6th lumbar-1st sacral masses,
wormians, metopic suture
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: exostoses - femur shafts, lesser trochanters,
proximal femurs, tibia shafts, calcanea, r. proximal ulna:
c.75% cribra orbitalia: o.p. - r. proximal ulna, r. acetabulum,
7208 older adult male
s.a.u.l. cervical, ribs, thoracic lumbar: depressions (?vertebral body
collapse) - lumbar: d.l. - lumbar: d.d.d. - lumbar: o.a. - l. hip:
m.v. - absence 3rd molars
older
7210 =? >1% s. mature/older
adult
?7639 &
c.18% older mature/ d.d.d. - sacrum: o.p. - lumbar, thoracic, scapula: o.a. - costo-
7213 7640= a ?
a.u. older adult vertebral
= 7174b/c
a.m.t.l.: calculus: p.d.: caries: dental abscesses: exostoses -
patellae, l. 1st proximal foot phalanx, calcanea, femur shafts
& proximal notches, femur greater & lesser trochanters,
c.92% proximal ulnae: o.p. - r. lateral cuneiform & cuboid, scapulae,
7221 older adult ?male
s.a.u.l. acetabular rims, cervical, thoracic, lumbar: d.d.d. - cervical,
thoracic, lumbar, sacral: o.a. - costo-vertebral, cervical,
thoracic, l. temporo-mandibular: d.l. - l. calcaneum, thoracic:
calcified rib cartilage
c.18% young infant (6-
7223
s.a.u.l. 9 months)
a.m.t.l.: cribra orbitalia: p.d.: calculus: caries: dental abscess:
exostoses - patellae, calcanea, proximal femurs, l. proximal
ulna: o.p. - l. proximal ulna, r. scapula, l. acetabulum,
c.95% older mature
7230 male cervical, lumbar: d.d.d. - cervical, thoracic: surface new bone
s.a.u.l. adult
- thoracic, lumbar: o.a. - costo-vertebral, r. hip, lumbar: d.l. -
r. 1st proximal foot phalanx, thoracic, lumbar: vertebral body
collapse - thoracic, lumbar
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: dental abscess: caries: calculus: cribra orbitalia:
exostoses - patellae, proximal femur & shafts, greater
trochanters, r. ilium (gross): cysts - l. clavicle, r. 1st
metacarpal: o.p. - scapulae, proximal humeri, r. scaphoid &
trapezium, r. 1st & 2nd metacarpals, r. middle phalanx,
cervical, thoracic: Schmorl's - thoracic, lumbar: d.d.d. -
c.97%
7241 older adult male cervical, thoracic: d.l. - r. middle phalanx, thoracic, lumbar:
s.a.u.l.
vertebral body collapse - thoracic: pitting humerus tubercles:
thickening - l. finger phalanges: fractures - r. radius & ulna,
three r. & three l. ribs: o.a. - r. distal ulna, costo-vertebral:
calcified thyroid cartilage: m.v. - squatting facets, six lumbar,
pseudo-facets in 6th lumbar-1st sacral r. lateral masses, 3rd
molars absent
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: dental abscesses: exostoses -
calcanea, femur shafts, patellae, iliac crests: o.a. - r. 1st
metatarso-phalangeal joint, cervical, thoracic, lumbar, costo-
c.96% older mature
7266 female vertebral: o.p. - r. lateral cuneiform, proximal tibiae,
s.a.u.l. adult
scapulae, acetabular rims, sacrum, cervical, lumbar: d.d.d. -
cervical: fracture - r. clavicle: d.l. - l. 1st proximal foot
phalanx
c.20%
7271 juvenile
a.u.l.
=7174
7281 <1% s.a. adult o.p. - sacrum
a/b/c
a.m.t.l.: caries: dental abscesses: p.d.: calculus: exostoses -
patella, femur shaft, proximal femur, proximal ulnae:
periostitis - r. proximal tibia, r. distal femur, l. superior ischio-
a) = 7174 c.90% older adult
7282 female pubic crest: fracture - l. superior ischio-pubic crest: d.d.d. -
group s.a.u.l. a) adult
sacral, cervical, lumbar: o.a. - sacral, hips, thoracic, cervical:
o.p. - thoracic, lumbar:
a) d.d.d. - cervical
7284 =7302 <1% a.u. adult
7285 =? <1% s. subadult/adult
c.40%
7293 older infant
s.a.u.l.
a.m.t.l.: cribra orbitalia: p.d.: calculus: caries: dental
c.92% older mature abscesses: o.a. - r. temporo-mandibular: exostoses - patella,
7295 6946= female
s.a.u.l. adult calcaneum: o.p. - r. scapula, atlas, thoracic, lumbar, ribs:
d.d.d. - sacrum
p.d.: caries: o.p. - cervical, thoracic, ribs, distal ulna, lumbar
c.70% (heavy): o.a. - left finger phalangeal joints, lumbar: d.d.d. -
7302 7285= older adult male
s.a.u.l. cervical, thoracic: exostoses - femur shafts & head, patellae,
r. tibia tuberosity
7319 ?=7340 <1% a.u. adult ?

292
7327 ?=7364 c.1% a.l. subadult/?adult ?
7330 c.5% l. subadult/adult ?
7332 =7333 <1% s.l.
c.65% younger mature calculus: p.d.: caries: o.a. - r. finger phalanx: m.v. - 2nd
7333 7332= male
s.a.u.l. adult maxillary incisors 'shovelled'
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: caries: calculus: o.p. - cervical, thoracic,
c.70% older mature
7334 male lumbar, acetabulae: d.d.d. - thoracic, lumbar, sacrum: o.a. -
s.a.u.l. adult
cervical, shoulder joints: m.v. - squatting facet
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: dental abscesses: o.a. - atlas-axis,
cervical, thoracic, l. finger phalangeal joints, r. 1st metatarso-
c.60% older mature/
7336 female phalangeal & phalangeal joints: exostoses - patellae,
s.a.u.l. older adult
proximal femur: o.p - cervical, acetabulae: pseudo-facet/new
bone - l. radial & ulna shafts: m.v. - squatting facets
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: dental abscess: o.p. - rib,
thoracic transverse facets, r. distal radius, r. distal ulna:
Schmorl's - thoracic, lumbar: d.d.d. - thoracic: o.a. - costo-
c.95% older mature
7340 7319= male vertebral: exostoses - patellae, calcanea: spondylolysis - 5th
s.a.u.l. adult
lumbar: remodelled vertebral articular processes - 1st sacral,
4th lumbar: m.v. - squatting facets, semi-sacralisation 5th
lumbar
a.m.t.l.: calculus: p.d.: dental abscesses: caries: o.a. - bi-
lateral hip joints, atlas-axis, cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral,
l. wrist joint (heavy), l. carpal joints (heavy & extensive), l. 1st
c.65%
7341 older adult female carpo-metacarpal joint, l. finger phalangeal joints, bi-lateral
s.a.u.l.
knee joints (heavy): o.p. - lumbar, proximal ulnae, r.
navicular: exostoses - r. proximal ulna, r. proximal femur:
d.d.d. - cervical (heavy), thoracic: m.v. - squatting face
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: dental abscess: cribra orbitalia:
o.p. - atlas, lumbar, l. scapula, r. proximal ulna: pitting - r.
proximal humerus, r. radial tuberosity: ankylosis - 2-3rd
lumbar (r. side): vertebral body collapse - slight left lumbar:
c.97% older mature
7344 male o.a. - costo-vertebral: d.d.d. - thoracic: Schmorl's - thoracic:
s.a.u.l. adult
fracture - l. rib: pseudo-facet - r. rib: exostoses - patellae,
proximal femurs, distal humeri, r. proximal ulna, r. radial
tuberosity: cyst - l. navicular: m.v. - squatting facets, sagittal
crest
c.50% younger mature a.m.t.l.: p.d.: o.p. - atlas: o.a. - costo-vertebral: m.v. - Vastus
7345 ??male
s.a.u.l. adult notch
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: cribra orbitalia: o.a. - costo-vertebral,
lumbar, 1st sacral, r. acetabulum: exostoses - r. proximal
c.90%
7354 older adult female ulna, proximal femur intertrochanteric lines, r. metatarsal:
s.a.u.l.
o.p. - atlas-axis, lumbar: m.v. - maxillary r. 1st incisor
„pegged‟
7354a ?= c.5% s. mature adult ?
a.m.t.l.: dental abscesses: caries: calculus: p.d.: o.a. - atlas-
axis, cervical, bi-lateral hip joints, costo-clavicular: d.d.d. -
c.72% cervical: exostoses - femur shafts: o.p. - scapula, r. proximal
7364 ?7327= old adult male
s.a.u.l. ulna: pitting - radial tuberosities: ?fracture - r. distal ulna:
bone resorption/depression - frontal bone: m.v. - squatting
facets, vastus notch, metopism, wormians
a.m.t.l.: calculus: p.d.: hypoplasia: o.p. - r. rib facets, atlas:
?7181= c.80% older mature spondylolysis - 3rd lumbar: fracture - r. distal fibula:
7366 female
(part) s.a.u.l. adult periostitis - r. fibula, l. clavicle shaft: m.v. - squatting facets,
metopism, wormians, ?absence mandibular l. 2nd premolar
older
c.13%
7372 mature/older ??male exostoses - femur shaft
a.u.l.
adult
older
c.60%
7373 mature/older ??male p.d.: calculus: caries: o.p. - atlas, lumbar: o.a. - l. acetabulum
s.a.u.l.
adult
7375 =7380 <1% s. adult ?female
p.d.: calculus: periostitis - calcanea, l. metatarsal shafts, l.
c.98%
7379 young adult male fibula shaft: cyst - 1st proximal foot phalanges, r. 1st
s.a.u.l.
metatarsal: Schmorl's – thoracic
c.55% older mature/ a.m.t.l.: p.d.: dental abscesses: exostoses - patella, femur
7380 7375= ?female
s.a.u.l. older adult shafts
7386 =7404 <1% a. adult ?
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: dental abscess: cribra orbitalia:
o.a. - thoracic, costo-vertebral: o.p. - thoracic, lumbar:
c.94% older mature/
7392 female anterior bowing femur shafts: coxa vara: pitting - l. auricular
s.a.u.l. older adult
surface: stenomeric: m.v. - squatting facets, 6th lumbar
vertebra, partial sacralisation of 6th lumbar
a.m.t.l.: caries: p.d. (heavy): calculus: dental abscesses:
cribra orbitalia: sinusitis: exostoses - proximal femur:
c.75%
7396 older adult ?male ankylosis - 3rd & 4th cervical: o.a. - cervical, thoracic, costo-
s.a.u.l.
vertebral, lumbar, bi-lateral temporo-mandibular: d.l. -
thoracic, lumbar: o.p. - lumbar: m.v. - wormians
7398 7204a= <1% a.u. young infant

293
 = parts
7405 & c.30% older mature a) cyst - l. distal tibia:
7404 females
7680 a.u.l. adults b) periostitis - r. tibia
7386
7404= c.40% older mature a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus (gross r.): caries: dental abscess:
7405 female
(parts) s.a.u.l. adult periostitis - l.1st metatarsal: m.v. - metopism
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: dental abscess: o.a. - l. 1st
carpo-metacarpal joint, costo-vertebral, thoracic: o.p. - l.
navicular, acetabular rims, lumbar (gross): d.d.d. - lumbar,
c.95% older mature/
7411 female thoracic, cervical: Schmorl‟s - lumbar, thoracic: pitting - r.
s.a.u.l. older adult
auricular surface: exostoses - femur proximal capsule
attachments, r. proximal femur, r. femur shaft: m.v. -
squatting facets, metopism, enamel pearl
7412 =? <1% a. adult
=7472 &/or c.1%
7414 adult ?
7624 s.a.u.l.
c.98% p.d.: calculus (gross l.): o.p. - r. navicular, r. scapula: cyst - r.
7416 mature adult female
s.a.u.l. 1st proximal foot phalanx: exostoses - l. finger phalanx
=7174/
7419 7214/ <1% u.l. subadult/adult
7655
c.6% older subadult-
7423 ? caries
s.u.l. mature adult
c.65%
7425 older subadult ?
s.a.u.l.
a.m.t.l.: caries: dental abscesses: p.d.: calculus: o.a. - l.
medial knee joint, r. distal ulna, costo-vertebral, thoracic: o.p.
- tali and calcanea, l. distal ulna, r. distal radius, r. proximal
ulna, r. scapula, sacrum, lumbar (heavy), cervical, thoracic
c.94% (r. heavy): d.d.d. - cervical: cysts - r. triquetral & pisiform, r.
7427 older adult male
s.a.u.l. proximal ulna: exostoses - femur shafts, proximal femurs,
patellae, tibiae soleal lines, r. calcaneum, proximal ulnae, r.
radial tuberosity, iliac crests: pseudo-facet - 10th r. thoracic
(rib dislocation?): new bone - r. talus and calcaneum: m.v. -
metopism, wormian bones
=7667
c.25% cribra orbitalia: p.d.: calculus: caries: dental abscesses: o.a.
7427a (wrong older adult female
s.a. - atlas-axis, cervical (heavy): ankylosis - 2-4th cervical
no.)
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: coxa vara - left: o.a. - bi-lateral hips (gross), bi-
lateral medial knee joints, costo-vertebral: o.p. - r. navicular,
c.65%
7450 older adult ??female scapula, l. distal humerus, l. proximal ulna, l. proximal radius,
s.a.u.l.
atlas-axis, lumbar, thoracic: d.d.d. - lumbar, thoracic:
Schmorl's - lumbar, thoracic
c.96% younger mature a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: dental abscesses: exostoses -
7458 male
s.a.u.l. adult calcanea, r. patella: Schmorl's - thoracic: m.v. - 6th lumbar
older
7466 ?=7508 <1% a. infant/young
juvenile
=7624 c.15% young/mature
7472 ? exostoses - l. proximal femur, l. lesser trochanter
7414= a.u.l. adult
7474 =7494 <1% s.a.
c.70%
7478 older juvenile
s.a.u.l.
7481 <1% young infant
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: dental abscesses: cribra
orbitalia: o.a. - thoracic, costo-vertebral: cysts - l. femur
head, r. scapula, r. 4th lumbar body: osteoporosis - vertebral
bodies, femoral head: exostoses - l. proximal femur capsule
c.75% attachment, patella, r. proximal femur: Schmorl's - thoracic:
7490 older adult male
s.a.u.l. new bone - thoracic body surface: o.p. - l. scapula, r.
scaphoid, r. radial head, thoracic, lumbar: vertebral body
collapse - 2nd & 3rd lumbar (destructive lesions): fracture - r.
distal ulna: pitting - radial tuberosities: periostitis - l. fibula:
m.v. - wormian
young/mature
7490a =? c.1% s.
adult
p.d.: calculus: caries: hypoplasia: o.a. - lumbar: o.p. -
c.90% older mature cervical, thoracic, lumbar, rib facet: Schmorl's - thoracic,
7494 7474= male
s.a.u.l. adult lumbar: exostoses - calcanea, proximal femur, l. femur shaft
(muscle luxation), fe
metacarpal: m.v. - ?os trigonum, retention l.maxillary
deciduous canine, impaction & displaced eruption l.maxillary
permanent canine, maxillary r. 2nd incisor 'shovelled'
7497 =? c.1% u.l. adult ? d.l. - foot phalanx

294
 p.d.: calculus: cribra orbitalia: d.l. - l.1st proximal foot
phalanx, lower thoracic & 3 lumbar vertebral bodies (gross -
?tumours): vertebral body collapse - min. 12th thoracic: new
c.94%
7498 mature adult female bone - thoracic body: exostoses - proximal femur, femur
s.a.u.l.
shaft: pitting - r. proximal humerus: o.p. - atlas: o.a. -
thoracic, lumbar: m.v. - retention mandibular l. deciduous
2nd molar, ?absence mandibular l. 2nd premolar
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: o.a. - costo-vertebral, thoracic,
cervical: Schmorl's - thoracic: exostoses - calcanea, l.
c.94% older mature/ greater trochanter, femur shafts, r. patella, r. proximal notch,
7503 male
s.a.u.l. older adult l. iliac crest, ischial tuberosities: pitting - acetabulae: o.p. - r.
1st metacarpal, lumbar, thoracic, atlas-axis: coxa vara - left:
fracture - l. distal tibia: m.v. - left vastus notch, wormians
c.80% m.v. - partial sacralisation 5th lumbar, 3rd distal centre
7508 older juvenile ?
s.a.u.l. ossification in 1st metacarpal
c.85% young/younger p.d.: caries: calculus: dental abscess: cysts - auricular
7510 ??male
s.a.u.l. mature adult surfaces: m.v. - 6th lumbar, sacralisation of 6th lumbar
p.d.: calculus: caries: dental abscess: exostoses - calcanea:
d.l. - r. 1st proximal foot phalanx: o.p. - lumbar, atlas-axis,
thoracic: o.a. - costo-vertebral: m.v. - l. 2nd maxillary incisor
c.85% older mature
7515 male 'pegged', r. maxillary 2nd incisor absent, mandibular 2nd
s.a.u.l. adult
premolars absent, retention mandibular 2nd deciduous
molars, slight impaction mandibular r. 3rd molar, 1st sacral
superior surface angled
older
7519 =7612 c.1% u. mature/older ??male exostoses - radial tuberosity
adult
p.d.: caries: calculus: dental abscesses: reactive new bone -
c.65% older mature
7522 male maxilla: fracture - r. clavicle: d.l. - r. 2nd metacarpal: m.v. - 3
s.a.u.l. adult
branches to mandibular r. 2nd molar root
p.d.: calculus (heavy): d.l. - l. distal tibia, l. proximal
c.96% older subadult
7538 ?female humerus: spina bifida occulta: m.v. - fusion 5th middle-distal
s.a.u.l. (17-18 yr.)
foot phalanges
c.88% younger mature p.d.: calculus: caries: dental abscesses: bony 'boss' in r.
7540 female
s.a.u.l. adult parietal: m.v. - double anterior talal facets, metopism
7548 =7649 <1% u. adult ?
c.60% older mature/ exostoses - patellae: o.a. - thoracic: spondylolysis - lower
7554 male
s.a.u.l. older adult lumbar vertebra
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: dental abscesses: o.a. - costo-
vertebral: fracture - l. rib: pitting - ischial tuberosities:
c.82% older mature/
7556 male exostoses - patellae, femur proximal notches: o.p. - l.
s.a.u.l. older adult
scapula, lumbar (heavy): Schmorl‟s - thoracic: m.v. -
crowding anterior teeth, impaction l. mandibular 3rd molar
older infant/
7558 =7572 c.1% a.l.
young juvenile
c.12%
7560 foetal/neonate
s.a.u.l.
c.40% older juvenile (8-
7572 7558= cribra orbitalia: m.v. - metopism, wormian
s.a.u.l. 10 yr.)
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: dental abscesses: exostoses -
c.92% older mature/ patellae, proximal femurs: o.a. - l. hip, costo-vertebral: o.p. -
7573 ?male
s.a.u.l. older adult r. acetabulum, lumbar, atlas, thoracic: d.d.d. - cervical: m.v.
– impaction r. maxillary canine
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus (heavy mandibular): caries (extensive):
dental abscesses: o.a. - bi-lateral hips, costo-vertebral: o.p. -
l. tarsals, r. femur head, r. scapula, atlas-axis, thoracic:
older mature/
d.d.d. - cervical, lumbar: exostoses - patellae, proximal
c.90% older adult
7577 a) =7648 male femurs, femur shafts, proximal ulnae, radial tuberosities, iliac
s.a.u.l. a) foetus/
crests: periostitis - r. tibia: pitting & roughened surfaces - 5th
neonate
lumbar & 1st sacral: m.v. - extension of articular surfaces in
l. calcaneum, talus, navicular and cuboid, absence/non-
eruption l. mandibular 2nd incisor
older
=7644/
7578 <1% s. mature/older ?
7633
adult
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: dental abscess: fistula in
antrum: o.p. - l. navicular, scapulae, acetabular rims, lumbar,
thoracic: o.a. - l. navicular, l. 1st metacarpo-phalangeal joint,
costo-vertebral: pitting - r. patella, r. radial tuberosity, ischial
c.88%
7585 older adult ??male tuberosities: exostoses - patellae, femur shafts, proximal
s.a.u.l.
femurs, l. femur proximal capsule attachment, calcanea,
proximal ulnae, r. radial tuberosity, ischial tuberosities: d.d.d.
- cervical, thoracic: Schmorl‟s - lower thoracic: periostitis -
tibiae, fibulae
c.80% older juvenile/
7590 cribra orbitalia
s.a.u.l. young subadult

295
 a.m.t.l.: p.d.: dental abscesses: caries: calculus: o.a. - bi-
lateral hip joints (gross), shoulders, costo-vertebral, atlas-
axis, cervical: coxa vara: d.d.d. - thoracic: Schmorl's -
thoracic: periostitis - l. tibia: ankylosis - 2nd-4th cervical:
pitting - clavicles, r. radial tuberosity: o.p. - r. proximal ulna, r.
c.85%
7612 7519= old adult male scapula, cervical, lumbar: roughened vertebral body
s.a.u.l.
surfaces - 5th lumbar, 1st sacral: cysts - l. scaphoid, l.
capitate: exostoses - patellae, femur shafts, r. radial
tuberosity: d.l. - l. 1st metatarsal, 1st proximal foot
phalanges: m.v. - fusion 5th middle-distal foot phalanges,
impacted mandibular 3rd molar
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: calcified thyroid cartilage: o.a. -
scapulae, l. acetabulum, atlas-axis (heavy), cervical, 1st
sacral, lumbar (heavy), thoracic (heavy): ankylosis - 2nd-3rd
c.93%
7614 older adult male cervical: d.d.d. - cervical, thoracic: exostoses - patellae,
s.a.u.l.
proximal femurs, femur shafts, radial tuberosities: o.p. - r.
acetabulum, lumbar, thoracic: pitting - radial tuberosities,
medial clavicles
c.20% young infant (7-9
7623
s.a.u.l. months)
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: dental abscesses: caries: o.p. -
scapula, proximal ulnae, r. distal radius, thoracic, acetabular
7472 &
rims, 4 right ribs: pitting - r. 1st proximal foot phalanx, ischial
7414=, c.40% older mature/
7624 ??female tuberosities: ?o.a. - r. root sesamoid: exostoses - r. proximal
7633= s.a.u.l. older adult
ulna, r. radial tuberosity, calcanea, r. iliac crest, ischial
(part)
tuberosities: spondylolysis - 4th lumbar: m.v. - impacted r.
3rd molars
=7644,
part = c.5%
7633 older adult ? a.m.t.l.
7624, s.u.l.
?75
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: caries: calculus: dental abscess: cribra orbitalia:
o.p. - r. distal femur, r. patella, r. proximal tibia, scapulae,
c.80%
7637 older adult female ribs, lumbar, thoracic: o.a. - bi-lateral hip joints, atlas-axis,
s.a.u.l.
cervical, lumbar, thoracic: ankylosis - 3rd & 4th cervical
vertebrae: m.v. - wormian
older
a.m.t.l.: dental abscess: p.d.: calculus: caries: m.v. -
7639 ?=7213 c.24% s. mature/older ?
wormian, metopism
adult
exostoses - calcanea: pitting - sesamoid bone: m.v. - fusion
7640 ?=7213 c.18% l. mature adult ?
middle-distal 5th phalanges
young/mature
7641 =7174a-c c.13% l. ?male exostoses - l. tibia shaft: d.l. - l. distal tibia
adult
7633=,
?7578=, c.4%
7644 older adult ?
?part= s.a.u.l.
762
c.25%
7648 7577a= foetus/neonate
s.a.u.l.
cribra orbitalia: p.d.: calculus: d.l. - l. 1st metatarsal: o.p. - l.
7549=, c.90%
7649 mature adult female scapula, proximal ulnae, r .acetabular rim, r. rib, atlas: m.v. -
?8148= s.a.u.l.
occipital bunning, wormian
7655 ?=7174b c.1% u. adult ?female bony calluses - distal ulna
older
7660 =? <1% a. infant/young
juvenile
o.a. - l. shoulder, 1st sacrum, lumbar, thoracic, costo-
vertebral: o.p. - distal femurs, l. proximal tibia, l. 1st
7427a= c.58%
7667 older adult female metacarpal, r. scapula, r. 1st proximal finger phalanx, r.
(s.) a.u.l.
proximal ulna, acetabular rims, thoracic: exostoses - r. femur
shaft: new bone - r. femur lateral condyle
7675 missing
?=7174a-
7679 c/??part=7 <1% u.l. adult
412
parts c.60% older mature p.d.: calculus: caries: exostoses - calcanea: o.p. - scapulae,
7680 female
7404= s.a.u.l. adult atlas-axis: m.v. - occipital bunning
part c.25%
7683 foetus/neonate
7688= s.a.u.l.
7687 =? >1% s. adult
parts c.25%
7688 foetus/neonate
=7683 s.a.u.l.
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: exostoses - proximal femurs,
femur shafts: o.p. - proximal ulnae, r. scapula, atlas-axis,
c.92% older mature
7689 female cervical, lumbar, sacrum: d.d.d. - cervical: o.a. - bi-lateral hip
s.a.u.l. adult
joints (mild), costo-vertebral, thoracic (gross), lumbar: m.v. -
13 thoracic, 6 lumbar, partial sacralisation 6th lumbar

296
 a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: d.d.d. - cervical, 1st sacral:
o.a. - r. hip joint, thoracic, l. temporo-mandibular: Schmorl's -
thoracic, lumbar, 1st sacral: spondylolysis - 5th lumbar:
c.97% exostoses – proximal femurs, femur shafts, patellae (heavy),
7693 older adult male
s.a.u.l. l. fibula shaft, calcanea, r. tibia shaft, r. lesser trochanter:
pitting - r. 1st proximal foot phalanx: o.p. - l. scaphoid, l.
scapula, proximal ulnae, l. acetabular rim, atlas, thoracic,
lumbar: m.v. - metopism
c.92% younger mature
7698 female o.p. - rib facets: cribra orbitalia: p.d.: calculus: caries
s.a.u.l. adult
older
7700 =7742 <1% a.u. mature/older ??male d.d.d. - cervical
adult
older
c.2%
7701 =7742 mature/older male
s.a.u.
adult
cribra orbitalia: o.a. - r. humerus, costo-vertebral, atlas-axis
(gross), cervical (heavy), thoracic, lumbar, bi-lateral
temporo-mandibular: o.p. - r. femur head, acetabular rims,
lumbar: exostoses – femur shaft: l. humerus, radius and ulna
part c.89% older mature/ extreme gracile ?poliomyelitis: d.d.d. - thoracic, lumbar:
7715 female
missing s.a.u.l. older adult Schmorl's - thoracic, lumbar: ankylosis - 1-2nd lumbar:
vertebral body collapse - 1st lumbar, 3rd lumbar: pseudo-
facets - l. 5th lumbar-1st sacral lateral mass: roughened
vertebral body surfaces - thoracic: d.l. - thoracic: ?calcified
'stones': m.v. - non-fusion/absence r. half atlas posterior arch
older
c.12%
7716 subadult/young ?male exostoses - r. femur head
u.l.
adult
c.40%
7720 neonate
s.a.u.l.
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: dental abscesses: cribra
orbitalia: o.a. - l. tarsals, l. hip, r. distal ulna, costo-vertebral,
atlas-axis, cervical (heavy): d.d.d. - thoracic: fracture - l. rib:
c.87% periostitis - r. metatarsal shaft, r. tibia, r. fibula: o.p. - r.
7725 older adult ?male
s.a.u.l. navicular, scapulae, r. acetabulum, lumbar: pitting - 1st
proximal foot phalanges: exostoses - femur shafts, proximal
femurs, ilia: m.v. - impacted r. mandibular 3rd molar,
crowding anterior mandibular teeth
c.6% a.m.t.l.: dental abscesses: caries: p.d.: calculus: o.p. - atlas:
7729 =7742 adult ?
s.a.u. m.v. - non-eruption l. mandibular canine
caries: Schmorl's - thoracic: fracture - l. clavicle: o.a. - r.
7700, older
c.58% knee, lumbar, sacral, bi-lateral acetabulae: o.p. - thoracic,
7742 7701 & mature/older male
a.u.l. lumbar, sacral: d.d.d. - sacrum: exostoses - patellae,
7729= adult
proximal femurs, r. tibia shaft: pitting - l. proximal humerus
7750 =7405 c.3% u. adult ? d.l. - r. proximal humerus
a.m.t.l.: dental abscesses: caries: p.d.: o.a. - l. scapula, l.
older
c.93% acetabulum: d.d.d. - lumbar, thoracic: d.l. - thoracic vertebral
7767 mature/older female
s.a.u.l. bodies: exostoses - calcanea, proximal femurs, femur shafts:
adult
o.p. - r. scaphoid, r. acetabulum, lumbar, atlas
7808 =? <1% s. juvenile-adult
7815 =? c.1% l. subadult/adult ?
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: dental abscess: cribra orbitalia: o.a. -
c.91% r. shoulder, l. hip, atlas-axis, thoracic, bi-lateral temporo-
7825 older adult female
s.a.u.l. mandibular: fracture - r.4th metacarpal: Schmorl's - thoracic:
exostoses
=7854 &
7828 <1% s.u. adult ?
?7852
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: dental abscess: fracture - l.
clavicle: o.a. - l. talus, l. cuboid, bi-lateral hips, costo-
vertebral, atlas-axis, cervical: periostitis - l. tibia, l. fibula:
Schmorl's - thoracic, lumbar: d.d.d. - lumbar, sacral:
spondylolysis - 5th lumbar: vascular new bone - l. tibia: o.p. -
l. navicular, r. femur head, proximal ulnae, thoracic, lumbar:
c.95% older mature bony spines - anterior margin foramen magnum: disruption
7852 ?7828= female
s.a.u.l. adult of l. navicular articular surface: pitting & new bone - l.
calcaneum: d.l. - l. 1st metatarsal, l. 1st proximal phalanx, r.
distal tibia, r. proximal humerus: pitting - r. proximal
humerus, r. medial clavicle, r. manubrium: exostoses -
patella, r. proximal femur, r. femur shaft: exostoses/bony
callus - l. calcaneum: m.v. - fusion r. 5th middle-distal foot
phalanges
7854 ?7828= c.1% l. adult ?male
7870 ?=8208 c.2% u. adult ??male

297
 a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: dental abscess: o.a. - ?distal
fibulae, proximal humeri, r. sterno-clavicular, bi-lateral hips, l.
temporo-mandibular: spina bifida occulta: Schmorl's -
c.95% older mature thoracic: d.d.d. - thoracic: o.p. - sacrum, atlas-axis, thoracic,
7881 ?male
s.a.u.l. adult lumbar: pitting - l. lateral clavicle: exostoses - proximal
femurs, patellae, distal tibiae, l. distal fibula, r. calcaneum, r.
tibia soleal line: ?slipped patellar ligament - l. tibia: m.v. –
wormians, sagittal crest
7883 &
7933=, c.22% older mature
7882 ?female o.p. - r. acetabulum: d.l. - l. scapula: m.v. - talus notch
6934/7887 a.u.l. adult
/790
7883 = 7882 <1% a. adult
7887 ?=7882 c.1% l. adult ?
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: dental abscesses: coxa vara:
c.86% younger mature spina bifida occulta: notch/d.l. - r. acetabular rim: o.p. -
7891 male
s.a.u.l. adult atlas-axis, thoracic: d.d.d. - thoracic: m.v. - abnormally short
1st metacarpal
7900 ?=7882 <1% l. subadult/adult
7910 missing
7933 =7882 c.1% l. adult
caries: p.d.: calculus: fracture - l. rib: spondylolysis - 5th
lumbar: Schmorl's - thoracic: d.d.d. - thoracic: exostoses -
patellae, r. calcaneum: erosive arthropathy - r. 1st metatarsal
c.95% older mature head: o.p. - atlas, thoracic, lumbar, 1st sacral, rib facets:
7944 ?
s.a.u.l. adult m.v. - retention maxillary r. deciduous canine & mis-aligned
eruption of permanent canine, incomplete eruption
mandibular r. permanent canine, impaction mandibular r. 3rd
molar
7955 ?
older a.m.t.l.: calculus: p.d.: dental abscesses: caries: d.d.d. -
c.45%
7966 mature/older ? cervical: o.a. - r. 1st metatarsal, cervical, thoracic, sacrum:
s.a.u.l.
adult o.p. - atlas
p.d.: calculus: fracture - r. fibula, ?r. tibia, r. 5th metacarpal,
r. proximal finger phalanx, r. 11th & 12th ribs: o.a. - l. foot 1st
phalangeal joint, shoulder joints, l. distal ulna, r. hip, cervical,
thoracic, costo-vertebral, r. temporo-mandibular: d.d.d. -
thoracic, lumbar: ?osteomylitis - r. 5th proximal foot phalanx:
eburnation - r. 5th metacarpal, r. radial tuberosity: o.p. - r.
c.97% older mature
7993 male distal & proximal ulna, r. scaphoid & lunate, r. distal radius, r.
s.a.u.l. adult
proximal finger phalanx, l. acetabulum, atlas-axis, thoracic,
lumbar, sacrum: erosive arthropathy - l. 5th proximal foot
phalanx head: exostoses - calcanea, l. tibia shaft, r. proximal
femur, r. patella, proximal ulnae, r. radial tuberosity:
periostitis - fibulae, r. tibia: d.l. - r. patella: ?d.l./?absence - l.
distal fibula: calcified thyroid cartilage
8016 no human bone
c.10% young infant (6-9
8090
s.a.u.l. months)
8148 ?=7649 <1% u. adult
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: o.a. - acetabulae, costo-vertebral, bi-
lateral temporo-mandibular: d.d.d. - sacral, lumbar, cervical:
Schmorl's - lumbar, thoracic: calcified thyroid cartilage: o.p. -
l. femur head, femoral medial condyles, r. calcaneum &
talus, r. cuboid & navicular, r. patella, 1st sacral, lumbar,
c.98% older mature/ cervical: d.l. - r. 2nd metatarsal, clavicle costo-clavicular
8162 male
s.a.u.l. older adult ligament: periostitis - r. calcaneum: exostoses - l.
calcaneum, patellae, distal fibulae, proximal femur, humerus
lesser tubercles, radial tuberosities: pitting - r. calcaneum &
talus, humerus lesser tubercles: m.v. - Vastus notch, bi-
lateral os acromiale, occipital 'bunning', ?retention
mandibular deciduous 2nd molar
8201 no human bone
8207 =? <1% l. adult ??male

298
 a.m.t.l.: caries: dental abscesses: periostitis - maxilla:
secondary sinusitis: p.d.: calculus: o.a. - shoulder joints, bi-
lateral sterno-clavicular, r. 1st metacarpo-phalangeal joint,
costo-vertebral, atlas-axis (gross), cervical (heavy), thoracic,
lumbar: fracture - 7 r. lower ribs inc. 11th & 12th, left rib:
d.d.d. - cervical, thoracic: Schmorl's - thoracic: smooth thick
c.90% new bone - r. side 8-12th thoracic: ankylosis - 3-4th cervical,
8208 ?7870= older adult ??male
s.a.u.l. r. 4th proximal & middle finger phalanges, 5th lumbar-1st
sacral: erosive arthropathy - r. 4th phalangeal joint: o.p. - l.
1st metatarsal head, l. proximal finger phalanx, r. 4th distal
finger phalanx, l. acetabular rim, thoracic, lumbar: exostoses
- l. 1st metatarsal shaft, l. tibia shaft, patellae, femur shafts, l.
radial tuberosity, l. proximal ulna, iliac crests: pitting - l. radial
tuberosity: m.v. - wormian
a.m.t.l.: p.d.: calculus: caries: dental abscesses: d.d.d. -
cervical: o.a. - cervical, costo-vertebral, r. 5th metatarsal
head: Schmorl's - lumbar, thoracic: calcified thyroid cartilage:
ankylosis – 8-9th thoracic: o.p. - proximal & distal ulnae,
scapulae, acetabular rims, femur heads, atlas-axis, cervical,
c.98%
8252 older adult male thoracic, lumbar: pitting - l. humerus tubercles, ischial
s.a.u.l.
tuberosities: cyst - l. humerus tubercle, r. scaphoid: pitting &
roughened surface - l. navicular & medial cuneiform:
exostoses - calcanea, patellae, tibiae tuberosities, r. distal
tibia, r. proximal & distal fibula, proximal ulnae, ischial
tuberosities: m.v. - metopism
older a.m.t.l.: caries: p.d.: calculus: dental abscesses: exostoses -
c.48%
8323 mature/older female l. patella: o.p. - atlas-axis: o.a. - costo-vertebral: m.v. -
s.a.u.l.
adult wormian
c.20% mature/older
8326 male exostoses - patella, calcanea
s.l. adult
u/s 160/205 no human bone
160/225
u/s c.1% l. adult ?female
=?

5266 missing
5681 missing
5756 missing
L3, 2475
F192 c.1% u. adult
?=
L4, 2636
F196 c.1% u. adult
?=
511 =566 c.1% s.u. adult ??female
726 ?=696 c.1% l. adult exostoses - patella
1802/ c.37% older mature p.d.: calculus: spina bifida occulta: o.a. - costo-vertebral:
1801/ male
1804 s.a.u.l. adult m.v. - sacralisation lowest lumbar

Table 125: summary of results, BAL-15

Key
Number: numbers F192 and F196 are from BAL-5; numbers 224-2841 are from BAL-12, with the
exception of 1801-4, which is from BAL-31; „Sq 21‟ is from BAL-13; all other contexts are
from BAL-15.
Where bone from a non-discrete inhumation context was found to originate from a burial,
that context number is given e.g. =4799. Where bone from a burial was recovered from
another context, that context number is given e.g. 4935=. If, in either case, the equation is
not secure, the statement is question-marked '?'. Where parts of a second individual were
present in a burial, that individual may be denoted as 'a)'.
Quantification: The approximate percentage of the skeleton represented is given, with a note of the
skeletal elements.
age/sex/pathology: Where more than one individual is represented, the second individual is denoted as
'a)' in age, sex and pathology fields.
Pathology: A summary of the lesion type or, where possible, the disease, noted in each inhumation,
with the bone/bone groups affected.
Key
General Pathology
crem. cremated d.l. destructive lesions
inh. unburnt p.d. periodontal disease
d.d.d degenerative disc disease
% skeleton & elements o.a. osteoarthritis

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 s. skull o.p. osteophytes
a. axial m.v. morphological variation
u. upper limb l. left
l. lower limb r. right
a.m.t.l. ante mortem tooth loss

Discussion

Bone preservation
In general, the condition of the bone was good. In a few contexts, spongy bone particularly was in poor
condition and in several instances vertebrae had disintegrated. In some contexts all bone was heavily
root marked.
Recovery of bone from the adult graves was good, except where there had been disturbance by later
grave cuts. Most inhumations were represented by >75% of the skeleton, many over 90%, with a
maximum of c 98%. The bones most commonly absent, even where recovery was good, were the
sternum/manubrium/xiphoid, coccyx, and hyoid, and no inhumation had all hand and foot phalanges.
Neonate/young infant inhumations often comprised only a few long bone diaphyses and unerupted tooth
crowns, not an unusual feature with such immature skeletal remains.
In many cases, although bone recovery and condition was good, there was much fragmentation of the
bone. Some of this was as a result of ancient disturbance, but many of the breaks were fresh, and
apparently the result of earth moving machinery damage to the site prior to actual excavation.

Demography
A minimum of 184 individuals were identified from the inhumed bone assemblage. These comprised 56
(43%) immature, 125 (67.9%) adults and 3 (1.6%) subadult/adults. The ratio between individuals of 0-1
yr. and 0-20 yr. is a minimum of 30 to a maximum of 75, i.e. 1:2.5 ratio. This falls within the ratio range
expected in a 'normal' population, i.e. a modern series, which as demonstrated by Brothwell (1971), is
between 3:4 and 1:4. This implies that the 0-1 year age range may be fully represented within the
cemetery population. In some societies, including the Romano-British, individuals of less than one year
were buried outside the cemetery area. This can be demonstrated at Baldock itself, both with inhumation
burials, where individuals of this age were found buried in settlement areas but are absent from the
cemetery, as at Wallington Road, and in the cremation burials at BAL-15, where no individuals of less
than one year were found, although in the latter case, cultural influences may not be the cause. The
fragile bones of such young individuals are often subject to preferential destruction in burial environments,
particularly where a site has been disturbed, and to preferential loss in the cremation process.
Foetus 1 Older subadult/young adult 1
foetus/neonate 6 young adult 7
neonate 15 young/younger mature adult 2
neonate/young infant 1 younger mature adult 8
young infant 14 mature adult 6
infant 2 older mature adult 24
older infant 3 older mature/older adult 30
young juvenile 1 mature/older adult 2
juvenile 1 older adult 39
older juvenile 4 old adult 6
older juvenile/young subadult 1 subadult 3
adult 1 older subadult 3
immature 1 subadult/adult 2
Table 126: number of individuals in each age category identified from the inhumation burials in
BAL-15
At BAL-15, 16.3% of the population were identified as between 0-1 yr., compared with, for example,
<5.2% for the contemporary cemetery at Cirencester (Wells 1982). However, the grave cuts for these
individuals were often very difficult to distinguish or non-existent, and the skeletal remains often poorly-
represented. It is possible, with shallow graves, if the area was subject to heavy use and possible
scavenging by rodents (see below), that other young infant inhumations may have been erased from the
record.
The percentage of immature individuals from the inhumations in BAL-15, 30.4%, is greater than from the
cremation burials in the same area, 21%. This discrepancy is probably, at least in part, in consequence of
a number of young infants missing from the population of the cremation cemetery as a result of the
pressures of cremation and site disturbance (see this volume). However, from the contemporary
inhumation cemetery at Cirencester, Wells (1982) found only 16.5% of the population to be immature,

300
and from BAL-1 cemetery, Roberts (above) had only 10.6% immature. This may represent a variance in
the population structure, or may be an artefact of differing immature bone preservation between the sites.
Amongst the 125 (67.9%) adults, the median age of death falls within the 'older mature adult' age group:
30-45 years. The category with the largest number of individuals is the 'older adult' (45+ yr.), with 39
(30.7%), with only 7 (5.6%) in the 'young adult' category and a further 6 (4.8%) in the 'old adult‟ (50+ yr.)
group.
From a potential 135 sexable individuals, 124 (91.8%, 67% of the total population) were sexed, with
varying degrees of confidence. 40.3% of the sexed individuals were female (27% of total population) and
59.8% were male (40% of the total).
This higher proportion of males than females is not as extreme as that noted by Wells (1982) at
Cirencester, where 57.2% of the population was identified as male and 25.7% as female. A similarly
higher proportion of males to females was noted amongst the inhumation burials from St Stephens,
Verulamium (McKinley 1992), where 35.4% of those sexed were female and 62.5% male. From BAL-1,
Roberts recorded more females than males, at 41.7% and 33.3% respectively.
The median age for both male and female was in the 'older mature/older adult' age category, the greatest
number in one group for both sexes being in the 'older adult' group. There is, therefore, no detectable
difference in the adult life expectancy for females and males.
An estimate of population size can be made only where the time scale of cemetery use is known
(Ubelaker 1974). Even then, such an estimate is based on the unlikely assumption that the size of
population using the cemetery was constant over time. It is also necessary to derive the Crude Mortality
Rate for the cemetery (Ubelaker 1974), via a 'best fit' comparison with known annual death rates (Hooton
1920, 21). There is a problem with the possibility of an unknown number of missing infants (see above).
Any population estimate made from cemetery population figures will, perforce, only ever provide a crude
estimate of population size.
At Baldock, it is known that a number of cemeteries were in use at the same time. In view of these
restrictions, the writer considered it unsuitable to estimate population size on only one part of the towns'
cemeteries.

Stature Estimation and Skeletal Indices

It was possible to estimate the stature of 43 females and 68 males, i.e. 58.1% of individuals identified.
Females Males
Average estimated height: 1.578 m (c 5‟ 2”). Average estimated height: 1.694 m (5‟ 6.75”).
Range: 1.501 m (c 4‟ 11”) to 1.689 m (c 5‟ 6.75”). Range: 1.512 m (4‟ 11.5”) to 1.810 m (5‟ 11.25”).
The minimum heights are very close, to within 11 mm, but the average male is 116 mm (4.5”) taller than
the average female and the tallest male is 120 mm (4.75”) taller than the tallest female.
Both averages and maximum figures are greater than noted at St Stephens (McKinley 1992), by between
30-140 mm, with the greatest increase in estimates of female stature. The figures are almost exactly the
same as those obtained by Wells (1982) from Cirencester. Roberts' study of the inhumations from BAL-1
found an average 1.67 m stature estimation for males and 1.59 m for females, whilst at Gambier Parry
Lodge, Gloucester (Roberts & Cameron 1984), the estimates were 1.70 m and 1.53 m respectively. There
is a slight variance between these two groups and the BAL-15 population, but not to any significant
degree.
Skull measurements to enable the calculation of cranial index were taken from 79 inhumations, 41.4% of
identified individuals, including 31 females and 44 males (Table 105).
There is no significant difference between the sexes. These figures compare closely with Wells (1982) for
the males, but the females figures are at variance, though not to any significant degree.
dolichocranial mesocranial brachycranial
(long-headed) (round-headed)
Female 15 (48.4%) 12 (38.1%) 4 (12.9%)
Male 24 (54.5%) 16 (36.4%) 4(9.1%)
Total 40 (50.6%) 29 (36.7%) 10 (12.6%)
Table 127: cranial index, BAL-15
Platymeric and platycnemic indices were calculated from 118 femora and 112 tibiae. The platymeric index
is a measure of the anterior-posterior flattening of the proximal, sub-trochanteric femur shaft; the
platycnemic index is a measure of the medio-lateral flattening of the tibia shaft at the nutrient foramen.
The significance of these conditions is unclear, but agencies believed to be responsible included
mechanical stress on the bone, diet and pathological conditions (Brothwell 1972) (Tables 106 and 107).
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 Platymeric Eurymeric Stenomeric
Female 40 (95.2%) 1 (2.4%) 1 (2.4%)
Male 58 (81.7%) 13 (18.3%)
Total 103 (87.3%) 14 (11.9%) 1 (0.8%)
Table 128: platymeric index: distribution, BAL-15
Platycnemic Eurycnemic Mesocnemic
Female 28 (71.8%) 11 (28.2%)
Male 5 (7.3%) 35 (51.5%) 28 (41.0%)
Total 6 (5.4%) 65 (58.0%) 41(36.6%)
Table 129: platycnemic index: distribution, BAL-15
The vast majority of the femora measured were in the platymeric range, with a preponderance of females
in this group – a common feature. One female femur, 7392(7392), fell just inside the stenomeric range, a
rare phenomenon found only in pathological cases according to Bass (1985). This individual did show
pronounced anterior bowing in both femoral shafts and coxa vara (see below), which may have been
related conditions. The figures are very similar to those Wells (1982) obtained from Cirencester. Roberts'
figures for BAL-1, whilst still showing the highest proportion in the platymeric group, 76% for females and
65.5% for males, does have a greater percentage in the eurymeric range.
There was slightly more variance between the sexes in the platycnemic index, with the majority of
females being in the eurycnemic range, and the males having a more varied distribution. The figures are
also more at variance with those of Wells (1982), which do not differ greatly for the males, but males and
females at Cirencester had almost identical distributions. In BAL-1 (Roberts above), as here, only males
were in the platycnemic range, 8.3%, but almost equal numbers of males and females were in the
mesocnemic range, 8% and 41.7% respectively.

Decapitation
Nine inhumations from BAL-15 were designated as 'decapitations' during excavation. Of these, two,
5674(5675) and 5692(5686), are definite, with supporting osteological evidence; one, 5521(5532), is
probable; two, 5652(5665) and 7471(7450), are possible; only the mandible remained of the skull in
7317(7302); the remaining three have no evidence – osteological or firm contextual – to support the
interpretation.
Inhumations 5154(5247) and 5332(5336) were disturbed by later grave cuts, with redeposition of various
parts of the skeletons, not just the skulls. Fragments of skull, vertebrae and phalanges from 5154(5247)
were redeposited at the foot end of the grave for inhumation 5309(5248). The cranium of inhumation
5332(5336) sat on the lid of the coffin, some 0.3 m higher than the rest of the skeleton in a complex
grave, with chalk packing down the sides of the coffin and evidence that it stood open at this level before
final backfilling, with the skull visible on the coffin lid. In 5900(5896), the evidence for decapitation seems
to consist of the mandible having dropped down on to the chest whilst the rest of the skull rolled back;
such a separation of these skull elements is not unusual.
A second skull, 5716(5665), was found at the feet of inhumation 5637(5635). This may have been an
accidental deposition of a disturbed skull during back filling, or the deliberate but incidental inclusion of a
previously disturbed skull knocking about on the ground surface of the cemetery. Alternatively, it may
have been a deliberate deposit. The evidence for decapitation in inhumation 7471(7450) is tenuous; the
skull was found at one side of the grave in the chest area, supposedly together with some vertebrae (?).
However, it may not have been deliberately placed there. The grave was shallow and plough damaged,
the head end of the grave had an upward gradient which must have placed the head at an angle, if it was
in anatomical position; the skull itself was very badly smashed and the vertebral bodies had disintegrated.
Whilst not impossible that this was a decapitation, there is much evidence to suggest disturbance as the
cause for the movement of the skull, and the suggestion should be treated as tentative.
The mandible was all that remained of the skull in inhumation 7317(7302). The cervical vertebrae were
also all present. The inhumation as a whole was not in very good condition and rather fragmentary, but
there were no obvious signs of trauma to either the mandible or the cervical vertebrae. It is unlikely that
the head would be severed leaving only the mandible in place, and in this instance, post depositional
removal of the skull, probably once most of the soft tissues had decayed, should be considered a
probability.
Burial 5521(5532) was a supine, extended inhumation, almost complete except for the skull and the atlas
vertebra. There was no sign of trauma in any of the remaining cervical vertebrae. The obvious implication
is that this individual was decapitated, presumably through the atlas vertebra. Decapitation via the atlas
appears to be very rare, the mid-cervical being the more common area (Harman et al. 1981; Manchester
1983). One such decapitation was reported by Wells from Cirencester (1982), adult female inhumation R,
but in this instance, not surprisingly in view of the articulation of the atlas and the axis vertebrae, the

302
odontoid process of the axis had also been severed. No such severance had occurred to the axis from
5521(5532), which would, at least, suggest any blow could not have been administered from back to front
in the same way as in the Cirencester case.
Evidence from 5692(5686) indicates decapitation. One, un-numbered, cervical vertebra had a clean
diagonal slice in the anterior-inferior body, from the anterior mid point to halfway through the inferior body;
the upper part of the body was disturbed by a later cut and redeposited, consequently, the position of the
various skeletal elements in the grave is uncertain.
The decapitation of inhumation 5674(5675) was indicated in excavation, where the skull was found
placed on its right side, between the distal femora, in an undisturbed grave (Plate 55). The individual was
identified as an older subadult, possibly female, and had been buried with an array of grave goods (see
DVD_ROM catalogue). In this instance, there is clear osteological evidence to support the contextual
interpretation (McKinley 1993b). The atlas and the superior portion of the axis vertebra were found in
position with the skull, i.e. between the femora, whilst the inferior portion of the axis, together with the five
other cervical vertebrae, were in situ with the rest of the spine. The atlas vertebra, although broken,
showed no signs of trauma, nor did the third cervical vertebra. The head had been removed from the
body at the axis vertebra via a minimum of six cuts (Plate 56).

Plate 55: Decapitated inhumation

5674(5675)
Plate 56: Cuts on the axis of
5674(5675)
In the anterior of the odontoid process
there were three cuts; the first was 1.3
mm below the facet, the second 1 mm
below the first, and the third 3.3 mm
below the second. All were slightly angled, being a few millimetres higher at the left end of the cut than at
the right, and all were at an angle of 50-80 degrees. The first and second cuts are fairly shallow – a
maximum of 2 mm deep. The third is a slightly deeper cut, and the rest of the vertebra appears to have
been broken through at this point, suggesting it was 'snapped off', severing the odontoid process from the
rest of the vertebra. The fourth cut is in the left superior body of the axis, and also truncated the left
superior articular surface. This cut differs in angle and direction to those through the odontoid process,
but is similar to the other two cuts in the lower portion of the vertebra. The fifth cut is at an angle through
the lower body and across the left side of the posterior arch, penetrating 18 mm into the vertebral body
and through the left side, removing the left inferior articular process. This cut is higher at the right end

303
than the left and at an angle of c 110 degrees. The sixth cut removed the tip of the right inferior articular
process at the same angle as the fourth and fifth. It was noted that the left anterior portion of the
mandibular mental process, the chin, was sheared off, and the cut is likely to have been inflicted during
the decapitation.
These cuts appear to have been made with a narrow blade and administered as blows rather than by
drawing the blade across the bone. This would imply the use of a short sword or long knife, with a narrow,
sharp blade, but substantial enough to administer blows with. A heavy axe would not have produced such
cuts, nor would a short knife such as might be used for cutting the throat.
The angle and orientation of the cuts suggests either right handed blows from the inferior right hand side,
or left handed blows from the superior left hand side, i.e. in relation to the head of the presumably supine
individual.
It is not possible to deduce the exact order in which these blows were inflicted. Neither the odontoid
process nor the vertebral body was completely severed, it appears that the superior portion, plus head,
was snapped/broken off once sufficiently weakened by repeated blows. Since most of the soft tissues in
the neck would have been cut through prior to the bone, the blows coming from the front, a quick thrust
back of the head once the bone was weakened would have been sufficient to crack through the rest of it.
In order to remove the head at this high level, from the front and without damaging any other bones, it
would have been necessary to thrust the head back as far as possible to give clear access to the axis.
That no other vertebrae were damaged in what was apparently a prolonged process, points to the
decapitator's accuracy of aim.
Six decapitations were reported by Wells (1982) from the contemporary cemetery at Cirencester; four
were administered from behind and two from the front, through one or more vertebrae from the atlas to
the fifth cervical, only one vertebra was cut through cleanly. At Lankhills (Clarke 1979), seven
decapitations were recorded, four of which presented osteological evidence; the head was removed from
the front in each case, between the third and fourth cervical, apparently with a knife and ostentatious
care, since none of the vertebral bodies were actually severed. Two clear decapitations have been
reported from Poundbury (Molleson 1993), both by single blows from front to rear through the first
thoracic vertebra. It has occasionally been noted (Harman et al. 1981) in Romano-British decapitations,
that the mandible showed signs of trauma, such as may be indicated in this case. In a few other
instances, there was evidence of more than one blow being administered, but no evidence for as many as
noted to 5674(5675).
It is not possible to ascertain whether the decapitation of inhumation 5674(5675) was carried out ante or
post mortem. The evidence does not suggest that this was the burial of an executed criminal; the grave
goods are some of the most elaborate recovered within the cemetery; the head was removed via the
apparently less common method (Harman et al. 1981; Manchester 1983) of front to rear, through a single
upper cervical vertebra, using a minimum of six blows; and the burial is in the central area of the
cemetery, in no way 'set aside' from the other burials. That a murderer would have removed the head in
such a way also seems unlikely. There were no apparent traits to imply this may have been a sacrificial
victim of the mode suggested for the decapitations at Lankhills (Clarke 1979). The writer feels it most
probable that the decapitation of this subadult took place post mortem and may have carried a ritual
aspect, the reasons for which are open to debate (McKinley 1993b).

Pathology
A summary list of lesions/pathological conditions noted in each skeleton may be found in Table 103, with
bone/bone groups affected. It should be noted that the 'bone group' may include, for example, more than
one cervical vertebra, several finger phalanges or more than one metatarsal.

Dental disease
115 (62.5% of population) individuals showed some form of dental disease. A total of 2685 teeth were
recovered and 3271 sockets were available for examination. In total, 3498 possible tooth positions were
represented. It should be noted that figures do not include unerupted tooth positions. More mandibles
than maxillae survived burial, the one being considerably more robust than the other (Table 130).
mandible maxilla
left right left right
Female 42 43 40 40
Male 66 62 53 56
Unsexed 23 26 13 11
Total 131 131 106 107
Table 130: Numbers of maxillae and mandibles, BAL-15

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Ante mortem tooth loss was observed in 83 individuals. A total of 453/3498 (12.9%) teeth were lost ante
mortem (Table 131). Maxillary tooth loss was noticeably greater than mandibular. The majority of tooth
loss occurred in the molar teeth, with the anterior teeth being least affected.
198/1882 mandibular teeth were lost 10.5%
255/1685 maxillary teeth were lost 15.1%
145/1134 female teeth were lost 12.8%
267/1808 male teeth were lost 14.8%
Table 131: Distribution of ante mortem tooth loss in BAL-15
These figures are lower than those noted by Roberts in BAL-1, where there was an overall figure of
16.7% tooth loss (29.5% for males and 43.4% for females). Figures from Cirencester (Wells 1982) were
slightly lower, with an 8.5% overall loss (7.3% for males, 11.4% for females). Roberts & Cameron (1984)
recorded still lower percentages at Gloucester, with 3.5% female and 8.4% male tooth loss. In the latter
population, as in BAL-15, the loss was higher amongst males than females.
Tooth loss tends to increase with age and may be related to one or more factors. Diet and dental hygiene
may influence other dental diseases which predispose to tooth loss. Excess wear of teeth will eventually
lead to their loss, but may be precipitated by periodontal disease, a gum infection which may cause bone
resorption and thereby, loosening of teeth. 95 individuals (72.5%) from BAL-15 had some degree of
periodontal disease, including the vast majority of those with ante mortem tooth loss. Resultant alveolar
bone resorption was most acute in the distal portions of both mandibles and maxillae.
Periodontal disease may also lead to tooth loss by exposing more of the tooth surface to caries attack.
Dental caries were noted in 87 dentitions: 286/2685 (10.6%) of teeth were carious.
145/1568 mandibular teeth have carious lesions 9.2%
141/1177 maxillary teeth have carious lesions 12.0%
77/856 female teeth have carious lesions 9.0%
194/1384 male teeth have carious lesions 14.0%
Table 132: distribution of dental caries in BAL-15
There is the same distribution as that noted for tooth loss, with greater numbers of maxillary teeth
affected and a higher percentage of males than females. Wells (1982) found a much lower caries rate at
Cirencester, with an overall percentage of 5.1%, 5.4% female and 5% male. The rates for Gloucester
(Roberts & Cameron 1984) and BAL-1 (Roberts above) were closer to those noted in BAL-15, with 11.1%
and 8% carious teeth respectively. In BAL-1, as at Cirencester, the rate for females was slightly higher
than for males, 8.5% as opposed to 7.7%.
Individuals were noted to have between one and nine carious teeth; occasionally one tooth had several
different lesions. 24.1% of carious dentitions had only one remaining carious tooth; 21.8% had three
carious teeth; 14.9% had two; 12.6% had four or five; 7% had six; 3.4%, seven; 2.3%, eight and 1.1%,
nine.
The majority of lesions (50%) were in the molar teeth; 19.4% in the first molar, 16.9% in the second, and
13.7% in the third. 27.7% of lesions were in the premolars; 14.4% in the second, 13.3% in the first. 11.9%
of lesions were in the first or second incisors and 10.4% in the canines. In many instances, the lesion was
so gross as to obscure the point of origin. Where point of origin was evident, 15.1% were occlusal and
84.9% cervical; the distribution of the latter was 37.1% mesial, 30.3% distal, 14.4% buccal and 3.0%
lingual/palatal.
Carious lesions frequently occurred in inhumations where there was evidence of ante mortem tooth loss
and periodontal disease.
Dental calculus (calcified plaque) reflects the level of dental hygiene and harbours the bacteria which
predispose to periodontal disease and cause dental caries. The relatively high level of caries in BAL-15
indicates poor dental hygiene and a high carbohydrate diet (Hillson 1986). Calculus deposits were noted
on the teeth of 89 dentitions, most commonly on the buccal and labial surfaces of the teeth. Most deposits
were of medium level, though in a few instances gross calculus covering the occlusal surfaces, generally
of the left or right teeth only, were noted. Some degree of calculus was observed in almost all adult
dentitions and in some juvenile-subadult dentitions.
Dental abscesses most frequently develop as a consequence of carious infection tracking down from the
tooth to the socket. Extreme wear of teeth may expose the pulp cavity which may also lead to infection
(Hillson 1986). Ante mortem loss of the tooth may occur following destruction of the root and supportive
structure of the tooth. 71 individuals had dental abscesses: 217/3425 (6.6%).
94/1799 in mandibular alveolus 5.2%
123/1472 in maxillary alveolus 8.4%
52/1102 in female dentitions 4.7%

305
 147/1715 in male dentitions 8.6%
Table 133: distribution of dental abscesses in BAL-15
As noted with other dental lesions, incidence was greater in the maxillary dentition and in males. In their
gross form, these lesions may track from one socket to another, or exit through the bone via a sinus. Most
commonly these lesions exit buccally, but one individual did show lesions from the maxillary first molars
exiting both buccally and palatally. In some instances this may result in surface new bone formation on
the mandibular or maxillary body adjacent to the abscess sinus, as in the maxillae of 8143(8208) and
7523(7522).
A maxillary lesion may also track superiorly, and exit via a fistula into the antrum sinus cavity. This spread
of infection may result in secondary sinusitis, demonstrated by a surface covering of infective new bone
over the floor and sometimes the walls of the antrum (Wells 1977). Three individuals showed the
presence of a fistula in the antrum floor in association with dental abscesses in the maxilla. In two, there
was no indication of any infection within the antrum; in one other, it was not possible to see into the
antrum to ascertain whether the infection had spread. Two other individuals - 7581(5782), a mature adult
male, and 8143(8208), an older adult male – presented evidence for secondary sinusitis. Both had
sinuses draining from carious/abscess lesions in maxillary molars, with slight new bone over the floor of
the antrum.
Dental hypoplasia is a developmental defect in the tooth enamel, formed in response to growth arrest in
the immature individual. Predominant causes are believed to include periods of illness or nutritional stress
(Hillson 1979). A few faint lines of hypoplasia were noted in the dentition of 11 individuals from BAL-15.
The evidence would suggest this population was not under any great nutritional or chronic pathological
stress in childhood.
Hypercementosis was noted in one or two teeth of three individuals, generally the third molars. This is a
harmless condition, involving the excessive formation of secondary cementation, usually in the lower two
thirds of the root. A number of factors may affect its formation, such as ageing, periapical inflammation,
mechanical stimulation, or tooth trauma.

Congenital abnormalities
In view of the often fatal nature of these abnormalities which are present at birth, few cases are recorded
in archaeological material (Manchester 1983). Spina bifida occulta, the lesser, and pathologically
insignificant form of spina bifida, was noted in the spines of one female and three males. The condition is
manifest by a defect in the bony spine of the vertebra, which is incomplete. The defect is generally
apparent in one or more segments of the sacrum, which is the case here. The condition produces no
significant symptoms (Manchester 1983).

Deficiency disease
Dental hypoplasia has already been discussed above (Section I above).
Cribra orbitalia is manifest as pitting in the roof of one or both orbits, and is believed to result from a
metabolic disorder connected with childhood iron deficiency anaemia. 125 (21.6%) individuals from BAL-
15 had pitting to varying degrees of severity in one or both orbits. Twelve females (33.3%), twelve males
(19.3%) and three unsexed individuals (11.1%). Similar figures were obtained by Roberts (above), from
the BAL-1 cemetery.
Two elderly females, 7212(7174b) and 7393(7392), had pronounced anterior bowing of the femur shafts;
the shafts of 7174b were also bowed laterally. One older mature male, 4429(4418), had anterior bowing
in the right femur shaft. Such bowing may have occurred as a result of infantile rickets or nutritional
osteomalacia, the adult counterpart of infantile rickets. Both diseases develop in response to a deficiency
in vitamin D, and often of calcium, in the diet, and osteomalacia is most commonly seen in elderly
females (Adams 1986). The resultant 'softening' of the bone may lead to deformity under weight stress.
The two females also had the condition coxa vara (see below), which may result from softening of the
bone such as one finds in rickets or osteomalacia. The platymeric index of 7393(7392) was within the
stenomeric range, which may also be associated with this condition. The eleventh thoracic in 4429(4418)
was 'wedged' with anterior collapse of the vertebral body. Such an occurrence is also a feature of
osteomalacia (Manchester 1983). It should be noted that the vertebrae were missing from 7212(7174b)
and those in 7393(7392) showed no unusual compression.

Trauma
Trauma directly involving the bone is evident from fractures, often in the form of bony calluses over
healed fracture sites. Wounds, inflicted either accidentally or deliberately, may be evident, with or without
signs of healing.

306
Some soft tissue trauma may also be indicated by exostoses/enthesopathies at tendon or ligament
insertions, implying muscle/ligament strains or ruptures. In some cases, periostitis may illustrate soft
tissue trauma, where infection has spread to the underlying bone. These lesions may both be present in
association with fractured bones, and demonstrate simultaneous bone and soft tissue injury.
In BAL-15, 57 fractures were recorded in 25 individuals. Ten fractures in eight females (15%) and 47
fractures in 17 males (23%). Individuals were noted to have between one and eight fracture sites.
Fractures were observed only in adults. Table 134 gives the distribution of fracture sites.
Fractures to the ribs were by far the most common. All were well healed with negligible mis-alignment.
Fractures to the rib are most commonly caused by a direct blow, such as a fall against a hard object
(Adams 1987), or a deliberate blow to the chest by an assailant. In the latter case, the fracture is more
likely to be in the left than the right side (Wells 1982). One female, 4845(4837), had fractures in two left
ribs. Twelve males had fractures in between one to eight ribs; seven in one rib, four left (5278(5180),
5902(5901), 7352(7344) and 7557(7556)) and three right (5900(5896), 5942(5960) and 6979(6932)); two
in two ribs, both left, 5780(5779), or both right, 7994(7993); four left in 7186(6995); three left and three
right in 7252(7241); and seven right and one left in 8143(8208). Multiple bi-lateral fractures suggest a
severe crushing injury (Wells 1982).
Fracture site Female Male Total
Rib 2 29 31
Tibia 1 3 4
Fibula 2 2 4
Ulna 1 4 5
Clavicle 2 2 4
Metacarpal 1 2 3
Femur 2 2
Superior ischio-pubic crest 1 1
Finger phalanx 1 1
Nasal bone 1 1
Radius 1 1
Total number: 10 47 57
Table 134: distribution of fractures from BAL-15
Five of the males also had fractures in other bones, some of which may have occurred simultaneously.
5278(5180) had fractures in the right tibia and fibula and left second metacarpal; 5942(5960) had
fractures in the distal right ulna and femur (Plate 57), and the nasal bone; 7186(6995) had fractures in the
left femur; the right ulna and radius of 7252(7241) were fractured; and the right tibia, fibula, fifth
metacarpal and proximal phalanx from 7994(7993) were all fractured.
Two males and one female had associated fractures in the tibia and fibula; 5278(5180) right, 7994(7993)
right and 7154(7117) left, respectively. One male, 7504(7503), had a fracture in the left tibia, and one
female 7381(7366), had a fracture in the right fibula.
The right tibia and fibula of 5278(5180) have well-healed fractures at different levels, probably resulting
from the exertion of a rotational force (Adams 1987). The tibia was fractured in the lower third of the shaft,
with disto-lateral misalignment resulting in a minimum of 20 mm shortening of the bone (Plate 58). The
fibula shaft was fractured in the proximal portion, and suffered similar shortening. The two bones are
ankylosed by a 32×16 mm 'bridge' of smooth bone at the site of the tibial fracture. Heavy exostoses along
sites of tendon/ligament attachments are testament to simultaneous soft tissue trauma. Slight periosteal
new bone inferior to the ankylosis suggests this was a compound fracture. This individual also has a well-
healed but misaligned mid-proximal shaft fracture in the left second metacarpal. The bone is shortened
with thick bony callusing. This type of fracture often results from a fall on the hand (Adams 1987). The
fractures to rib, tibia, fibula and metacarpal may have occurred together, probably as the result of a bad
fall.

307
 Plate 57: Fractured femur of (5960)
Plate 58: Fractured tibia and fibula
of (5180)
Fractures to the right tibia and fibula of
7994(7993) are at a similar level in the
distal third of the shafts, which would
suggest an angulatory force. There is
no misalignment, and only slight mild
callusing, with slight exostoses and
periosteal new bone suggestive of associated soft tissue injury. As in 5278(5180), a metacarpal was also
fractured, though in this case the fractures may not have been associated (see below). Fractures to the
ribs may have been sustained at the same time.
Fracture via angulatory force is indicated in the distal thirds of the left tibia and fibula shafts of
7154(7117). The distal shaft of the tibia is twisted slightly anterior medial, with a 3.5 mm sinus in the bony
callus. The fibula is well healed with no displacement.
Isolated fractures to the fibula are rare and usually indicate a direct blow to the bone (Adams 1987).
7381(7366) had a well-healed fracture in the distal shaft with slight bony callusing. An area of periosteal
new bone over the adjacent shaft suggests associated soft tissue trauma, with subsequent infection of
the bone.
The left tibia of 7504(7503) had an isolated fracture in the distal shaft, well aligned with slight, smooth
bony callusing.
Fractures to the ulna shaft may occur in consequence of either a direct blow or an indirect force such as a
fall on the hand (Adams 1987). There is a well-healed fracture in the distal shaft of the right ulna of
5942(5960), 65 mm proximal to the head. The lesion was masked by 60 mm area of periosteal new bone.
There is also considerable endosteal new bone resulting in severe narrowing of the medullary cavity. The
infection seems likely to be associated with the fracture, and is indicative of soft tissue trauma. The same
individual has a well-healed, mis-aligned fracture in the right distal femur shaft, the distal shaft being
displaced dorsally and slightly medial, with a minimum 25 mm shortening in length (Plate 59) Such a
fracture usually results from severe violence, for example, a road accident in the present day (Adams
1987). That there were few degenerative lesions such as might be expected to develop as a result of the
forced change in gait, would suggest this individual either did not long survive his injury, or was confined
in his movements. This individual had received a direct and violent blow to the face as demonstrated by
the fracture to the nasal bone (Plate 60). The blow appears to have been from the left side and angled
308
downwards, displacing the inferior portion of the bone down and to the right; the left half was pushed flat.
It is unlikely that fractures to the ribs, ulna, nose and femur were received together. The fractured nose
would suggest a fight, during which the ulna may also have been broken as a 'parry' fracture. The break
to the femur was obviously the result of a more serious event.
Plate 59: Fractured nasal bone of (5960)
Plate 60: Fractured radius and ulna of (7241)
The right ulna in 7252(7241) has two fractures, both in the distal shaft c 50 mm apart, the most distal
being c 30 mm from the distal head. The right radius is also fractured, the site falling between the two in
the ulna (Plate 5). The fractures were all misaligned and consequently shortened, by a minimum of 12
mm in the ulna and 18 mm in the radius. The distal articular surfaces of both bones thereby misaligned,
and degenerative changes had developed in the wrist joints as a result. These injuries, together with the
multiple bi-lateral fractures to the ribs, suggest a crushing accident.
Isolated fractures in the distal ulna were noted in 7491(7490) and 7335(7364), with slight lateral
displacement of the distal shaft in the former. Slight bony callusing on the distal lateral border of the
extensor indicis attachment of the ulna shaft in 7212(7655), may indicate tendon/muscle subluxation
rather than fracture.
7186(6995) appears to have sustained gross multiple compound fractures to the left femur, with resultant
periostitis and osteomyelitis (Plate 61). Unfortunately, the gross pathological condition of this bone
rendered it fragile and some damage was sustained on excavation, which made clear identification of the
lesions as a whole difficult. There is gross periosteal new bone in the mid shaft, with exuberant reactive
bone, and an open, smooth margined lesion in the anterior shaft (20×5 mm minimum); this is a probable
fracture site. The distal shaft also had a covering of gross periosteal new bone, with a well-healed, slightly
mis-aligned fracture, and a 7 mm diameter sinus. Shattered bone fragments from between the mid- and
distal shaft show the presence of a minimum of one other sinus with destruction of the medullary cavity,
endosteal new bone, and gross periosteal new bone. These lesions and those in the ribs (see above),
were probably sustained as a result a severe crushing incident or fall from some height. Gross destructive
lesions in the proximal articular surface of the left tibia, may be associated with lesions noted in the femur,
with lesions also being noted in the distal articular surface.
Plate 61: Femur of (6995), showing periostitis and osteomyelitis resulting from compound
fractures
Most fractures to the clavicle are caused by a fall on the shoulder (Adams 1987). Less commonly, a
fracture may result from a direct blow or fall on the outstretched hand. Four isolated fractures were noted,
two in the right; 7212(7174c), 7523(7522), and two in the left bone; 7789(7742), 7853(7852). Two were
mid-shaft fractures, 7212(7174c), 7789(7742), with misalignment, resulting in 20 mm shortening in
7212(7174c). 7523(7522) was in the medial shaft. 7853(7852) was in the lateral shaft with gross
misalignment and associated exostoses.
The right fifth metacarpal and proximal phalanx of 7994(7993), both have well healed, misaligned
fractures. The metacarpal was fractured proximal to the head and displaced palmar wise, where it fused
at a c 25° angle (Plate 62). This is a common type of fracture (Adams 1987), and may have resulted from
a blow on the knuckles. The fifth proximal phalanx shows a transverse mid-shaft fracture with palmar wise
angling of the distal portion at 45°. It is probable these injuries were sustained in the course of an
altercation. Eburnation and osteophytes in the metacarpal head illustrate subsequent osteoarthritis.
Plate 62: Misaligned fractures in fifth metacarpal and proximal phalanx of (7993)
The right fourth metacarpal of female 7826(7825), had a well-healed, mid-shaft fracture, with mild bony
callusing. Probably the result of a fall on the hand.
Mild bony callusing was noted on the left pubic crest, close to the acetabulum, in 7610(7282). There is
also slight periosteal new bone on the inferior anterior ilium, adjacent to the acetabulum, and on the pubic
crest. This may indicate a fracture of the superior ischio-pubic ramus, with associated soft tissue trauma.
Such fractures are usually caused by direct injury (Adams 1987).
The proximal tuberosity of the left tibia in 7918(7881) is unusually small, with bony callusing in the
anterior border immediately inferior to the tuberosity – 44 mm proximal-distal, 17 mm medio-lateral. This
may indicate some trauma in the patella ligament with subsequent relocation to the callus site.
5780(5779), an older adult male, has a well-healed opening in the anterior parietals, commencing 4.0 mm
anterior to the junction of the coronal sagittal metopic sutures, and straddling the anterior sagittal suture.
The maximum exocranial dimensions are 50.8 mm anterior-posterior by 32.0 mm lateral. The opening is
roughly ellipsoid, with some exocranial bevelling at the centre of the right side of the lesion, where the
exterior margin is a maximum of 5.0 mm wider than the internal margin for c 25 mm, with a smooth,
steep-sided, rounded bevel (Plate 63). The maximum endocranial dimensions are 54.0 mm anterior-
309
posterior by 36.0 mm lateral. The opening has a wider margin with a bevel in the posterior and posterior
left side of the lesion (Plates 64-5). There is heavy, coarse-grained reactive new bone on the posterior
and lateral margins of the orifice, several millimetres thick in places, with a spicule of new bone – 9.0 mm
diameter – extending across the opening. The reactive new bone extends from 20.0 mm posterior to the
opening to its anterior margin, directly over the junction of the anterior sutures, spreading out from the
borders of the lesion by 17.0 mm on the right side, 15.0 mm posteriorly, and maximum of 32.0 mm on the
left side. There is a light covering of fine-grained reactive new bone across the endocranial surface of the
frontal bone to both sides of the metopic suture, but not crossing it. The area covered narrows anteriorly,
from 32.0 mm either side of the suture in the posterior superior frontal, to 5.0 mm, ceasing 26 mm from
the foramen caercum.

Plate 63: Opening in the anterior parietals of

(5779)
Plate 64: Opening in the anterior parietals of
(5779) (detail)
Plate 65: Opening in the anterior parietals of
(5779) (detail)
The lesion presents as a possible trepanation, but some aspects render this interpretation alone
debatable:
 The method by which the trepan was extracted is unclear, there being little external bevelling and
the opening being neither a clear roundel nor an ellipse. Of the twenty-seven British trepanations
reported to date, including three Romano-British (Wells 1974: Parker et al. 1986; McKinley
1992a), all suggest the use of either a grooving or scraping method of removal (Wakely & Duhig
1989: Parker et al. 1986).
 The greater endocranial dimensions at the posterior and posterior left side of the opening are not
consistent with the known methods of trepan removal, where bevelling-in gave greater control
over the operation and minimised the risk of damage to the brain. The internal bevel is of uneven
profile and non-contiguous, which would imply that the bone was broken off, e.g. by a blow to the
skull. The shock waves from such a blow would radiate out to produce the sort of greater
endocranial dimensions noted.
 Trepanations, other than where connected with a previous skull wound, tried to avoid crossing
the sagittal suture for fear of damaging the sagittal sinus.
The relief of pressure on the brain resulting from a skull wound is one of the reasons for performing a
trepanation (Wells 1974, Parker et al 1986).The position of the internal bevelling indicates a blow directed
at the posterior end of the present lesion. The smooth margins imply that the individual survived for some
time following the blow and that the bone from the fracture was removed from position. It is suggested
that this lesion was originally a skull wound, the result of blunt-weapon trauma, and that a trepanation
was subsequently conducted to remove the dislodged fragment/s of bone (McKinley 1992b).
The extensive reactive new bone on the endocranial surfaces illustrates serious meningeal infection,
presumably in the dura mater, the gross new bone around the orifice presumably forming the original seat
of infection, which later spread to the frontal region. The eventual death of the individual is likely to have
been in consequence of this infection.

310
Decapitation has been discussed above.
Spondylolysis is where the inferior articular processes and spine are separate from the rest of the
vertebra. The condition usually occurs in the fifth, or more rarely the fourth, lumbar vertebra and is
believed to result from injury or stress fracture in the immature individual (Adams 1986). There are
generally no clinical symptoms unless spondylolisthesis, displacement of the vertebral body, occurs. Eight
individuals were noted with this condition from BAL-15; four females, three males and one unsexed
individual. Five had the condition in the fifth lumbar vertebra, one in the fourth, one, most unusually, in the
third, and one in an unspecified lower lumbar vertebra.
It was noted above that soft tissue trauma may be indicated by exostoses/enthesopathies at tendon and
ligament insertions. Several such cases have already been included in the above discussion in
connection with various fractures. It is not always possible to distinguish the cause of these lesions since
they may result in response to a number of conditions (see below).
There were five other instances in which trauma appears to be indicated – in the radius shaft 6578(6550),
fibula shaft 7178(5412) and 8253(8252), tibia shaft 8253(8252), and femur shaft 7507(7494). Exostoses,
or new bone, particularly at interosseous borders, indicate muscle/ligament stress or rupture.
Possible dislocation of a rib is suggested in two individuals with formation of a pseudo-facet adjacent to
the true facet. In 7352(7344), one right rib has an additional facet with heavy osteophytes, it may be of
note that one left rib has a well-healed fracture. In 7428(7427), the tenth thoracic vertebra right rib facet
has a heavily pitted second facet anterior to the true one.
The incidence of trauma is considerably higher amongst males than females. Most of the fractures seem
likely to have resulted from accidents in the work-place. A few of the lesions are indicative of more direct
violence, probably brawling. The skull wound which was later trepanned appears to have been inflicted
with a blunt instrument, such as a hammer, and is unlikely to have been an accident. Other than this latter
case, there is no evidence to suggest injuries were treated.

Infections
Infections may be specific, i.e. caused by a known pathogen, including such specific infections as leprosy
or tuberculosis, or they may be non-specific, where the pathogen is unknown. The vast majority of
infections fall in the latter group. Dental infections, including secondary sinusitis, have been discussed
above. However, there is also evidence for primary sinusitis, probably developed in consequence of a
nasal infection. The frontal sinus cavities of 7395(7396), had a slight covering of new bone, as had the
dorsal floor and walls of the antrum.
Non specific periostitis was observed at forty-one sites in twenty-four individuals from BAL-15. Periosteal
new bone is deposited in response to infection in the periosteum, the membrane covering the bone. Such
infection may result from direct introduction of bacteria to the bone through a deep wound or fracture, or
via the blood-stream from foci elsewhere in the body. Several lesions have already been discussed in
connection with fractures, including soft tissue trauma (5278(5180), 5942(5960), 7186(6995) and
7381(7366)), spread of infection to the bone from a dental abscess (5356(5132) and 8143(8208)) or skull
wound/trepanation (5780(5779)).
The most common site for periostitis was in the bones of the lower leg; five individuals have lesions in the
tibia shaft, – 4429(4418), 7610(7282), 7492/7581(7404/5), 7588(7577) and 7530(7612) – 4429(4418) has
lesions in both tibiae, five have lesions in tibia and fibula shafts – 5350(5270) and 7576(7585), bi-lateral;
7726(7725) and 7853(7852) one side; 7994(7993) bi-lateral fibulae, and three have lesions in the fibula
shaft – 7381(7366), 7384(7379) and 7491(7490). The tibia and/or fibula are frequent sites for such
infection. The lack of soft tissue covering the bones renders them easily infected by soft tissue injuries
and they also appear to be primary bone sites for infection from foci elsewhere in the body (Manchester
1983). It is probable that most of the aforementioned cases relate to soft tissue trauma, leading to
infection of the underlying bone. Exceptions may be where there is bi-lateral infection, though in some,
more than one cause may have been in operation. The left distal tibia shaft of 4429(4418) also has a cyst
– 10.5×9.5 mm – in the distal shaft, 5 mm from the distal articular surface. The cyst exited through the
medio-posterior surface of the bone via a 3.8×2.7 mm sinus. In this case, the noted periostitis probably
results from osteomyelitis in the bone.
Five individuals with lesions in one or both leg bones also had lesions elsewhere. 7610(7282) had slight
mild periosteal new bone on the posterior side of the right femur and tibia shafts, distal and proximal ends
respectively, and along the left superior ischio-pubic crest in association with a probable fracture.
7492/7581(7404/7405) has slight lesions on the medial sides of the distal right tibia shaft and medial
planter and posterior surfaces of the left first metatarsal shaft.
There is heavy periosteal new bone over the right tibia and fibula shafts in 7726(7725), especially distally.
Mild exostoses on the tibia soleal line and distal medio-posterior shaft may be indicative of soft tissue
trauma. The third/fourth right metatarsal also has periosteal new bone on the shaft, especially the planter
311
side. The area of periosteal new bone over the superior lateral shaft of the left clavicle in (7366) is unlikely
to be directly associated with the fracture and periostitis in the right fibula (see above).
Mild periostitis on the left fibula distal shaft in 7384(7379), may be linked with lesions in the foot bones.
Both calcaneal medial surfaces have a mild covering of new bone, as have all left metatarsal shafts.
Fractures in the right tibia and fibula of 7994(7993) have associated slight periosteal new bone (see
above). There are also mild lesions on all but the proximal quarter of the left fibula shaft, and the right
proximal foot phalanx shaft has a thickened profile – 2 mm – with slight periosteal new bone.
Six right ribs, 5521(5532), have a maximum 7 mm medio-lateral area of periosteal new bone on the
visceral surfaces of the dorsal shafts. Such lesions may have formed in response to a lung infection such
as bronchitis, pleurisy or tuberculosis (Wakely et al 1991).
Slight periosteal new bone on the distal half of the left second metacarpal shaft from 5340(5249), is
unlikely to be associated with destructive lesions in the bone. The shaft is distended, the dorsal medulla
being rarefied. This may indicate an enchondroma, a solitary benign tumour, growing within the bone and
expanding it.
The area between the anterior and dorsal talal articular surfaces of the right calcaneum in 8163(8162),
has a covering of fine periosteal new bone.
The left humerus, radius and ulna from 7728(7715), an older mature/older adult female, are noticeably
more gracile than the right, especially the humerus (Plate 66). This would suggest muscle wasting or
growth arrest. A diagnosis of post-paralytic deformity as a result of poliomyelitis is suggested. This is a
viral infection of the central nervous system, leading to temporary or, if a serve attack, permanent
paralysis of one or more muscle groups (Adams 1986, Manchester 1983), resulting in atrophy or growth
arrest in the bones of the affected limb. Several similar cases were noted by Wells (1982) at Cirencester,
all involving uni-lateral wasting of either the left or right upper limb bones.
Plate 66: Humeri, radii and ulnae of (7715)
The spongiosa of the left humerus in 7178(5412) is rarefied, with gross new bone in the proximal shaft –
bone damaged, distal to the head. There is heavy disorganised new bone within the medulla and over a
minimum 37×40 mm area of the surface, to a depth of 12 mm. In the absence of any indication of
fracture, a diagnosis of haematogenous osteomyelitis is suggested.
Surface new bone, apparently formed in response to infection and found in association with destructive
lesions, was noted in several inhumations (see also Miscellaneous conditions).
The fourth lumbar body in 5780(5779) has reactive new bone on the anterior and right side of the body,
concentrated in the superior portion. Such sub-ligamentous new bone is found in association with
pyogenic infection in the vertebrae, but no associated lesions are presented. It may be worthy of note that
this individual had a skull wound with extensive meningeal infection (see above).
Spherical lesions c 11×4 mm, 3 mm deep (often several coalesced) were noted in the 10-12th thoracic
body surfaces, and one other lower thoracic vertebra from 5350(5270). In two, there is roughening of the
adjacent surface with some new bone.
There is slight roughening of the tenth thoracic inferior body surface, 7491(7490), with some new bone.
The adjacent eleventh thoracic superior surface has a 11.5×7.0 mm, 4.5 mm deep destructive lesion in
the centre of the surface. A depression – 50×20 mm area – in the superior surface of the second lumbar
appears to result from internal collapse of the vertebral body. A 30×20 mm, 12 mm deep destructive
lesion in the superior surface of the third lumbar, is also associated with internal collapse of the vertebra.
The fourth lumbar body has 7 mm diameter cysts in the right side. All the vertebrae are very porous with
loss of the horizontal component of the spongiosa. Although the marked rarefaction of the spongiosa with
vertebral body collapse in this older adult male would suggest senile osteoporosis, the destructive lesions
imply that some other factor may also be at work. Such lesions may be formed in response to pyogenic
infection or possibly tuberculous infection.
The ?ninth-twelfth thoracic and first-?third lumbar vertebrae from 7534(7498) exhibit gross destructive
lesions in the vertebral bodies, such that several bodies are all but totally destroyed (Plate 67). The lower
thoracic bodies have up to twelve 9-11 mm diameter cysts, many amalgamated, mostly exiting via the
ventral surface. These smooth margined lesions, appear eventually to form one large cyst, resulting in
collapse of the vertebral body, such as appears to have occurred with the twelfth thoracic. Slight new
bone exists on a small area of the lateral sides of one vertebral body. Smooth, slightly concave
destructive lesions were noted in lamina of the first-third lumbar vertebrae, separating the posterior
portion from the vertebral bodies. No evidence of the bodies themselves remained, possibly indicating
their total destruction. There was no indication of ankylosis.

312
Plate 67: Destructive lesions in vertebra of (7948)
Three possible diagnoses arise: tuberculous infection, non-specific pyogenic infection or spinal tumour.
The lower thoracic and upper lumbar vertebrae are the classic locality for spinal tuberculosis (Manchester
1983). The abscesses often perforate into the chest or abdomen as noted here, with no changes in the
neural arch. However, with tuberculous infection involving anterior collapse of the vertebrae and resultant
long-standing kyphosis, there is usually bony fixation, which was not present in this instance. Non-specific
pyogenic infection produces similar lesions to tuberculosis, with occasional sub-ligamentous new bone
formation – noted in one vertebra – and spontaneous bony fusion on healing. It is possible that these
lesions had not reached the latter stage. Tumours may also cause bone erosion and collapse of the
vertebral bodies. In the absence of any other supportive evidence, the diagnosis remains open to
interpretation.
The adjacent surfaces of the fifth lumbar and first sacral in 7530(7612) and 7588(7577) are pitted with
roughened surfaces.
The ischial tuberosities in 7576(7585) show similar lesions.
In 7728(7715), the tenth inferior-twelfth inferior body surfaces have destructive lesions in the centre and
roughened adjacent surfaces with disorganised, fairly exuberant new bone. The first lumbar body has
collapsed anteriorly and to the right, with subsequent smooth ankylosis of the first and second vertebrae
and loss of disc space. The third lumbar has also lost about half its body height in the right side. Infection,
pyogenic or tuberculous, would seem most likely.
Similar lesions including vertebral body collapse, roughening of the body surfaces, and destructive
lesions, some exiting ventrally through the body, were noted in three other inhumations, 5793(5788),
7231(7230) and 7252(7241). The lower thoracic and/or upper lumbar are always affected as in the cases
discussed above.

Neoplastic
Possible bone tumours have been discussed above under Infections, including a probable enchondroma,
solitary bone tumour, in a metacarpal, 5340(5249), and in association with vertebral body collapse.
Two ivory osteomas were noted; in 7212(7174b) the right femur has a 45×24 mm, 7 mm high bony
prominence on the lateral border of the distal shaft; and in 7541(7540), a 23 mm diameter smooth, bony
prominence, 3 mm high, was situated in the squamous area of the right parietal bone.

313
Degenerative joint disease
Osteophytes are irregular growths of new bone which may form along the margins of articular
surfaces/joints. The lesion may occur alone or in association with other lesions such as eburnation –
polishing, and pitting in a joint surface. The former case is mainly related to age, with other predisposing
factors, whilst the latter may be indicative of a joint disease such as osteoarthritis.
Eighty-four individuals from BAL-15 (45.6% of total), thirty female (60.0% of identified females), fifty male
(67.6% of identified males) and four unsexed had lone osteophytes on vertebral body surface margins.
The vast majority of the affected individuals were in the older mature or older adult age categories. Table
135 shows the distribution and number of vertebrae affected.
Vertebra Female Male Unsexed Total
1 16 31 2 49
2 11 18 29
3 2 7 9
4 3 8 11
Cervical 5 4 10 14
6 3 10 13
7 2 9 11
Un-numbered 3 2 1 6
Total 44 95 3 142
1 1 3 4
2 3 4 7
3 5 6 11
4 7 8 15
5 8 9 17
6 8 12 20
7 9 16 25
Thoracic
8 8 19 27
9 8 23 1 32
10 9 19 2 30
11 9 21 2 32
12 6 17 23
Un-numbered 6 8 14
Total 87 165 5 257
1 11 20 2 33
2 14 29 2 45
3 17 28 1 46
4 18 27 1 46
Lumbar
5 18 29 2 49
6 2 2
Un-numbered 6 1 7
Total 80 139 9 228
Sacral 1 7 7 1 15
Total number 642
Table 135: distribution of osteophytes on vertebral body surface margins, BAL-15
The distribution is typical and reflects points of greatest pressure in the normal curvature of the spine
(Manchester 1983). A greater percentage of males were affected, a trait noted elsewhere (e.g.
Cirencester (Wells 1982) and Poundbury (Molleson 1993)). The sexual discrepancy is noticeable in all
areas of the spine; cervical (16% female vertebrae affected, 24% male), thoracic (20% female, 26%
male), lumbar (43% female, 51% male) and sacral (19% female, 12% male). Only in the sacral region is a
greater proportion of females affected than males (see Table 136 for number of vertebrae observed).
Vertebrae Female Male Unsexed Total
1 43 58 25 126
2 41 56 26 123
3 34 49 3 86
4 33 46 3 82
Cervical 5 33 48 3 84
6 31 48 2 81
7 31 47 3 81
Un-numbered 26 35 12 73
Total 272 387 77 736
1 29 45 2 76
2 28 44 1 73
Thoracic 3 28 43 1 72
4 29 45 1 75
5 29 44 1 74
314
 6 29 44 0 73
7 29 45 1 75
8 29 46 1 76
9 28 47 2 77
10 31 49 3 83
11 32 50 3 85
12 32 50 3 85
13 2 2
Un-numbered: 89 92 54 235
Total 442 647 73 1152
1 35 50 3 88
2 36 51 3 90
3 36 53 3 92
4 34 53 3 90
Lumbar
5 34 53 4 91
6 1 1 0 2
Un-numbered 12 9 23 44
Total 188 270 39 497
Sacral 1 37 57 6 100
Un-numbered vertebrae 111
Total number 2596
Table 136: Number of vertebrae observed, BAL-15
Lesions were also observed on the margins of other bone joints in ninety-seven individuals (52.7% of
population), including thirty-five females (70%), fifty-six males (75.7%) and six unsexed individuals. The
lesions increased in both frequency and severity with age, up to ten joints/joint groups being affected in
one individual, 7993, older mature adult male; the greatest number of joints/groups affected in one female
was eight, 7668(7667) and 7471(7450), both older adults. Table 137 shows the distribution of extra-spinal
osteophytes. Table 138 shows the number joints/joint groups affected. The wider distribution and greater
severity of the lesion noted amongst males probably reflects a heavier manual workload.
Bone(s) Female Male Unsexed Total
scapula (glenoid fossa) 13 (5) 20 (6) 2 35
acetabulum 9 (6) 18 (6) 27
proximal ulna 10 (8) 14 (4) 24
Rib(s) 6 6 1 13
tarsal(s) 7 6 (1) 13
distal ulna 1 (1) 8(2) 9
phalanx/ges (finger) 2 6 (1) 8
proximal tibia 4 (1) 4(1) 8
proximal femur 2 5 (1) 7
distal femur 3 (2) 3(2) 6
distal radius 1 5 6
carpal(s) 2 4 6
patella 1 3 4
metacarpal(s) 1 2 3
proximal radius 1 1 2
distal humerus 1 1 2
proximal humerus 1 (1) 1
thoracic transverse process 2 2
distal tibia 1 1
auricular surface 1 (1) 1
metatarsal 1 1
Total number: 179
Table 137: Distribution of extra spinal osteophytes, BAL-15 ((-) shows number affected bi-laterally)
Number of Number of individuals
joints/joint
groups Female Male Unsexed Total
1 7 4 4 15
2 10 10 20
3 3 7 1 11
4 2 14 16
5 7 8 1 16
6 1 3 4
7 3 5 8
8 2 3 5
9 1 1

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 10 1 1
Total number 97
Table 138: Showing number of joints/joint groups affected by loan osteophytes, BAL-15
Degenerative disc disease is manifest by pitting in the vertebral body surfaces following the breakdown of
the inter-vertebral disc. Pitting may be accompanied by osteophyte formation on the margins of the body
surfaces to enhance the stability of the joint. The condition is largely related to the age of the individual,
reflecting general wear and tear.
42% (or 21) of females and 54% (or 40) of males show this lesion in one or more vertebrae. A total of
sixty-six or 36% of individuals were affected. Table 139 illustrates the distribution of associated lesions.
Number of affected vertebrae
Vertebra
Female Male Unsexed Total
2 4 1 5
3 7 8 1 16
4 6 9 15
Cervical 5 8 14 22
6 8 18 26
7 8 11 19
Un-numbered 2 8 1 11
1 4 3 7
2 2 2
3 1 1
4 1 1
5 3 1 4
6 1 3 4
Thoracic 7 1 6 7
8 2 8 10
9 1 7 8
10 2 9 11
11 2 7 1 9
12 3 6 1 10
Un-numbered 12 8 20
1 2 5 7
2 5 4 9
Lumbar 3 3 3 6
4 5 7 12
5 6 12 18
Sacral 1 6 7 13
Total number 273
Table 139: distribution of degenerative disc disease, BAL-15
The distribution of lesions throughout the spine is similar to that seen for osteophytes, for similar reasons.
Although more males than females were affected, there is no significant difference in distribution; 15% of
female cervical vertebrae have lesions, 18% male; 10% of female thoracic vertebrae, 9% male; 11%
female lumbar vertebrae, 14% male; 16% female first sacral vertebrae, 12% male.
Schmorl's nodes are destructive lesions which may form in response to the rupture of the intervertebral
disc allowing the nucleus pulposus to protrude into the body of the adjacent vertebra. Thirty males (40.5%
of males) and seven females (14%) had lesions in one or more vertebrae, a total of thirty-eight (20.6%)
individuals being affected. Table 140 shows the distribution of lesions.
Number of vertebrae
Vertebra
Female Male Unsexed Total
4 2 2
5 1 1
6 2 6 8
7 1 11 12
8 3 12 1 16
Thoracic
9 2 17 19
10 2 19 21
11 4 22 26
12 4 18 22
Un-numbered 1 5 6
1 4 9 13
2 4 7 11
Lumbar
3 4 5 9
4 3 2 5

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 5 2 2
Sacral 1 1 1
Total number 36 137 1 174
Table 140: distribution of Schmorl's nodes, BAL-15
As is commonly observed, the fourth thoracic was the highest vertebra affected (Wells 1982). Far more
males than females had lesions in the thoracic region, 17.5% as against 4.3%, with no significant
difference in the lumbar region – 9% female, 8.5% male. In males, the eleventh thoracic most frequently
had lesions – 16%, with common involvement of the eighth to twelfth thoracic. Distribution of lesions in
female spines was more diffuse, with a slightly heavier involvement of the lumbar vertebrae.
6.7% of vertebrae recorded had Schmorl's nodes, which compares closely with the 7.1% obtained by
Wells (1982) at Cirencester, but is lower than those noted by Roberts (above) for BAL-1 (14.1%) and
Gloucester (16.5%). There is a greater diversity between the sexes than noted by Wells, however, with
10% of male vertebrae as against only 3.8% of female vertebrae showing lesions. This would suggest
male spines were subjected to greater mechanical and traumatic stress than female spines.
Osteoarthritis is a disease affecting the synovial joints and is basically the result of a wear and tear
process, with predisposing factors such as previous disease, injury and obesity (Adams 1986). The
weight-bearing joints of the spine and lower limb are most prone to development of the disease, which is
manifest by the presence of associated lesions including osteophytes on joint margins, eburnation, pitting
and cysts in joint surfaces (Rogers et al 1987).
Fifty-five individuals (29.9%) had varying degrees of osteoarthritic lesions to the articular processes of
one or more vertebrae, including twenty-four females (48% of females) and thirty males (40.5%). Table
141 shows distribution of lesions.
Number of vertebrae affected
Vertebra
Female Male Unsexed Total
1 7 7 14
2 9 10 1 20
3 8 12 1 21
4 6 14 20
Cervical
5 5 12 17
6 5 5 10
7 3 4 7
Un-numbered 3 10 2 15
1 2 4 6
2 1 1 2
3 2 2 4
4 7 4 11
5 5 4 9
6 4 5 9
Thoracic 7 2 4 6
8 1 2 3
9 2 2
10 2 3 5
11 3 3 6
12 3 2 5
Un-numbered 12 15 27
1 5 3 8
2 4 1 5
3 3 2 5
Lumbar
4 6 5 11
5 8 6 14
6 1 1
Sacral 1 4 2 6
Total number: 269
Table 141: distribution of spinal osteoarthritis (articular surfaces of articular processes only) ,
BAL-15
Incidence amongst females is generally higher, with significant variation in distribution of lesions between
the sexes. The percentage of lesions is highest for both sexes in the cervical region, with 20% of male
cervical vertebrae and 17% of female affected. The incidence falls in the thoracic region to 10% amongst
females and 8% amongst males. There is a further fall amongst males in the lumbar and first sacral, with
6% and 3% respectively, but the figure for females rises to 14% and 11% respectively.
That the cervical vertebrae rather than the lower, weight-bearing thoracic and lumbar vertebrae should be
most affected by this disease is not uncommon in archaeological populations (Wells 1982; Manchester
317
1983) and may reflect greater functional stress linked to physical occupation. That females should show a
similar incidence to males in the cervical region and a greater incidence in the lower spinal regions
appears in contrast to evidence of physical stress on the spine from Schmorl's nodes, degenerative disc
disease and osteophyte formation.
Arthritic lesions were also noted in other joints/joint groups in 93 individuals (50.5%), including 32 females
(64%) and 57 males (77%). Table 142 shows the distribution of lesions and Table 143 shows the number
of joints/joint groups affected, including spinal, per individual. It should be noted that a 'joint group' may
include more than one cervical vertebra, metacarpal, phalanx etc. Bi-lateral involvement is indicated in
Table 142, but assessed as a „group‟ in Table 143.
Number of individuals affected
Bone/joints
Female Male Unsexed Total
Costo-vertebral 15 33 2 50
Hip 11 (6) 26 (10) 37
Shoulder 8 (3) 9 (7) 1 18
Temporo-mandibular 6 (3) 10 (3) 16
Metacarpo-phalangeal 3 8 (1) 11
Interphalangeal (finger) 5 5 10
Intertarsal (calcanea/naviculars/tali) 2 (1) 4 6
Knee 4(2) 2 6
Sacro-iliac 2 1 3
Wrist 1 2 3
Sterno-clavicular 2 2
Elbow 1 1 2
Metatarso-phalangeal 2 2
Interphalangeal (foot) 1 1 2
Distal-fibula 1 (1) 1
Intercarpal 1 1
Sesamoid bone 1 1
Total number 171
Table 142: distribution of extra spinal osteoarthritis, BAL-15 ((-) show number affected bi-laterally)
Number of
joints/joint Female Male Unsexed Total
groups
1 7 18 2 27
2 5 9 14
3 5 12 1 18
4 3 9 1 13
5 4 3 7
6 5 3 8
7 1 1 2
8 2 2
9 1 1
10 1 1
Total number 93
Table 143: number of joints/joint groups affected by osteoarthritis
There is a general increase in severity, but more especially number of joints affected, with age. More
males than females show signs of the disease, with the greatest discrepancy being where one to four
joints/groups are affected. The greatest number of affected joints/groups is ten in 7362(7341), an older
adult female, including all areas of the spine, bi-lateral hip and knee joints, heavy in latter, left wrist and
hand bones, heavy. The greatest number of joints/groups involved in a male was eight, e.g. 7994(7993),
an older mature adult. There is a trend for higher male incidence in all areas except the shoulder joint and
interphalangeal joints of the fingers, which may be related to specific occupational stress.
Fusion of one or more cervical vertebrae in nine individuals is probably as a consequence of gross
osteoarthritis. In each case lesions were noted in the articular processes of the fused and other cervical
vertebrae, often with associated lesions in the vertebral body surfaces. All had smooth fusion in one or
both sides of the articular processes, and reduction or loss of disc space. Four also had some fusion
between the body surface margins. 2nd-3rd cervical in 4835(4827), 6838(6838) and 7615(7614); 2nd-4th
in 7428(7427a) and 7530(7612); 3rd-4th in 5411(5396), 5667(5661), 7638(7637) and 8143(8208); and 5-
6th in 5667(5661).
The right, fourth proximal and middle finger phalanges from 8143(8208) are ankylosed, the middle
phalanx at a 45 degree angle palmar wise to the proximal. The articular surfaces are destroyed with mild

318
new bone on surface margins. Other right phalanges and metacarpals also have destructive lesions and
osteophytes on joint surfaces and margins.
Areas of new bone were noted in the articular surfaces of the patellae from 7202(7182), with some
eburnation in the right. No associated lesions were noted in femora or tibiae.
Eburnation, with no associated lesions, was noted in the right patella of 7202(7182), and the right fifth
metacarpal and right radial tuberosity of 7994(7993).
Possible erosive arthropathies were noted in two individuals. The right first metatarsal head of
7945(7944) is heavily eroded with destruction of the profile, mild pitting in the surface margins and slight
new bone. The left, fifth proximal foot phalanx in 7994(7993) is similarly eroded with destruction of the
distal articular surface profile, but has no new bone formation.
The degenerative changes observed suggest a generally active life with functional stresses related to
physical occupation for both males and females. The higher incidence amongst males indicates a greater
degree of heavy lifting/straining which may be associated with any number of occupations requiring
repeated physical activity, be they agricultural or production related (See Section VIII for other possible
degenerative joint disease lesions).

Miscellaneous
Coxa vara is a general term for any condition in which the angle of the femoral neck is less than the
normal of c 125° (Adams 1986). Major factors may be congenital, fracture, slipped femoral head
epiphysis or softening of the bone associated with rickets, osteomalacia or Paget's disease.
Seven individuals from BAL-15 had coxa vara, five bi-laterally and two in the left femur only. Four were
male (two older 4835(4827) and 7530(7612), one older mature/older 7504(7503) and one younger mature
7504(7503), with the condition in the left femur only). Of the three females (7212(7174b), 7393(7392) and
7471(7450)), all older adults, one (7471(7450)) had the condition in the left femur only.
There was no indication of fracture in any of these cases. In all except two (7212(7174b) and
7393(7392)), it was not possible to suggest any cause of the condition. 7212(7174b) and 7393(7392)
have been discussed above (see Deficiency diseases).
Calcified rib cartilage was noted in three inhumations (5278(5180), 5309(5248) and 6871(7221)) and
calcified thyroid cartilage in seven inhumations (5942(5960), 6578(6550), 7252(7241), 7615(7614),
7994(7993), 8163(8162) and 8253(8252)). Such soft tissue calcifications may occur in consequence of
disease e.g. DISH, or be age related.
Several 'stones' were recovered from three inhumations, which are either gall and/or urinary stones. The
variety and nature of such stones have been discussed in full by Steinbock (1989a; 1989b; 1989c). An
apparently calcified 'stone' 22.2×9.6×7.4 mm was recovered from near the left scapula of mature adult
?female 6922(6921). The stone was broken to reveal an internal structure with a nucleus of formation and
subsequent layers (Plate 68). This suggests a gall or urinary stone and it should be noted that its location
upon excavation was probably not its original position.
Plate 68: Calcified „stone‟ from (6921)
Three 'stones' were recovered from 7186(6995), an older mature adult male. One, 9.5×6.5×4.5 mm 'coral'
form mass of apparently calcified material was recovered near the cervical vertebra, a possible bladder or
urinary stone. Two small spherical stones, 6.0×5.0 mm with glossy surfaces, were recovered from near
the first lumbar vertebra amongst the left ribs. These are possible gall stones; the gall bladder is situated
behind the 9th rib (Plate 69).
Plate 69: Possible gall stones from (6995)
A possible 'calcified stone' with unusual conglomerate appearance was recovered with 7728(7715), an
older mature/older adult female.
Gallstone formation is affected by dietary, genetic and hormonal factors; bladder stones are caused
primarily by nutritional deficiency, while dietary factors and dehydration are primarily related to renal stone
formation (Steinbock 1989a, b, c). Though such stone formation is not uncommon in modern times and
was probably common in the past, the presence of such stone is rarely recorded in archaeological
populations (Steinbock 1989a; 1989b; 1989c; McKinley 1993; 1994; below).
Exostoses are new bone growth which may form at tendon or ligament insertions. They may reflect age
related wear and tear, traumatic stress (see 'Trauma'), or be related to various diseases such as Diffuse
Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis (DISH). It is not always possible to relate a cause to these lesions.
Exostoses, with no other associated lesions, were noted at 415 sites in eighty-two individuals, all adults.
19.3% were on the anterior surface of the patella; 15.7% along the posterior muscle attachments of the
femoral shaft; 12.3% around the notch in the femur head; 12% on the Achilles tendon attachments of the
319
calcaneum; 7% on the ulna olecranon process; 5.5% at the tendon/ligament attachments of the tibia
shaft; 5.1% along the iliac crest; 4.8% on the margins of the radial tuberosity; 3.4% on the margins of the
femur lesser trochanter; 2.6% at tendon/ligament insertions of the fibula shaft; and 1.9% on the ischial
tuberosity of the innominate. Other, less frequent sites, include the femur greater trochanter, the line of
the femur proximal capsule attachment, ilium adjacent to the acetabulum, metatarsal and metacarpal
shafts, humerus shaft, proximal and distal ends. The vast majority of lesions are probably age related.
Those related to other specific conditions are discussed elsewhere.
Cysts and other destructive lesions may be formed in bone as part of a number of disease processes
including infections, bone tumours and degenerative joint diseases. Several such lesions have been
discussed above, but where there is no other evidence to support diagnosis, the cause of the lesion may
remain unknown.
Small non-articular surface cysts were noted in four scaphoids and two lunates from BAL-15. These are
probably solitary bone cysts, most commonly found in these two carpals in adults (Adams 1986).
Other cysts were noted in the proximal tubercles of the humerus (5521(5532) and 8253(8252)), the
articular surfaces of metatarsals/carpals and phalanges (6903(6902), 7252(7241), 7384(7379) and
7417(7416)), the acetabular rim of one or both innominates (6624(6625) and 7787(7742) – gross), medial
clavicle (7252(7241)), tibia distal articular surface (7492(7404)), ulna proximal articular surface
(7428(7427)), femur head and scapula glenoid fossa (7491(7490)) and auricular surface with destructive
lesions in the iliac crest (7518(7510)). Cysts in tarsal (7352(7344)) and carpal articular surfaces
(7428(7427) and 7530(7612)) were found in several bones in some individuals, with no new bone
formation.
Destructive lesions were also recorded in a variety of bones, the causes of which are uncertain;
 One ulna proximal articular surface.
 One or more thoracic and/or lumbar vertebral body surfaces in 13 inhumations; 7202(7182) and
7233(7208), showed slight vertebral body collapse with deep destructive lesions which may be
indicative of tumours; 7238(7205) has some reactive new bone on thoracic and lumbar body surfaces
which would suggest an infectious disease such as tuberculosis or brucellosis.
 Sixteen in one or more metatarsal and/or foot phalanx articular surface, and one has lesions in the
finger phalanx articular surface.
 Four have lesions in the tibia distal articular surface.
 One pair of radial tuberosities have destructive lesions with exostoses on the margins.
 Two pairs of acetabulae have 'notch-like' destructive lesions in the rims.
Other lesions were found in the articular surfaces of one patella, two naviculars, one calcaneum, one
humerus proximal greater and lesser tubercles, scapula glenoid fossa, acetabular rim and the costo-
clavicular ligament attachment of the clavicle, all BAL-15.
The right patella of 7994(7993) has a gross destructive lesion in the medial articular surface and the
surface profile is obliterated. The surface appears to have 'slipped' slightly superiorly and medially, with
roughening across the superior surface and cysts in the inferior surface. There were no associated
lesions in the femur or tibia.
Pitting in the bone, most frequently in the articular surfaces, may result from a number of conditions as
with cysts/destructive lesions, being most commonly associated with degenerative joint disease (see
above). Slight to gross degrees of pitting, of uncertain aetiology, were noted in numerous cases from
BAL-15:
 Manubrium; clavicle articular surface one individual.
 Innominate; ischial tuberosities of four individuals, one with associated surface new bone, one
with associated cysts.
 Auricular surfaces of two individuals.
 Clavicle; one or both articular surfaces of one side in seven individuals.
 Scapula; acromion tuberosity and two clavicle articular surfaces.
 Humerus; proximal tubercles of one side in seven individuals, two with associated cysts.
 Radius; one or both tuberosities in six individuals, two with associated exostoses and one with a
flattened profile.
 Finger phalanges; articular surfaces one individual.
 Patella; one articular surface.
 Tarsals; gross pitting with roughening of the adjacent medial surfaces of the left navicular and
medial cuneiform in 8253(8252).
 Foot phalanges; articular surfaces of one or more phalanges in five individuals.
 Sesamoid; gross pitting in sesamoid bones from 5431(5406) and 7212(7640).
Bones may ankylose (fuse) in response to a number of conditions, some of which are discussed
elsewhere e.g. infection, trauma and DISH.
320
The bi-lateral fusion of the calcanea and naviculars in 4835(4827) (Plate 70) is unusual. This would have
restricted lateral and medial flexion of the foot. The ankylosis is smooth and suggests the bones were
formed from a single centre of ossification. Lesions have developed on and around the talal articular
surfaces including gross osteophytes, and the formation of uneven coalitions with tali in the anterior
medial calcanea naviculars. There is rarification of bone in the posterior articular surfaces of the calcanea
and tali.
Plate 70: Fusion of calcanea and naviculars in (4827)
One right middle and distal finger phalanx from 6838(6837) is fully ankylosed with smooth new bone.
There is no callus or remnants of the articular surface. This may represent an old fusion following a
pyogenic infection of the joint.
The bi-lateral fusion of the fourth middle and distal finger phalanges in 7112(7113) provides no ready
diagnosis. The distal ends of the distal phalanges appear to have been resorbed slightly, but no other
lesions from this older adult female (98% bone recovery) would aid diagnosis, though this may be the
result of pyogenic arthritis.
Extensive, smooth new bone, especially thick over the right side, has ankylosed the eighth and ninth
thoracic vertebrae in 8253(8252), with loss of disc space. There are extensive bony extensions around
the rib facets, especially the right – 25×11 mm – with heavy pitting. Corresponding lesions were noted in
the adjoining rib, with gross osteophytes on the ventral margins of the head.
Bone resorption. A 26×8 mm area of bone resorption was noted in the right fibula disto-medial shaft, at
the superior interosseous ligament attachment, 5309(5248). Cause unknown.
A slight depression or area of bone resorption – 14.0×10.0 mm – was noted in the right frontal of 7364, 44
mm superior to the supra-orbital margin, which may represent the remains of a healed depressed
fracture.
Areas of new bone were noted in the femur head of 5793(5788), and tuberosities of the radius and ulna in
7339(7336).
Several miscellaneous conditions were noted, which may comprise developmental abnormalities.
The left middle finger phalanx, ring finger, in 4835(4827) was abnormally short – 24.0 mm, and broad-
based – 21.0 mm, with prominent posterior proximal attachments. This phalanx did not match that from
the right hand. Similarly, the first metacarpals of 7892(7891) were abnormally short, though normal in
profile.
The left elbow joint of inhumation 7892(7891) has abnormal characteristics. There is no coronoid fossa
for receipt of the ulna process. The trochlear, rather than having the normal convex profile, has indistinct
concave contours on a level with, and continuous with, the medial epicondyle. The ulna coronoid process
does not have the usual concave surface with process, but an enlarged convex profile with large 'lip'
process. There are no lesions to suggest pathological changes, which would imply the defect is
developmental.
The medial condyle of the left tibia in 6979(6932) had slumped medially, the surface being at a 45° angle.
There are destructive lesions in the anterior border of the medial condyle, and the medial tuberosity. The
lateral condyle has thick new bone across all except the extreme lateral portion of the surface, and did not
have the appearance of an articular surface. There was also heavy new bone over the anterior
intercondylar area, and exostoses on the medial and posterior surfaces of the proximal shaft over 80 mm.
The medial condyle appears to have collapsed as a result of destructive lesions weakening the internal
structure and new bone developed in the lateral condyle to compensate. The extensive exostoses on the
proximal shaft presumably formed in consequence of the strain on the ligaments and muscles around the
joint.
The seventh thoracic to the fifth lumbar vertebra in 5278(5180) exhibit gross pathological lesions (Plates
71-2). There is extensive ankylosis involving the 7-8th and 9-11th thoracic, 12th thoracic-1st lumbar, and
3rd-5th lumbar vertebrae. The thoracic vertebrae are fused via thick, smooth bone over the right side of
the bodies; the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae via smooth bone over the anterior bodies and the spines;
the lumbar vertebrae by thick new bone in the spines and articular processes. All disc spaces are
maintained, with some increase in the lower lumbar, possibly in consequence of the anterior collapse of
the first lumbar, the superior surface of the ankylosed twelfth thoracic resting at c 40° to normal. There
are extensive and exuberant osteophytes on the rest of the thoracic and lumbar vertebral body margins,
decreasing into the lumbar and there is also extensive degenerative disc disease and osteoarthritis.
These lesions suggest a diagnosis of diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH). Lesions which may
represent extra-spinal manifestations of the disease include fragments of calcified rib cartilage, and
exostoses at eleven sites (Rogers et al 1987). However, a single diagnosis of DISH cannot be made for
these lesions. The collapse of the first lumbar vertebra cannot be associated with the disease, probably
being the result of a tumour. The ankylosis of the lumbar vertebrae via the spine may have been in
321
response to the strain caused by angulation of the spine at the point of collapse, and exostoses in the
right fibula is probably associated with a fracture in that bone.
Plate 71: Lesions in thoracic and lumbar vertebrae of (5180)
Plate 72: Lesions in thoracic and lumbar vertebrae of (5180)
The thick, smooth 'bridge' of new bone ankylosing the right side of the second and third lumbar vertebral
bodies in 7352(7344), may also be indicative of DISH, though in this case the new bone does not 'flow'
the length of the body. Exostoses were noted at eleven sites.
In 6578(6550), the 11th and 12th thoracic bodies are fused by thick new bone across the right and
anterior sides of the bodies, and in the articular processes, the disc spaces are maintained. There is
anterior collapse of the 12th thoracic superior surface, resulting in anterior angulation of the 11th superior
surface to the left. This could indicate an infection (see above). In addition, there is a thick covering of
new bone over the superior surface of the sacral right lateral mass, fusing it to the innominate.
The spongiosa of the vertebrae in 7202(7182) is very porous. The 11th and 12th thoracic and all lumbar
vertebrae have collapsed slightly anteriorly, with considerable loss in height in the thoracic vertebrae –
minimum 5 mm in the 11th. These lesions are indicative of senile osteoporosis in this old adult male.
Marked rarification of the spongiosa in the vertebral bodies and femoral heads, was also noted in
7491(7490), an older adult male.
A pair of smooth bony spines – 8.0 mm long, 5.0×3.6 mm – were situated 4.6 mm anterior to the foramen
magnum anterior border in 7853(7852). The spines were set on the basal bone between the occipital
condyles, 13.0 mm medio-lateral. Cause unknown.

Morphological variations
Alternatively referred to as 'non-metric traits', these are 'normal' variations within skeletal morphology, i.e.
non-pathological. These traits were at one time believed to reflect genetic relationships within a group,
however, evidence is tenuous and further detailed study is required. As with pathological lesions, the
entire skeleton is needed to register presence/absence of traits. Dental variations have been discussed
above.
58/138 (42%) individuals with maxillae/mandibles had congenital absence of one or more teeth. The
absence of one mandibular and/or one maxillary third molar, or of both mandibular third molars, was
equally the most frequent occurrence. Absence of both maxillary third molars or all third molars was noted
in four females and five males. One male showed the absence of the maxillary right second incisor,
6981(7151), whilst in 7588(7577), the mandibular left second incisor was absent. In 5672(5656), the third
molars, the mandibular second premolars and maxillary canines were all absent. The incidence is higher
for females than males.
Four individuals had retained a deciduous tooth into adulthood; 5672(5656) maxillary left canine retained,
with non-eruption of both permanent canines; 5692(5686), right maxillary canine retained, permanent
canine un-erupted; 7521(7515) permanent mandibular second premolars absent, deciduous second
molars retained; 7945(7944) maxillary right deciduous canine retained, associated misaligned eruption of
the permanent canine. Mandibular right canine incompletely erupted and the right third molar impacted.
Impaction of the third molars, especially mandibular, was noted in four other individuals, 4835(4827),
7530(7612), 7669(7624) and 7726(7725). In the latter case, there was also crowding of the anterior
mandibular teeth. The right maxillary canine of 7559(7573) is incompletely erupted at a 45 degree mesial
angle.
Impaction and abnormal spacing usually occur as a result of insufficient space within the alveolar arches
to accommodate all the teeth. General crowding and overlapping of anterior teeth was noted in
inhumations 7557(7556) as well as 7726(7725) (see above). In 4846(4843), the right maxillary canine had
erupted mesial to normal in the position of the first incisor, mesial and palatal to the second incisor. In
consequence, a 6 mm gap between the second incisor and first premolar remained. Several other teeth
were misplaced, 5431(5406) and 5692(5686), rotated in position 5278(5180), or erupted at an angle
5692(5686) and 7220(7204).
Variations in tooth form were noted in seven dentitions. Variations in cusp numbers is not unusual; the
mandibular third molars of 7164(6969) were of five cusp forms; the maxillary third molars of 5361(5338)
had only two cusps; and the maxillary 2nd incisors of 7164(6969) both have large palatal cusps. 'Pegging'
or 'shovelling' of maxillary incisor crowns is also not unusual. 'Pegging' was observed in one second
incisor from 5660(5659) and 7521(7515), whilst the second incisors in 7346(7333) were 'shovelled'. More
unusual, the maxillary right second incisor crown of 5692(5686) had a disto-palatal indentation in the
crown and root, possibly resulting from the misplaced eruption of the canine crown palatal to the incisors.

322
In view of the limitations to meaningful analysis, the observed variations are listed, with frequency of the
more common traits. Further discussion of these traits may be found in Finnegan (1978), Berry and Berry
(1967).
 Wormian bones: one or more extra ossicles in the lambdoid suture. A variation or formed in response
to parturition trauma? (Berry and Berry 1967). Present in twenty-three individuals – 21.1%, a lower
figure than the 62.3% noted by Wells from Cirencester (1983).
 Metopism: the frontal suture generally fuses and is obliterated in early childhood, but may remain
extant into adulthood. Twenty-one individuals had retained the metopic suture, i.e. 22.3% of those
from which the frontal bone was recovered. This traits was observed in 8.2% of those from
Cirencester (Wells 1983).
 Ankylosis: of the fifth middle and distal foot phalanges was noted in 14 individuals – 57.1%.
 Squatting facets: current debate on trait as a variation or developed in response to 'squatting' posture
(Finnegan 1978). Twenty-five tibiae from 14 individuals carried this trait – 12.2%.
 Occipital bunning: seven individuals- 6.7%.
 Non-fusion of the atlas posterior arch was noted in 5411(5396) and 7728(7715) – 1.6%.
 Sixth lumbar vertebra: ten – 12.0%.
 Thirteenth thoracic vertebra: three – 4.1%. Note that two also had six lumbar.
 Sixth sacral segment: two.
 Sacralisation: ten individuals showed partial or full sacralisation of the lowest lumbar vertebra – 8.8%.
Six of the sixth lumbar, five of the fifth, and one of unclear number. Four others displayed a tendency
to sacralise by additional facets in the adjacent lateral masses, developed in the lumbar, of the lowest
lumbar and the first sacral.
 Vastus notch (patella): eight in six individuals – 4.5%.
 Sagittal groove: one.
 Sagittal crest: three.
 Os Acromiale: three (see Stirland 1984).
 Third distal centre of ossification in the first metacarpals/tarsals: one – poor recovery of immature
hand – and foot bones.
 Atlas double facet: three.
 Ossicle at lambda: one.
 Talal double facet: one, bi-lateral.
 Talus notch: one.
 ?Os trigonum; one.
 Exostoses in the trochanteric fossa: one.
 Flattening of the posterior parietals: three.
Other occurrences of variation in bone morphology which may represent non-metric traits are; bony
extensions to the normal contours of the articular surfaces in the lateral naviculars of 5278(5180), and the
left calcaneum, talus, navicular and cuboid in 7588(7577); a notch in the right glenoid fossa of
5278(5180); short first metacarpal in 7892(7891); bony facets between two adjoining ribs in 5637(5635)
and 7212(7174a).
The malleolus and tip of the left fibula distal articular surface in 7994(7993) is absent. This has the
appearance of non-fusion similar to os acromiale seen in the scapula, the remaining surface being slightly
pitted with no new bone. Alternatively, the bone may have suffered erosion for some reason.

Formation processes
A group of four individuals were unique to the Stane Street cemetery, being the only deliberate multiple
burial in one grave. A mature adult female, 7652(7649), with very small, gracile bones, was found semi-
prone on the right side, with the left arm flexed away from the body. At the right shoulder of this female
was a foetus/neonate, 7652(7648), whilst two further foetus/neonates, 7652(7683) and 7652(7688), were
recovered from the pelvic region (Plate 73). All three foetus/neonates are of comparable age, being near
full term, though 7652(7683) is slightly smaller than the other two. The position of 7652(7683) and
7652(7688) suggests they were either still in the womb or had exited from the female after burial, post
rigor. The group suggests death during a difficult delivery of triplets, possibly slightly premature. The first
child was delivered, possibly still born, and the mother died prior to delivery of the remaining two. The
small size of the female may have been a feature in the failed delivery. To the writers knowledge this is
the only recorded possible occurrence of triplets in such a context.

323
Plate 73: Foetal remains ((7648), (7683) and (7688)) associated with (7649)
Rodent gnawing was noted along a 27 mm length of the right proximal ulna in inhumation 7507(7494). No
other bones showed any signs of animal interference in this way. Wells (1982), estimated that at
Cirencester >5% of the inhumations had been gnawed by rodents or dogs, the tibia being most commonly
affected. He concluded that the graves had been shallow and poorly compacted. Whilst it was noted that
many of the graves in BAL-15 were shallow, particularly those of neonates, the general lack of gnawing
may indicate well-tended cemeteries.
Animal bone was recovered by the writer from 25 inhumation contexts, discounting the few additional
contexts which proved to contain only animal bone. In the majority of cases it was mixed with what proved
to be redeposited human bone. Such deposits may represent deliberate food offerings to the dead such
as were found with the cremation burials from BAL-15 – c 11% of cremation burials contained cremated
animal bone. Alternatively, there may have been animal bone on the cemetery ground surface for some
reason (?funeral feasts), which was accidentally included in grave fills.
Blue/green bronze staining was noted on bone from seven inhumation contexts; all but one were female.
5350(5270), the only male, had spot staining on the humerus shaft. 5332(5336) had staining on several
metatarsal shafts, presumably from the bronze rivets recovered around the feet. The left first metatarsal
of 5361(5338) was stained. Stains to bones of the upper body were clearly from copper alloy jewellery,
most commonly to the finger bones; the left third metacarpal and proximal phalanx, middle finger, of
7220(7204), two proximal finger phalanges from 7212(7174b) and the proximal ulna and phalanges from
an equivalent context 7212(7655), and the forth and fifth phalanges of the left hand from 5674(5675), all
had stains from copper alloy finger rings. 5674(5675) also had stains on three left ribs, the left side of the
sternum and two thoracic vertebrae, also from copper alloy jewellery recovered in the grave.
It will be apparent from the comparison of number of contexts from BAL-15 (286) and number of
individuals identified (184) that many contexts represented redeposited, disturbed bone. It should also be
noted that there were also a small number of contexts which contained only animal bone. In the majority
of cases, these redeposited contexts could be traced to an inhumation burial of origin, where subsequent
re-cuts of a grave or graves had occurred. There were a few instances, however, where it was not
possible to provenance disturbed bone.
Bone disturbed during the recutting of a grave may not always have been redeposited in the grave fill.
Odd bones may have remained on the ground surface of the cemetery, and subsequently have been
moved around, even over some distance if kicked unobserved, only to be reburied at some later date in
whatever grave happened to be open. Some bone was recovered from contexts south of the Roman
road, often at some distance from any grave. It is not entirely plausible that bone should travel over a
distance of tens of metres, across a side-ditched roadway, to be redeposited in features on the south

324
side. Although only one grave was excavated south of the road, the occurrence of redeposited bone here
may be an indication of the presence of more, as yet undiscovered, burials.

Cemetery distribution
Overall, there is no indication of any deliberate distribution in the BAL-15 cemeteries on the bases of age
or sex. Even neonates were recovered throughout the cemeteries, scattered amongst adult and other
immature burials, though often in quite shallow graves.
The observed distribution does not present any clear evidence for 'family plots', though they may have
existed.
Alternatively, place of burial may have depended on fashion and ability to pay for the most prestigious
sites.

Cremated bone
Jacqueline I McKinley [1984, 1990, 1991; partially revised 2006]

Methods
Bone from each context was passed through a stack of sieves of 10, 5 and 2 mm mesh size. The weight
of bone collected from each sieve and the maximum fragment sizes for skull and long bone illustrates the
degree of bone fragmentation.
The identifiable bone was then separated for further examination, being divided into the categories of
skull, axial (including innominate), upper (including clavicle and scapula), and lower limb. Much of the
bone in a cremation burial will be unidentifiable other than as fragments of long bone or spongy bone;
only those fragments which could be identified fully have been subject to further examination. The
percentage of identifiable bone from the four skeletal areas may illustrate any deliberate bias in the
skeletal elements collected for burial, though it should be remembered that these percentages would be
far from equal in a complete skeleton: skull 17.9%, axial 26.8%, upper limb 20.7%, lower limb 34.7%.
Full details of all identified bone have been presented in the archive report including; any variation in
colour from the normal buff/white for individual bones; coloured staining to bones, e.g. green/blue bronze
staining or black charcoal staining; any adhering substances e.g. iron; detailed descriptions of
pathological lesions with diagnoses where appropriate; all measurements; some of the cremated animal
bones recovered await specialist examination but some preliminary comment by the writer may be found
in the micro-print. A brief note on type of deposit has been made after each context number.

Number of individuals
Number of individuals are detected either by obvious age related differences in size and epiphyseal
fusion as between immature and adult individuals or duplication of several recognisable bones; bones of
the skull are particularly useful for this purpose as they are very distinctive even as quite small fragments.
Care must be exercised however that a duplicate bone cannot have contaminated a neighbouring
cremation as a result of disturbance. Another area of possible contamination is the pyre site which may
have been used more than once and in-efficiently cleared between cremations. Weight of bone is not a
reliable indicator of number of individuals except in extreme circumstances (McKinley 1989a; 1994).

Age
Age of immature individuals was assessed from the stage of tooth development and eruption (van Beek
1983), and the stage of ossification and epiphyseal bone fusion (Pickering-Pick & Howden 1978; McMinn
& Hutchings 1985). The age of adults was assessed from the stage of epiphyseal bone and cranial suture
fusion (McMinn & Hutchings 1985; Webb et al. 1985); and the general degree of degenerative changes to
the bone. Tooth enamel usually shatters in the heat of the pyre leaving only the tooth roots; generally it is
only in the cases of unerupted teeth that the tooth crowns will survive as they are protected from the
intense heat by the jaw bones. The difficulties for identification are compounded where the entire skeleton
has not been recovered (as it rarely is in cremation burials, particularly here where there has been so
much post-depositional disturbance).
Age categories, rather than age in years, are used in view of the difficulties surrounding the accurate
assessment of age for adults over 25/30 years, that is following final epiphyseal fusion. The age
categories used are;
 Infant 0-4 yr
 Juvenile 5-12 yr
 Subadult 13-18 yr
 Young adult 18-25 yr
 Mature adult 25-40 yr

325
 Older adult 40+ yr
 Old adult 50+ yr
It was occasionally possible to subdivide the categories if adequate evidence survived, but conversely
groups were more often linked because of poor bone recovery resulting in reduced evidence of age.

Sex
The sex of the adults was assessed from the sexually dimorphic traits of the skeleton (Bass 1987),
including maximum cranial vault thickness 1a and 1b according to Gejvall (1981). Area 1b is easily
recognised as this is the external occipital protuberance at the back of the skull. Area 1a however, has no
such distinctive appearance and may be anywhere within the superior dorsal region of the parietals and
occipital. The particular danger with this method is that as the entire skeleton, including the cranium, was
rarely collected for burial after cremation, the required fragment of maximum thickness within the 1a area
may not be present but cannot be detected as such. A bias toward sexing an individual as female is
therefore likely to exist using this trait alone simply because the area of maximum thickness may not be
present. This is especially a problem on a site such as this where there has been a great deal of post-
depositional disturbance and bone has been lost.
As with age assessment, a combination of methods and scoring of traits have been used where possible
in order to overcome any methodological bias or variations in sexual morphology within the group. Three
levels of reliability have been used; ?? for possible, ? for probable, and unquestioned. These levels are
felt necessary because of the paucity of information in some cases and unclear or contradictory
dimorphism in others. The sexing of immature individuals has not been attempted as sexual dimorphism
does not tend to develop until after puberty.

Cremated Bone from Wallington Road

Jacqueline I McKinley [1984, partially revised 1991 and 2006]
156 excavated deposits were received for examination.

Results
The results are tabulated below (Table 144) and detailed identifications have been incorporated into the
DVD-ROM catalogue. Details include records of any pathology noted and any animal bone found in the
cremation burials.
Context D Wt No Age Sex Pathology An Burial type
B10 245.5 1 adult urned
B13 651.3 1 mature adult m urned
B14 212.6 1 young adult f urned
B15 24.0 1 urned
B16 * 1343.7 1 mature adult m urned
B17 * 699.4 1 mature adult f urned
B18 616.0 1 older juvenile? urned
B19 913.2 1 older juvenile? urned
B21B 90.7 1 juvenile? urned
B23 59.1 1 juvenile urned
small
B24 * 642.3 1 older adult f mammal urned
u/b
B25 575.0 1 mature adult f urned
B26 2124.1 1 older adult m urned
B28 370.1 1 adult? urned
B29 618.1 1 juvenile urned
B30 287.7 1 older juvenile urned
1) mature adult; 2) 1) odontoid process shows
B31 * 1252.4 2 1) f urned
infant signs of lipping, ?damage
older
B32A 200.9 1 subadult/young urned
adult?
B32B 438.0 1 young adult f urned
B33 * 1303.7 1 mature adult f urned
B37 * 817.4 1 young adult m urned
B38 971.4 1 mature adult f cow? urned
B39 * 993.1 1 young adult f urned
B40 7.8 1 urned
326
 B41 * 815.7 1 adult m? urned
B42 * 19.8 1 infant urned
B43 * 768.8 1 subadult urned
B45 243.3 1 urned
B47 0.4 1? urned
B48 93.0 1 urned
B49 120.7 1 adult urned
B50 261.8 1 adult m urned
B51 45.2 1 infant urned
B54 240.3 1 young adult m cow? urned
shhep?,
bird +
B55 * 1133.3 1 juvenile urned
?small
mammal
B56 1448.3 1 adult f urned
B57 * 843.6 1 adult m? urned
B58 392.8 1 urned
B58A 542.2 1 subadult/adult urned
B60 314.4 1 young adult m urned
B62 159.5 1 infant urned
B63 3.4 1 urned?
B64 502.9 1 urned
B65 679.3 1 juvenile h/c urned
cow,
B67A 1050.9 1 young adult m urned
sheep
B67B * 335.7 1 young adult m urned
B68 1329.3 1 young adult f urned
B69 * 234.3 1 adult? urned
B70 85.6 1 infant urned
lumbar vertebra lipping
B71 260.4 1 older adult m urned
and collapsed to rear
B73 340.8 1 urned
B74 354.2 1 urned
B76 502.4 1 older adult f urned
B77 685.6 1 subadult caries in root of canine urned
B78 313.3 1 urned
B79 456.3 1 juvenile pig urned
B80A 737.7 1 subadult ? urned
B80B 247.1 1 mature adult urned
B83A 699.1 1 urned
B83B 123.4 1 urned
B84 162.6 1 adult m urned
B85 0.65 1 urned
bird +
B86 930.7 1 older adult f urned
?sheep
B87 17.0 1 urned
B90 101.7 1 urned
B91 3.7 1 urned
B92 9.5 1 urned
B93 * 313.2 1 juvenile urned
B94 320.1 1 urned
B95 * 375.1 1 older adult f urned
B96 * 779.2 1 adult ? urned
B97 * 18.7 1 urned
B98 280.9 1 older adult f urned
B99 * 1287.9 1 mature adult f ? urned
B100 4.2 1 unurned?
B101 1286.8 1 mature adult m urned
B102 500.2 1 urned
B103 394.3 1 young adult m urned
B106 2.9 1 urned
327
 B107 * 592.5 1 mature adult m urned
B108 334.8 1 urned
B109 7.8 1 urned
B110A 198.8 1 mature adult m cow urned
B111 0.9 1 unurned?
B113 36.2 1 adult urned
B114 583.4 1 adult? urned
bird,
B116 * 1405.0 1 young adult m ?sheep + urned
?cow
B119 300.2 1 urned
B121 * 839.8 1 young juvenile + urned
B122 643.4 1 urned
exostosis on radius shaft –
B124 699.6 1 urned
trauma?
B125 426.6 1 urned
B126 323.7 1 adult f urned
B127 779.4 1 older adult m urned
B128 570.1 1 urned
B132 0.6 1 urned?
B133 37.8 1 urned
B134 2.5 1 urned
B134A 0.6 1 urned
B135 262.8 1 older adult m urned
B136 * 1150.1 1 subadult m ?sheep urned
B137 * 107.8 1 young adult m ? urned
B139 * 232.6 1 adult? urned
B143 203.2 1 urned
young/mature
B145 310.2 1 f unurned
adult
young/mature
B147 718.4 1 unurned
adult
B148 77.3 1 unurned
B149 121.1 1 unurned
B150 108.5 1 adult? m urned
B151 *? 518.5 1 urned
B152 *? 699.9 1 + urned
B153 162.2 1 young adult f urned
B154 827.4 1 adult m urned
B156 132.8 1 urned
B157 374.8 1 older adult f urned
B158 1626.8 1 young adult f urned
B158A 111.3 1 urned
B159 743.8 1 urned
B160 *? 1336.4 1 young adult m urned
B161 * 113.9 1 infant urned
B163 24.2 1 urned
B164A 433.7 1 adult m urned
B164B 73.8 1 urned
B165 947.8 1 adult? m urned
B166 468.6 1 young adult f urned
B168 * 1299.1 1 young adult f urned
B170 * 996.7 1 young adult urned
B171 592.8 1 unurned
B172 696.7 1 older adult m urned
B173 * 1028.6 1 mature adult maxillary torus urned
B176 * 1621.0 1 young adult m urned
B177 1227.4 1 subadult urned
B180 * 148.0 1 urned
subadult/young
B183 427.3 1 urned
adult

328
 B184 1501.4 1 mature adult m fish u/b urned + unurned
B185 20.8 1 ?sheep urned
B186 489.7 1 eggshell urned
B187A 500.2 1 subadult urned
B187B 702.5 1 urned
B188 0.7 1 urned
B190 * 952.3 1 young adult f urned
B191 254.9 1 infant urned
B193 115.4 1 urned
B194 105.4 1 urned

Table 144: cremation weights, BAL-11

(Neg = weight of material negligible; * indicates that the sample was contaminated by material other then
bone, the number indicates the degree of contamination)

'Population'
Of the 145 cremation related deposits form this site, 80.7% contained some identifiable material. Only
63.0% could be aged and only 37.0% were sexed. 23.4% of those identified could not be grouped closer
than adult or immature.
Age Number % of total % of identified
Infant 6 4.1% 6.7%
Juvenile 1 0.7% 1.1%
Subadult 10 6.9% 11.1%
Young adult 21 14.5% 23.3%
Mature adult 15 10.3% 16.7%
Older adult 11 7.6% 12.2%
Table 145: the death rate as represented by cremated remains, Wallington Road
Male Age Female
3.4% subadult
34.5% young adult 38.0%
20.7% mature adult 26.0%
13.8% older adult 28.0%
Table 146: the sex/age ratio represented by cremated remains, Wallington Road
Mean adult life expectancy appears to have been 25-30 years. Of the 57 individuals sexed, 53.7% were
male and 43.3% female. The lower percentage of females may be due to the difficulty in distinguishing
some females from subadults.
Any demographic discussion is precluded by the poor level of recovery and its effect upon the amount of
bone identifiable.

Cremation ritual and technology

The majority of the bone was well oxidised in that the bones were buff/white in colour, with the
characteristic shrinkage and twisting. In some cases, however, some bones were purple/black in colour
and in B119, the vertebrae were black; this indicates either oxygen deficiency and/or insufficient
temperature/time to complete combustion. The temporal vault and mandible were the bones most often
noted as blue/black, but femur, tibia, ulna, rib and tarsal bones were all recorded as being other than
buff/white in some cases. This variation in burning partly reflects certain technical aspects of the
cremation process (McKinley 1989; 1993a; 1994), but may at times have been as a result of the way the
body was lying. Bone may have become displaced from the pyre or something may have been covering
part of the body, cutting off oxygen.
In 27% of the deposits, numbers of nails were removed or iron stains were apparent on the bone (Table
147). In three cases, nails had actually became fused to the bone (skull in all cases), which may have
occurred during firing. In most cases, the nails were large enough to hold a box together, though those in
B31A (four in number) were noticeably smaller than the others. This collection included fragments of an
infant. It would seem possible that at least some of the bodies were placed in a 'coffin' before being
cremated. It is certainly probable that at least some kind of box was present, though it is hard to estimate
the size of such a box when it is likely that, as with the bones, only some of the nails were collected and
included in the burial.
Burial Iron staining Fuel ash slag
B10A x x
B13 x
329
 B14 x
B19 x
B24 x
B31A x
B33 x
B36 x
B37 x
B39 x
B41 x
B55 x
B57 x
B58A x
B58B x
B79 x
B80A x
B86 x
B91 x
B107 x
B110 x
B126 x
B149 x
B151 x
Table 147: cremation burials with iron staining and fuel ash slag, Wallington Road
In 9.2% of the deposits, fuel ash slag was found adhering to bone and a further 2.4% contained the slag
as separate fragments (Table 147). It is probably present as a result of the cremations taking place over a
soil with a high silica content, the silica in the soil being made molten during the cremation process and
adhering to bone on cooling (McKinley 1989; 1994).
Charcoal was recovered in 9.8% of the cremation-related deposits/burials and only in one, B147, was it
found in any quantity and the bones stained. The bones were usually clean, indicating deliberate
separation after cremation from other pyre débris. It may be significant that B147 was fairly isolated and
one of a small number of unurned cremation burials.
Bone from 14.1% of the deposits had a worn appearance or was root-marked on the surface. Of these,
2.4% were from unurned burials, which would understandably have weathered more than the others. It
was noted during excavation that many of the urns were shattered, which could help explain the
weathering of bone from urned burials, as soil, earthworms and roots but particularly water could
penetrate fractures in pottery.
The degree of bone fragmentation overall showed no unusual traits. In 52% of the collections, the
greatest weight was in the 10 mm sieve category. Generally, though, the difference in percentage
between the three sieve-fraction groups was not great.
Overall, the amount of bone recovered from the burials was low, with 53.1% containing less than 400 g;
20.0% had less than 100 g (this includes infants and juveniles, for whom the bone weights would
obviously be small). It is likely that plough-damage is largely to blame, resulting in truncation of a large
proportion of the vessels, often scattering bone which could not be recovered during excavation, having
been incorporated into the plough-soil.
There is always some degree of bias in percentages relating to collection of the skeletal elements in that
some are easier to recognise than others, noticeably the skull fragments. With this in mind, no particular
bias in the collection of certain skeletal areas was evident. In 72.4% of cases, skull was recognisable,
53.1% axial, 32.4% upper limb and 49% lower limb.
There was only one dual burial, B31A, a mature adult female with an infant. It is not unnatural to suppose
that the two were mother and child, though it would not be possible to prove this were the case.
Animal bone occurred either alone or in burials, in which case it was almost certainly burnt together with
the deceased as an offering. In both cases, only small quantities of bone were recovered, sometimes only
one bone. This would imply that certain joints of meat were being selected to accompany the body on the
pyre or to be buried in offering.
11.7% of the burials contained some animal bone; in all except four the bone was burnt (NB: this is
probably only a minimum figure, as some animal bone is likely to have been lost in post-depositional
disturbance and all may not have been collected from the pyre for burial). In almost all cases, the degree
of burning of the animal bones was poorer than that of the human bone they accompanied, most of it
being black/blue in colour. However, as the pyre would not have uniform heating and as certain skeletal
elements from the human remains exhibited the same coloration as the animal bone, it may well be that
the joints were placed on periphery of the pyre.
330
Of the animals identified, 5 fragments were cow/horse, 6 fragments were sheep/goat, 3 fragments bird, 1
pig, 1 small mammal and 1 fish. In addition to the 16 cases, there was one example of eggshell. The fish
evidence was probably accidental, for it was associated with a sooted vessel, possibly a former domestic
item that retained elements of fish when it was used as a pyre good. There was no apparent distribution
according to age/sex.

Pathology
Pathological lesions were observed but generally too little data survived for diagnosis of to enable
discussion regarding the health of individuals.

Acknowledgements
Thanks to Dr Keith Manchester for his advice, Julie Bond for her help with the identification of the animal
bones and Mr A Aspinall for his support.

Cremated bone from Icknield Way East Enclosure

Jacqueline I McKinley [1990]
Cremated bone from 16 contexts was received for examination, including the remains of a minimum of 11
urned burial and three unurned burials (at least one of which was deposited in a wooden casket). The
cremation gravess were situated within a small area to the west of and delineated by ditch [3930/3923].
They were fairly evenly spaced and respected one another, suggesting the possible use of grave
markers. There was no apparent spatial organisation in terms of age or sex of the individuals.
The cremation burials were situated within a small area to the west of and delineated by ditch 3930/3923.
They were fairly evenly spaced and respecting one another, suggesting the possible use of grave
markers. There was no apparent spatial organisation in terms of age or sex of the individuals. All were
single cremation burials.
Context D Wt No Age Sex Pathology An Burial type
3850 $ 8.5 1 subadult/adult urned
3876 1.7 1 urned
osteophytes on anterior
3882 586.2 1 mature adult urned
facet margins of atlas
3889 55.4 1 adult f?? urned
3895 235.7 1 adult u/b unurned
periodontal disease; pig, sheep
3901 802.4 1 mature/older adult osteophytes on atlas u/b, unurned
anterior facet unident.
sar, pig,
slight osteophytes atlas
small
3904 $ 962.2 1 mature adult f anterior facet; mild pitting unurned
domestic
in thoracic vertebra
fowl
3906 585.5 1 adult + urned
3918 2.9 1 urned
3932 84.5 1 subadult/adult unurned
medium-heavy periodontal
disease mandibular
sheep size
3980 $ 768.7 1 older adult m? alveolus; osteophytosis on urned
u/b
thoracic/lumbar body
margins
immature
3993 538.8 1 adult urned
rib + antler
hypercementosis maxillary
3996 535.6 1 mature/older adult m 3rd molar; mild/medium urned
periodontal disease
schmorl‟s node in thoracic
body; ostephytes on
older mature/older
7001 381.6 1 m medial margins of unurned
adult
trochlear surface of
humerus
exostoses along posterior
older subadult/
7002 105.5 1 muscle attachments of urned
adult
femur shaft
periodontal disease distal
alveolus; pitting in rib
facets thoracic vertebra;
older mature/older osteophytes on atlas, immature
7004 1490.6 1 f urned
adult thoracic/lumbar vertebra ?pig
bodies, 6 rib facet
margins, posterior inferior
acetabular rims

331
Table 000: Summary of results from analysis of cremated bone from Icknield Way East Enclsoure
All of the cremation burials had been disturbed to some degree, the unurned burial appearing to have
suffered least. In most of the urned burials, although the vessels were smashed, they did appear to be
almost complete, suggesting pottery and therefore bone was probably not removed from the grave by the
disturbance. The quantity of bone recovered varied greatly, with a range of 55.4-1490.6 g for the less
disturbed burials. Variation in weight was not related to age, sex or mode of deposition. Such a great
range in the quantity of bone collected has been noted by the writer in other cremation cemeteries of
various periods (McKinley 1989), never with any apparent reason. Although one may expect a certain
amount of natural variation in weight related to size, sex and possibly age (collapse of bone with, for
example, osteoporosity under the pressure of cremation) of the individual, the weight of bone from an
adult cremation should be between 1000 and 2500 g (McKinley 1993c). Total collection of bone has
rarely, if ever, been found but why such a great variation in quantity collected should exist is unclear. It is
possible that it may be related to the status of the individual – in whatever terms 'status' may be
measured – or to purely practical problems at the time of collection such as weather, daylight or simply
inclination of the collector.
Disturbance will also affect the amount of fragmentation noted to the cremated bone. Dry, brittle cremated
bone easily falls into smaller fragments even with the most careful excavation. Recent work by the writer
on bone from Sancton and Purton (McKinley 1993) has demonstrated that bone fragments included in a
burial may have been of a much larger size than it can ever be hoped to recover them in. Plough damage
to urns will undoubtedly break up the bone along lines of heat fractures and, together with the obvious
increased exposure to unurned cremated bones, we may be presented with an erroneous view of both
fragmentation and collection for burial. Between 27.6% and 66.6% of the bone from each burial was
recovered from the 10 mm mesh sieve. Fragmentation will have occurred during the cremation process
and as a result of incidental breakage during collection of the bone from the pyre, disturbance of the
burial and excavation. There is no conclusive evidence to suggest that deliberate breakage of the bone
took place to produce bone fragments of this size.
The cremations generally appear to have been efficient with the majority of bone being buff/white in
colour, indicative of full oxidation. There are a few odd cases of bone fragments being grey/blue/black
demonstrating incomplete oxidation but the variations are minor and of limited extenet. In contrast,
several of the later Romano-British burials from the site showed very poor overall oxidation of the bone, a
feature noted in another Romano-British burial from Purton (McKinley). This may reflect different
practices in pyre technology between the Iron Age and Romano-British groups.
The bone was generally clean, i.e. unstained by charcoal, and had been separated from the rest of the
pyre debris. Only one grave (3903(3895)) had signs of charcoal staining in the fill and one other
(3995(3996)) contained a fragment of burnt flint.
Animal bone was found with six cremation burials, unburnt in four and burnt in two. Some of the immature
pig bone in 7003(7004) was only charred, suggesting it was perhaps placed at the peripheries of the pyre
or added during the process of cremation. That some other goods were also placed on the pyre is
attested by melted glass/amber on the inner vault of 7003(7004), but copper alloy and iron staining may
have occurred whilst the bone was in the ground rather than on the pyre.

Demography
Fourteen individuals were identified, though it is likely there would have been at least one more but the
urn had been so badly disturbed all except 2.9 g of bone was lost.
All those identified were adults or subadult/adult. The lack of any infants or juveniles cannot be explained
by post-depositional loss as some remnants of the burials would have survived even if the bone itself did
not. Infant and juvenile bone is easily identifiable aftrer cremation, several were found in the later
Romano-British Wallington Road cemetery. Known Iron Age cremation cemeteries seem to illustrate use
of this rite for all except the very youngest individuals (Collis 1977), who were in some cases inhumed
within the settlement areas as in later Roman phases. It would seem therefore that there must be some
other inexplicable reason for this small cremation cemetery containing only adults predominantly in
excess of 30 years of age.
Age category Unsexed Female Male
Subadult/adult 2
Adult 3 1??
Mature adult 1 1
Older mature/older adult 1 1 2?
Older adult 1?
Table 000: Age and sex

332
Only 46.1% of the adults were sexed, with equal numbers of females and males. Such small number
preclude any further comment.

Pathology
Incomplete skeletal remains place restrictions on the quality and quantity of information it is possible to
derive from a burial, particularly with regard to pathology. The problem is compounded with cremation
burials, where lesions may be obscured by the fragmentation of the bone and certain types of lesions
may predispose a bone to destruction under the pressures of the cremation process in consequence of a
weakened bone structure.
Lesions were noted in 61.5% of the burials; these were either dental or related to some form of
degenerative joint disease. In cremation burials, dental lesions are often limited to those affecting the
supportive structure as tooth crowns frequently shatter as they expand rapidly in the heat of the pyre and
were often not collected for deposition.
Periodontal disease is an infection of the gums (pyorrhoea), which may cause resorption of the alveolar
bone. Development of the disease is encouraged by the presence of dental calculus (calcified plaque)
which provides a focus for bacteria in the mouth and is directly related to diet and poor oral hygiene.
Fragments of alveolus were found in six cremations (five mandibular, six maxillary) and mild-heavy
periodontal disease was noted in four mandibular alveolus. The apparently high percentage may be
biased by the lack of young individuals, the disease being known to increase with age.
Hypercementosis is a harmless condition involving the excessive formation of secondary cementation
usually in the lower two-thirds of the root. It may relate to a number of such as ageing, periapical
inflammation or tooth trauma. One mature adult male showed the presence of this condition in the third
molar roots.
There are many diseases which may affect the joints of the skeleton, most of which are degenerative in
nature. Likelihood of occurrence increases with age though there are other predisposing factors such as
trauma, weight, previous disease and hereditary predisposition.
Osteophytes are irregular new bone growths which may proliferate around a joint. The lesion may occur
alone in which case it is largely related to age and is not classed as a clinical disease, or it may occur in
combination with other surfaces, in which case it may be indicative of a joint disease the most common of
which is osteoarthritis. Slight-medium osteophytes were noted in all four atlas anterior facets recovered,
also on one humeral trochanter, thoracic/lumbar vertebral bodies of two individuals, one acetabular rim
and the rib facet margins of one individual. 7004 had osteophytes in four joint groups.
Osteoarthritis is a disease affecting the synovial joints, the weight bearing joints of the spine and lower
limb being those most prone. Mild lesions were noted in the costovertebral articular surfaces of two
individuals including 7004.
Schmorl's nodes develop in response to the herniation of the intervertebral disc allowing the nucleus to
protrude into the body of the adjacent vertebra. 7001 had a small age related wear and tear lesions to be
seen at tendon and ligament insertions are exostoses. This new bone (i.e. ossification of minor
haematomas) develops in response to stress on the tendon/ligament and may also reflect traumatic
events or be related to other disease. Mild lesions were noted in the posterior muscle attachments of the
femur shaft in 7002.

Cremated bone from Icknield Way East cemetery

Jacqueline I McKinley [1990]
Cremated bone from 11 contexts was received for analysis, including the remains of four burials of
uncertain form. Other contexts include bone disturbed and redeposited in grave fills. Cremation burials
were recovered from BAL-45, where they were found mostly around the edges of the cemetery. At least
four were superseded by inhumations, having been disturbed by their grave cuts and redeposited in the
fills.
Context D Wt No Age Sex Pathology An Burial type
3801 10.4 1 redep.
3819 16.6 1 subadult/adult urned
3865 12.8 1 redep. ?urned
3873 8.5 1 redep.
3875 0.9 1 redep.
3877 0.7 + redep.
3949 21.7 1 redep.
3985 227.1 1 mature/older adult unurned

333
 3990 714.8 1 young adult m? urned
7013 1150.1 1 mature/older adult urned
7040 3.5 1 adult redep. ?urned

Table 000: Summary of results from analysis of cremated bone from Icknield Way East cemetery
Most of the burials were quite badly disturbed, if not in antiquity then in consequence of modern
ploughing. Only three cremations had in excess of 50 g of bone, that is c 3% of the total weight expected
from an adult cremation (McKinley 1993c), and only one was totally undisturbed (Table 000). Burial
7012(7013), an undisturbed urned burial included 1150.1 g of bone, c 72% by weight of the total expected
from the average adult cremation, 39.5% of which was identifiable bone. Being undisturbed this provides
the closest impression of the original level of fragmentation to the bones. 71.1% of the bone was collected
in the 10 mm sieve fraction with a maximum fragment size of 51 mm.
Several of the burials showed poor levels of oxidation to many bones. The vault and posterior shaft of the
femur of two of the smaller collections were blue/grey but the two largest burials, 7009(7990) and
7012(7013), showed extensive poor oxidation of the bone with many areas being only charred black.
7009(7006) had progressively greater oxidation of the bone from the head to the feet, much of the skull
and upper limb being black, the axial skeleton blue/black and lower limb blue-grey. 7012(7013) had a
similar pattern but not so excessive. Similar poor levels of oxidation have been noted by the writer in
other Romano-British burials, e.g. Purton (McKinley in prep.), and suggests incomplete time/temperature
availability to complete the cremation process. In contrast, the bone in the earlier Iron Age burials from
the same site showed consistently good levels of oxidation, perhaps reflecting differences in pyre
technology.
The bone was generally clean, that is unstained by charcoal, and the had been well separated out from
the rest of the pyre debris although in one grave, 7005(3985), there was slight charcoal staining in the
soil.

Demography
Ageing of cremated individuals was severely limited. No infants or juveniles were identified and only three
individuals could be placed in close categories, with one young adult and two mature/older adults.
Only one of the cremation burials presented sufficient evidence to allow the sex of the individual to be
suggested and then only as a possible male, young adult.

BAL-15: Royston Road and Yeomanry Drive North cemeteries [1991]

Jacqueline I McKinley [1991]
Cremated bone from 986 contexts was received for examination, including two urns, one undamaged and
one damaged but whole, to be excavated by the writer. 446 unurned, urned or boxed cremation burials (in
order of frequency) had been identified in excavation. An additional 75 contexts represented cremated
bone redeposited in inhumation graves or in pit fills. Two, or occasionally more, contexts represented the
remains from a single cremation in 8.1% of those identified by the writer. Twenty-seven contexts are
believed to have represented the remains of pyre sites. The remaining contexts producing cremated bone
were either scatters or fills of various kinds.
The site had suffered extensively from plough disturbance, considerably so in some areas. In addition, as
a rescue excavation in advance of housing development, damage by excavation machinery was
experienced in some parts of the site.
The two urns emptied by the writer were excavated in 20 mm spits and quadrants. Annotated plans were
drawn at each level and an annotated section was produced (Figures 00-00). The bone was weighed and
identified within the levels and quadrants.

Results
The total bone weight, including that of the cremated animal bone, for each of the 986 contexts, together
with the percentages of bone collected in each sieve are presented in the archive with the weights in g to
one decimal place; occasionally a small fragment of bone may have been present but being <0.1 g has
not registered. Where a context is part of a burial, the designated 'cremation' burial number has been
appended. Where a burial was made up of several contexts, the numbers of those contexts have been
appended to the designated 'cremation burial' context number.
776 of the contexts contained some identifiable bone. Of those which did not, with only a very few
exceptions, the bone was obviously both cremated and human, but the fragments were either too small,
too few or too undiagnostic to be identified to skeletal element. Forty of the identified cremation graves or
redeposited cremation burials did not provide any identifiable bone, while a few produced no bone at all,
probably as a result of severe disturbance. All identifiable bone is recorded in the archive report, the
334
maximum fragment sizes are given, the percentage of the total weight of bone identifiable, and the
percentages of identifiable bone in each of the skeletal areas.
Bone was identified from 481 cremation burials. A summary of the results comprising the total weight of
bone from the burial, number of individuals, age, sex, pathology, presence of animal bone, and type of
deposit are presented in Table 000 over the following pages. Only those contexts interpreted as
representing the remains of cremation burials are given in this table, others which produced cremated
bone, such as suspected pyre sites, scatters, pit fills etc., are not included.
Context D Wt No Age Sex Pathology An Burial type
4008 2.5 ?0 + unurned + debris
4009 0.1 ?0 ? unurned + debris
4012 0 ?0 ? unurned
4013 0 ?0 ?unurned
4018 0 ?0 ? unurned
4024 * 247.2 1 adult ?f boxed + debris
4028 $ 89 1 adult unurned + debris
4030 ?* 170.2 1 adult; mature/ + unurned + debris
older
4063 ?* 505.4 1 adult; mature/older ??m calculus; o.p. - finger unurned + debris
phalanx
4065 51 1 adult urned + pit debris
4071 786.8 1 adult; young/ urned + pit debris
mature
4073 ?* 481.9 1 adult; older o.p. - finger phalanges; unurned + debris
$ mature/older exostoses - finger phalanx
4091 0 1 subadult/ adult unurned
4093 381.6 2 1) adult; young 1) ??f urned + debris
2) older infant/
juvenile
4098 3 ?0 unurned
4100 84.5 1 adult; older unurned + debris
mature/older
4108 15.9 subadult/ adult unurned + debris
4109 688.9 1 adult; older ??f periodontal disease; o.a. - + urned - debris
mature/older costo-vertebral; pitting
auricular surface
4110 * 1599.1 1 adult; young/ ??f calculus; caries; unurned + debris
younger mature hypoplasia; periodontal
disease; Schmorl's node -
lumbar; exostoses - femur;
tooth impaction; m.v. - 3rd
molars
4112 * 21.9 1 adult boxed + debris
4113 891.9 1 adult ?f unurned + debris
4114 ?* 17.2 1 adult unurned + debris
4115 478.9 1 subadult: urned - debris
older/adult:
younger
4116 $ 146.8 1 adult; mature/older ??m unurned + debris
4117 5.7 ?1 subadult/ adult unurned + debris
4118 76.7 1 adult unurned + debris
4120 ?* 1604.6 2/?3 1) adult; older ?f & o.a.- temporo-mandibular, unurned + debris
mature/older 2) ?m costo-vertebral; o.p. - axis
adult; mature/older
3) ?
4121 122.9 1 adult caries unurned + debris
4122 867.8 1/?2 1) adult; older 2) 1) ?f o.a. - temporo-mandibular, present urned - debris
adult 2) ? thoracic; o.p. - atlas,
thoracic/lumbar; exostoses
- radius interosseous
border
4126 ?* 471.4 1 adult; older mature ??m m.v. - metopic sutures, unurned + debris
wormian bone
4131 120.4 1 adult ?m unurned
4132 2.1 1 adult; older ? exostoses - ilium unurned
4133 196.7 1 adult ? ?worked unurned
bird
4134 1.2 1 adult unurned
4135 480 1 adult ? small unurned + debris
mammal
335
4136 * 853 1/?2 adult; older ? o.a. - costo-vertebral unurned + debris
mature/older
4138 560.2 1 adult; older ? tooth loss; o.p. - atlas unurned?
mature/older
4162 $? 938 1 adult; older mature ? unurned + debris
*
4192 $ 762.3 1 adult; older f o.p. - atlas, cervical, ? urned - debris
thoracic, thoracic/lumbar,
distal humerus, proximal
radius, distal femur; d.d.d.
- thoracic/lumber;
exostoses - radius, femur
4208 ?* 243.8 1 adult; older ?m o.p. - thoracic/lumber; unurned + debris
mature/older d.d.d. - thoracic/lumbar
4215 3.9 ?0 unurned ?+
debris
4221 9.4 1/?2 1) ? small unurned
subadult/immature mammal
2) adult
4222 31.4 ?1 ? ? mostly; unurned
imm.
4226 $ 108.7 1 adult; older ? present unurned ?+
mature/older debris
4232 412.4 1 adult; mature/older ?m exostoses - patella unurned ?+
debris
4233 2.7 ? ? ? unurned
4234 67.3 1 adult; mature ? solitary bone cyst - lunate urned - debris
4235 987.5 1 adult; older ??m o.p. - atlas, ?bird unurned
mature/older thoracic/lumber; exostoses
- femur shaft
4236 27.2 1 infant ; unurned
older/juvenile;
young
4237 29.8 1 adult unurned
4238 55.2 1 juvenile; older/subadult caries unurned
4239 423.8 1 adult; older ?f exostoses - femur head unurned + debris
mature/older
4241 0.7 ? ? ? unurned
4242 95.5 1 subadult/adult ? unurned + debris
4243 ?* 298.3 1 adult; older ? d.d.d. - cervical; o.a. - unurned + debris
proximal radius
4244 $ 282.5 1 adult; older ? caries ?rib urned ?+ debris
mature/older
4246 ?* 646.2 1 adult; older ??m o.p. - axis; thoracic ? unurned + debris
mature/older process
4247 ?* 196.5 1 adult ??m unurned + debris
4248 100.8 1 adult; older ? caries; pitting - proximal unurned + debris
mature/older ulna; exostoses - proximal
ulna
4250 4.3 ?1 subadult/adult ? unurned
4252 ?* 117.6 1 adult unurned ?+
debris
4253 ?* 191.2 1 adult; older ? caries; infected pulp u/b h/c unurned + debris
mature/older cavity; o.p. - finger tooth
phalanx
4256 18.2 1 adult ? ?unurned ?+
debris
4257 ?* 153.1 1 adult ? unurned + debris
4258 33.4 1 adult ? unurned + debris
4259 * 430.7 1 adult; ? unurned + debris
young/mature
4260 23 1 subadult/adult ? unurned + debris
4261 ?* 770.4 1 adult; mature/older ?f o.p. - axis unurned + debris
4263 ?* 506.7 1 adult ? present unurned + debris
4268 * 248.1 1 adult; older ??f periodontal disease unurned ?+
mature/older debris
4269 22.4 1 subadult/adult ? unurned + debris
4270 $? 621.1 1 adult; older ? caries; o.p. - axis; d.d.d. - unurned + debris
* cervical; exostoses - finger
phalanx
4273 17.7 ?1 ?subadult/adult ? boxed ?+ debris
4274 17.9 1 adult ? unurned + debris
4276 0.5 ? ? ? unurned

336
4277 5.9 ?1 ? ? ?
4278 96.8 1 adult; older ? o.a. - thoracic urned + debris
mature/older
4281 ?* 337.1 1 adult; older ??m exostoses - ilium unurned + debris
mature/older
4285 ?$ 287.2 1 adult; mature/older ??f unurned + debris
4286 184.2 1 adult; mature ? unurned ?+
debris
4288 * 700.1 1 adult; older ? d.d.d. - cervical, lumbar; urned - debris
o.a. - costo-vertebral,
thoracic; o.p. -
acetabulum; exostoses -
femur neck
4289 ?* 3.3 ?1 subadult/adult ? unurned + debris
4292 ?* 216.9 1 adult; older ? unurned + debris
mature/older
4294 $ 211 1 adult ?f urned - debris
4295 318.1 1 adult; older ? o.p. - radius head unurned + debris
4296 ?* 136.2 1 adult; older ? d.d.d.- thoracic/lumbar; unurned + debris
o.a. - thoracic/lumbar
4297 152.9 1 adult ? unurned ?- debris
4298 26.1 ?1 subadult/adult ? ?unurned/scatter
?
4303 ?* 43 1 subadult/adult ? unurned + debris
4304 80 1 adult ? unurned + debris
4306 60.9 1 subadult/adult ? unurned + debris
4307 11 ?1 ? ? unurned + debris
4310 ?* 282 1 adult; older ? o.a. - cervical unurned + debris
mature/older
4311 $ 804.1 1 adult; ? urned - debris
young/mature
4313 515.5 1 adult; older ??f caries; tooth loss; cribra unurned + debris
orbitalia; o.p. - atlas, axis;
d.d.d. - cervical; Schmorl's
node - cervical; o.a. -
thoracic, lumbar; periostitis
- thoracic, all lo
4315 41.3 1 subadult/adult ? urned - debris
4316 * 400.9 1 adult unurned + debris
4317 ? 67.5 1 adult ? unurned + debris
4318 2.6 ? ? ? unurned
4320 * 415.5 1 adult; older f o.a. - cervical; o.p. - finger unurned + debris
phalanges
4321 ?* 129.1 1 adult ??f exostoses - humerus shaft unurned +
?debris
4325 21.1 1 adult ? tooth unurned + debris
enamel
4326 * 860.7 1 adult; older ??f dental abscess; tooth loss; unurned + debris
o.a. - lumbar
4328 9.5 1 >infant ? unurned + debris
3334 $ 235.3 1 adult; older ?f d.d.d. urned - debris
4339 259.1 1 subadult urned + pit debris
4342 * 1055.6 1 adult; young f periostitis - long bone unurned + debris
shaft
4344 49.4 1 subadult/adult ? unurned
4348 0.8 ? >infant ? ?unurned
4349 ?* 1 adult ??m unurned + debris
4353 ?* 170 1 adult; older ??f unurned + debris
4354 103.9 1 adult ? u/b unurned + debris
4368 37.7 1 infant; burnt + u/b urned + pit debris
older/juvenile
4370 10.7 1 adult; older ? ?unurned/
mature/older ?scatter
4376 ?* 157.5 1 adult; older ? o.p. - finger phalanx unurned + debris
4379 206.8 1 adult ?f unurned + debris
4402 82.2 1 subadult/adult ? unurned + debris
4416 ?* 82.4 1 subadult/adult ? unurned + debris
4417 *? 43.4 1 subadult/adult ? unurned + debris
4421 18.8 ?1 subadult/adult ? unurned + debris

337
4431 $ 844.8 1 adult; older o.p. - atlas, urned + pit debris
thoracic/lumber; d.d.d. -
thoracic/lumbar, sacral;
new bone - sacral;
exostoses - finger
phalanx, femur shaft
4267 $? 118.9 1 adult ? unurned + debris
*
4433 $ 160.4 1 adult; older ? o.p. - atlas urned - debris
mature/older
4447 $ 522.6 1 adult; mature ? urned + pit debris
4464 499.4 1 adult; older ? o.p. - thoracic/lumbar urned - debris
4465 11.1 1 infant u/b urned - debris
4466 29.1 1 subadult/adult ??f unurned ?- debris
4469 60.5 1 adult ? urned - debris
4470 ?* 213.9 1 adult ? unurned + debris
4471 ?* 82.7 1 adult ? unurned +debris
4476 264.8 1 subadult/adult ??m urned - debris
4480 318.3 1 adult; older ? o.p. - distal humerus; urned - debris
mature/older exostoses - femur shaft
4498 $ 442.7 1/?2 1) adult; older 1) ?m exostoses - iliac crest, unurned ?+
mature/older ?2) femur shaft; o.p. - thoracic debris
infant rib facet
4502 260.8 1 subadult ? urned
4508 10.3 1 juvenile; young ?unurned
4514 * 288.5 1 adult; older ? tooth loss; pitting - thoracic unurned ?+
mature/older rib facet debris
4516 211.6 1 adult; mature/older urned
4521 $ 246.5 1/2 1) adult ? urned + ?pit
?2) infant debris
4526 $ 456.5 1 adult; mature f m.v. - absent 3rd molar, urned + pit debris
occipital 'bunning', metopic
sutures, wormian bones;
o.p. - rib facets
4534 $ 64.9 1 subadult; young ? urned
4335 $ 138.1 1 adult; mature/older ??m o.p. - finger phalanx urned + pit debris
4536 *$ 421.9 1 adult ??m ?gall stone present - urned + unurned
blue + pit deb
4540 145.9 1/?2 1) adult; mature/ 1) ??f caries; o.p. - vertebrae urned
older
?2) infant
4575 * 935.1 1 adult; older ?f periodontal disease; o.a. - present; boxed ?+ debris
thoracic; o.p. - acetabulum black
4576 35.1 1 adult; mature/older ? o.p. - lumbar urned?
4579 $ 170.3 1 subadult; young urned ?+ debris
(?grave)
4590 114.6 1 subadult/adult unurned + debris
4601 206.1 1 adult; older ? o.p. - atlas, ?bird urned - debris
mature/older thoracic/lumber
4602 278.1 1 adult ? urned - debris
4603 202.5 1/?2 1) adult; young/ urned in box + pit
mature debris
?2) infant/juvenile;
young
4607 72.2 1 subadult/adult ? ?unurned
4610 31.4 1 ?juvenile ?unurned/?pyre
base
4620 129 1 subadult/adult ? unurned + debris
4623 212.3 1 adult; mature/older ?m dental abscess/caries unurned + debris
4624 34.5 1 adult; mature ? unurned + debris
4625 206.3 1 adult; older ? periodontal disease ?unurned/?pyre
mature/older base
4630 *$ 1440.6 1/+1 1) adult; older +1) 1) m tooth loss; o.a. - thoracic; unurned + debris
= = 4785/7 Schmorl's node - lumbar
4631 3.5 2 1) infant 2)>infant ? unurned + debris
4636 * 309.3 1 adult; older ??f o.a. - temporo-mandibular unurned + debris
mature/older
4637 * 525.7 1 adult; old f o.a. - axis, cervical, radius with o.a.? unurned + debris
head; o.p. - thoracic
processes,
thoracic/lumbar, proximal
ulna, finger phalanx; cysts
338
 - lunate
4638 59.9 1 subadult/adult ? unurned + debris
4640 * 99.8 1/?2 1) adult; mature 1) ??f caries unurned + debris
4654 435.8 1 adult; mature ??f o.p. - atlas urned
4655 * 510.6 1 adult; mature f periodontal disease; cyst - small, urned - debris
cervical; m.v. - wormian imm.
bones
4657 21.4 1 infant/juvenile; urned + pit debris
young
4658 274.6 1 adult f unurned + debris
4659 ?* 329.7 1 adult; older m d.d.d. - thoracic unurned + debris
mature/older
4660 212.1 1 adult ? unurned + debris
4661 42.6 1 adult ? unurned + debris
4665 4.1 1 adult unurned + debris
4671 * 1113.3 1 adult; older mature ?f caries; o.p. - atlas; pitting - unurned + debris
proximal ulna
4674 1063.1 1 adult; older ?f tooth loss; o.p. - axis, unurned + debris
thoracic/lumber, 1st
sacral; o.a. - cervical,
thoracic; cyst - hamate;
m.v. - wormian bone
4677 276.6 1 adult; older ? o.p. - axis unurned + debris
mature/older
4679 93.3 1 subadult/adult ? unurned + debris
4782 55.3 1 juvenile; older unurned + debris
4684 ?* 493.2 1 adult ? unurned - debris
4688 ?* 1491.4 1 adult; older ?f tooth loss; o.p. - atlas, u/b large unurned - debris
ribs, radius head, lunate;
exostoses - ribs, lunate,
patella
4689 41.5 1 subadult; ? urned - debris
older/adult
4691 118 1 adult; older ?f o.a. -atlas/axis, finger urned - debris
phalanx; d.d.d. -
thoracic/lumber; Schmorl's
node - thoracic/lumbar
4695 119.6 1 subadult/adult ? periostitis - femur shaft urned ?+ pit
debris
4696 652.4 1 adult; older ? periodontal disease; o.p. - h/c urned - debris
atlas, scaphoid enamel
4701 555.4 1 adult; older mature f urned ?- debris
4606 801.8 1 adult; f m.v. - atlas double facet urned - debris
young/younger
mature
4705 49.9 1 subadult/adult ? urned + grave
debris
4709 158.6 1 adult; mature/older ? o.p. - lumbar urned - debris
4710 21.7 1? subadult/adult ? urned - debris
4711 5.4 1 infant/juvenile urned - debris
4712 688.5 1 juvenile; hypercementosis urned - debris
older/subadult;
young
4718 3.8 1? adult ? urned - debris
4719 $ 392.6 1 adult; older ? d.d.d. - cervical; o.a. - u/b urned - debris
mature/older costo-vertebral; o.p. - small/bird
thoracic/lumber
4722 451.5 1 adult; mature ?f cribra orbitalia; o.a. - urned - debris
thoracic rib facet
4722 490.8 1/?2 1) adult ?2) 1) f urned - debris
infant/juvenile
4723 91.1 1 adult; older ? d.d.d. - thoracic/lumbar urned - debris
mature/older
4724 $ 774.8 1 adult; older ? d.d.d. - thoracic/lumber; black/ urned - debris
m.v. - mandibular tori grey;
oyster s
4729 $ 214.9 1 adult ??m urned + pit debris
4748 $? 380.4 1/?2 1) adult; older ?2) ? tooth loss; o.p. - axis, urned ?+ pit
* adult finger phalanx debris
4764 150.8 1 adult ? ?unurned/?pyre
base
4770 $ 136.8 1 adult ? unurned + debris
4772 460.5 1 adult; older mature ?f unurned
339
4775 $ 109.5 1 adult ? urned
4785 $ 457.1 1 adult; older m o.a. - temporo-mandibular; unurned ?- debris
mature/older m.v. - metopic suture
4789 188.6 1 adult; older ? o.a. - temporo-mandibular unurned + debris
4673 34.9 1 adult ? urned - debris
4842 $ 286.7 1 adult; older ? dental abscess; o.p. - redep. ?unurned
mature/older finger phalanges
4847 46.9 1 adult ? unurned + debris
4848 $* 529.6 1 adult; older m unurned + debris
mature/older
4849 $ 146.5 1 adult ? urned + pit debris
4878 449 1 adult; older ?f pitting - thoracic rib facets unurned + debris
mature/mature
4879 $* 722.7 1 adult; older ? ?gall/kidney stone; d.d.d. - poorly unurned + debris
cervical; exostoses - femur burnt
shaft; o.a. lumbar, finger
phalanx
4880 $ 761.4 1 adult; older ? caries; o.a. - axis ?bird unurned
mature/older
4888 * 307 1 adult; older ? caries; infected pulp cavity unurned + debris
mature/older
4890 72.1 1 adult ? unurned + debris
4898 * 984.9 1 adult; older ?f tooth loss; periodontal unurned + debris
mature/older disease; o.p. - proximal
ulna
4902 $ 241.5 1 adult ? urned - debris
4909 ?* 62.6 1 subadult/adult ? unurned + debris
4933 * 1069.7 1 adult; older ??f periostitis - humerus, unurned + debris
mature/older femur. tibia, fibula;
exostoses - finger
phalanges, patella
4934 ?* 64.8 1 adult ? unurned + debris
4935 $ 454.1 1 adult ? urned - debris
4938 $ 18.9 1 adult ? unurned + debris
4942 $ 20.5 1 subadult/adult ? redep. urned
4955 $ 43.5 1 juvenile ?unurned - debris
4962 29.5 1 adult ? unurned + debris
4966 $ 110.4 1 adult; older ? periodontal disease unurned + debris
mature/older
4977 $ 498.3 1 adult ?f m.v. - wormian bone urned + grave
debris
5011 $ 392.4 1 adult; f urned - debris
young/mature
5024 ?* 254.2 1 adult; mature/older ? o.a. - thoracic unurned + debris
5033 $ 254.1 1 adult ? ?bird unurned + debris
5045 $ 453.8 1 adult; older ??m o.p. - thoracic urned - debris
5046 $ 563.4 1 adult; older m periostitis - femur shaft; small bird urned - debris
o.p. - thoracic/lumber; o.a.
- femur head
5050 $ 456.5 1 adult; older f tooth loss; m.v. - wormian urned - debris
mature/older bone
5054 $ 568.4 1 adult; f dental abscess u/b sheep urned - debris
young/mature
5061 $ 191.3 1 adult ? redepo. urn
5067 2.2 ?1 ? ? urned - debris
5077 $ 209.5 1 adult; older u/b urned - debris
mature/older
5079 $ 276.1 1/?2 1) adult; mature 1)?f u/b urned - debris
?2) adult ?2)?m
6081 $ 258.9 1 adult; older ??f tooth loss; periodontal ?bird urned - debris
disease; d.d.d. - thoracic,
lumbar
5082 $ 468.8 1 adult; older mature ??m urned - debris
5088 $? 965.8 1 adult; older mature ?m caries; infected pulp urned - debris
* cavity; Schmorl's node -
lumbar, sacral; pitting -
metatarsal head; m.v. -
metopic suture
5092 $ 1061.7 1 adult; older ? o.p. - lunate, finger imm. urned - debris
mature/older phalanx; new bone - femur
head
5103 $ 206.3 1 adult; older ??m d.d.d. - cervical; o.p. - small urned - debris

340
 mature/older thoracic mammal
5106 $ 1001.5 1 adult; older ? d.d.d. - lower thoracic; urned - debris
mature/older Schmorl's node - thoracic
5110 389.6 1 adult; older ? d.d.d. - thoracic/lumbar unurned - debris
mature/older
5114 $ 170.4 1 adult; old ? o.a. - thoracic; d.d.d. - urned - debris
thoracic/lumbar; exostoses
- humerus, femur
5117 874 1 adult; younger ?f urned - debris
mature
5120 $ 317.5 1 subadult; young present urned - debris
5122 $ 680.5 1 subadult; young u/b urned - debris
5123 $ 355.6 1 adult; older ? urned- debris
5124 $ 1051.2 1 adult; older ?f tooth loss; o.a. - thoracic; urned - debris
exostoses - ischial crest,
humerus shaft, femur
shaft; o.p. - proximal ulna
5125 $* 729.4 1 adult; older ??m o.p. - lumbar ? urned - debris
mature/older
5133 $ 242 1 urned - debris
5136 100.7 1 adult; older ? tooth loss; o.p. - cervical urned - debris
processes
5143 $ 176.1 1 adult ? urned - debris
5144 $ 221.9 1 adult ??f urned - debris
4146 $* 194.2 1 juvenile; young m.v. - 3rd centre urned - debris
metacarpal
5147 $ 108.2 1 adult; older ? exostoses - femur head urned - debris
5150 $ 166.8 1 adult; older ? urned - debris
5152 $* 56.4 1 infant urned - debris
5155 191.8 2 1) infant 2) adult; 2) m u/b redepo. ?unurned
young/younger
mature
5159 $? 186.6 1 adult; older mature ? unurned + debris
*
5160 ?* 34.8 1 adult ? unurned + debris
5161 3.9 1? subadult/adult ? unurned + debris
5162 5.8 1? subadult/adult ? unurned + debris
4164 $ 319.7 1 adult; older ? d.d.d. - thoracic/lumbar; urned - debris
exostoses - femur shaft
5170 $ 306.3 1 adult; older m o.a. - cervical unurned + debris
5186 $ 246.8 1 adult; older ? exostoses - femur head; urned - debris
mature/older periostitis - tibia shaft
5173 30 1 subadult/adult ? u/b unurned
5177 $ 261.7 1 subadult; older ? urned - debris
5179 $ 158.2 1 adult ? present unurned + debris
5189 $ 52.1 1? subadult/adult ? urned - debris
5196 $ 176.4 1 adult; older ? caries; o.a. - temporo- urned - debris
mandibular
5207 $ 73.2 1 adult ? unurned + debris
5212 $ 626.2 1 adult; older ??f o.p. - atlas, finger phalanx; unurned + debris
periodontal disease;
exostoses - femur head
4214 $* 103.2 1 juvenile; young ? urned - debris
5222 $ 43 1 adult; older ? u/b sheep/pig urned - debris
mature/older
5229 $ 511.8 1 adult: older mature ?f exostoses - patella urned - debris
5235 $ 629 1 adult; old ? o.a. - thoracic, patella; urned - debris
exostoses - finger
phalanges, femur, fibula;
pitting - finger phalanges
5239 72.9 1 adult ? unurned + debris
5240 $ 834.9 1 adult; older ?m exostoses - finger bird unurned ?redepo.
phalanx, patella; o.a. - ?worked; + debris
thoracic/lumbar, costo- u/b
vertebral; m.v. - vastus
notch
5252 $ 48.9 1 subadult/adult ? urned - debris
4254 ?* 98.8 1 adult; older ??f d.d.d. - cervical/thoracic; unurned + debris
o.a. - thoracic
5257 $ 174.4 1 juvenile; urned - debris
older/subadult;

341
 young
5263 12.5 1 juvenile; older unurned + debris
5265 $ 16.6 1 juvenile; young urned - debris
5267 590.6 1 adult; older ??f caries; periodontal unurned + debris
disease; o.p. - rib facet;
exostoses - patella
5269 $ 239.7 1 adult ? urned - debris
5272 600.2 1 adult; mature ?m caries; infected pulp present redepo. urned
cavity; exostoses - finger
phalanx
5274 $ 133.7 1 juvenile; young urned - debris
5275 $? 369.9 2 1) adult; older 1) ?f urned - debris
* mature 2) infant
5276 $ 529.7 1 adult; mature/older ? oyster unurned + debris
shell
5281 $ 443.6 1 subadult ? urned - debris
5287 $* 940.9 1 adult; mature ?m periodontal disease; small bird urned - debris
exostoses - femur
5290 $ 35.8 1 subadult/adult ? urned - debris
5291 130.8 1 subadult; ? ?u/b unurned + debris
older/adult
5292 * 865 1 adult; older mature ??f periodontal disease; m.v. - ? unurned + debris
vastus notch
5293 $ 32.1 1 subadult/adult ? urned - debris
5301 83.6 1 adult ? redepo. ?unurned
5333 $ 60 1 adult ? redepo. ?unurned
4346 $? 623.8 1 adult; older mature ?m Schmorl's node - thoracic bird urned + pit debris
*
5351 $ 316.2 1 adult; older ? pitting + new bone urned + debris
(infection?) - lumbar; o.a. - (urn & grave)
distal femur
5352 $ 445.3 1 adult ? urned + pit debris
5435 $* 626.5 1 subadult; ? ?bird urned - debris
older/adult; young
5436 0.8 ? >infant unurned? +
debris
5437 $ 756.5 1 adult; older ??f o.p. - axis; d.d.d. - urned - debris
thoracic/lumbar; exostoses
- femur head
5461 $ 485.3 1 adult ? urned
5469 $ 162.1 2 1) adult 2) adult 1) ?f ? redepo. ?unurned
5471 $ 797.8 1 adult; older f tooth loss; periodontal urned + grave
disease; cribra orbitalia; debris
d.d.d. - thoracic;
exostoses - femur; m.v. -
wormian bone
5480 ?* 556.9 1 adult; old f periodontal disease; o.a. - bird urned - debris
costo-vertebral, thoracic;
distal humerus; d.d.d. -
thoracic, lumbar;
exostoses - proximal
femur
5496 $ 27.5 1 adult; mature/older ??f unurned
5499 630 1 adult; older ?m o.a. - costo-vertebral; urned
d.d.d. - thoracic/lumbar,
lumbar
5508 $ 41.5 1 adult ? redepo. ?unurned
5512 $ 118.9 1 adult; older ? urned - debris
5514 $ 481.5 1 adult; older ?f caries; tooth loss boxed ?- debris
5517 347.6 1/?2 1) adult; mature 1) ?f urned - debris
?2) infant/young
5518 8.2 ?1 subadult/adult ? redepo. ?unurned
5525 6.8 1? adult ? ?unurned
5529 $ 18.1 1 infant urned - debris
5535 20.2 ?1 subadult/adult urned - debris
5544 33 1 infant u/b urned - debris
enamel
5551 232.4 1 adult; older ?f d.d.d. - thoracic/lumbar urned + pit debris
mature/older
5557 ?* 269.7 1 adult; older ??f tooth loss; dental lesion unurned + debris
5559 * 695.2 1 adult; old ?f caries; d.d.d. - cervical; unurned + debris

342
 exostoses - finger
phalanges
5560 5.4 1? subadult/adult ? unurned + debris
5562 ?* 1198.6 1 adult; old f caries; tooth loss; o.a. - unurned + debris
axis; cervical, thoracic;
d.d.d. - cervical, thoracic;
exostoses - ulna shaft;
o.p. - finger phalanx
5570 ?* 1109.7 1 adult; older ??f caries; infected pulp cavity unurned + debris
5576 $ 228.2 1 adult; old ? d.d.d. - thoracic/lumbar urned - debris
5578 30.9 1 infant/juvenile; unurned + debris
young
5583 644.3 1 adult; older ??m tooth loss unurned + debris
mature/older
5630 $ 68.4 1 adult ? ?
5632 6.8 ?1 >infant redepo. ?unurned
5634 $ 123.6 1 adult; older ? redepo. ?unurned
5638 $ 97.2 1 adult ? redepo. urned
5640 $ 44.2 1 adult ? redepo. ?unurned
5642 7.5 ?1 subadult/adult ? redepo. ?unurned
5663 374 1 adult; older ? d.d.d. - thoracic/lumbar urned - debris
mature/older
5668 0.8 ?1 adult ? redepo. urned ?-
debris
5680 $ 259.8 1 adult; older mature ? d.d.d. - thoracic urned - debris
5685 $ 430 1 adult; older f d.d.d. - cervical; cyst - urned - debris
mature/older scapula
5694 8.1 1? subadult/adult ? urned - debris
5699 26.9 1 adult ? redepo. ?unurned
5704 67.4 1 adult ??f unurned + debris
5705 37 1 adult f redepo. ?unurned
5726 43.8 1 subadult/adult ? u/b h/c redepo. ?unurned
tooth
5731 17.9 1 infant; young urned - debris
5755 62.3 1 subadult/adult ? urned
5764 $ 21.1 1 adult ? urned - debris
5775 12.6 ?1 adult ? redepo. ?unurned
5786 262.8 1 adult; older ? o.p. - finger phalanx charred urned + pit debris
mature/older black;
large
5798 $ 54.8 1 adult ? unurned - debris
5836 ** 234.3 1 juvenile; young hypoplasia; periostitis - urned - debris
humerus & radius shaft
5852 $ 906.5 2* 1) adult; older 2) 1) exostoses - femur shaft; 2 urns - debris
juvenile; young ??m d.d.d. - thoracic/lumbar
5887 61.8 1 subadult; ? urned - debris
older/adult
5901 88.2 1 adult ? imm. unurned + debris
5985 ?* 114.6 1 subadult/adult ? unurned + debris
5990 ?* 199.2 1 adult ??f unurned + debris
5991 189.6 1 adult; older f o.p. - atlas unurned + debris
mature/older
5992 1.1 ? ? unurned + debris
5993 760.1 1 adult; older mature ?m o.p. - atlas, axis unurned + debris
5995 15.6 ?1 adult ? unurned + debris
5997 $ 472.9 1 adult; older ? exostoses - patella unurned + debris
mature/older
6411 23.5 ?1 adult ? unurned + debris
6413 1.1 ?1 subadult/adult ? unurned
6421 15.1 ?1 ? ? unurned
6423 33.4 1 adult ? unurned + debris
6426 6.9 ?1 subadult/adult ? unurned + debris
6429 41.1 ?1 subadult/adult ? unurned ?- debris
6503 705.4 1 adult; older mature ?f dental abscess; m.v. - ?lamb; u/b urned - debris
calcanea double faceted
6505 189.5 1 adult; older m tooth loss; periodontal unurned + debris
mature/older disease; o.p. - atlas; m.v. -
wormian bone

343
 6508 $ 96.5 1 adult ? urned - debris
6510 119.7 1 subadult/adult ? unurned + debris
6511 106.5 1 juvenile; young ?lamb urned - debris
6512 359.2 1 adult; young f urned
6540 195.2 1 adult; older ? urned - debris
6541 121.3 1 adult; older ?f unurned + debris
6542 33.8 1 adult; older ? unurned + debris
mature/older
6544 91.6 1 subadult/adult ? urned
6579 ?* 1259.7 1 adult; older ?m o.a. - costovertebral; o.p. - inc. bird boxed - debris
thoracic/lumbar; m.v. -
tooth root
6582 81.6 1 juvenile; young urned - debris
6583 10.3 ?1 adult ? urned - debris
6585 494.3 1 adult; older ? exostoses - radius bird urned - debris
tuberosity, femur shaft
6592 56 1 adult ? urned
6596 204.1 1 adult; older ? exostoses - iliac crest urned - debris
6601 116.1 1 adult ? urned - debris
6603 224.8 1 subadult/adult ? unurned ?- debris
6606 331.8 1 adult; older mature ?f unurned ?- debris
6612 ?* 100 1 adult; older ? exostoses - iliac crest urned - debris
6618 $ 314.2 1 adult; older ??m d.d.d. - cervical; o.a. - urned - debris
cervical; exostoses - femur
shaft
6621 812.1 1 adult; older ??m o.a. - thoracic; exostoses - urned - debris
iliac crest, radius
6622 $ 359.5 1 adult; older ??f o.a. - hip urned - debris
6623 56.2 1 subadult/adult ? urned - debris
6631 ?* 626 1 adult; older ? dental abscesses; d.d.d. - urned - debris
cervical; thoracic/lumbar;
o.a. - cervical; thoracic, left
hip; o.p. - proximal ulna;
periostitis - proximal femur
shaft
6635 333.9 1 adult; older ? d.d.d. - thoracic/lumbar; urned - debris
o.a. - lumbar
6636 560.9 1 adult; older ??f periodontal disease; o.p. - urned
atlas, cervical; d.d.d. -
cervical, thoracic; o.a. -
lumbar; exostoses -
patellae
6640 450.4 1 adult ? urned - debris
6654 295.1 1 adult; older mature f unurned + debris
6673 $ 756.6 1 adult; older ??f periodontal disease; o.p. - urned - debris
mature/older thoracic process; m.v. -
metopic suture
6682 20.5 ?1 >infant ? unurned + debris
6699 $ 1585.5 1 adult; older mature m tooth loss much ?pig urned - debris

Table 000: Summary of results from analysis of cremated bone from BAL-15
Key
$ denotes the remains of a burial comprised of more than one context (main number shown)
* denotes complete or close to complete burials
? denotes a heavily disturbed deposite with no discernable associated cut
Total weight: the total weight of cremated bone recovered from a grave fill. This may include bone from more than
one context (denoted $) and any cremated animal bone recovered by the writer. A typical case of the former would
include the bone from the remains of an urned burial together with bone (usually only a few grams) recovered from
the grave fill which may represent the remains of a deliberate mortuary deposit or accidentally redeposited bone. A
more detailed breakdown of weights is given in the archive.
Number of individuals. In some cases, very poor bone recovery rendered it difficult to state with any degree of
confidence from the osteological evidence that the remains represented those of a burial rather than just redeposited
material; these cases have been marked as „?0/?1‟. There were similar difficulties with the identification of multiple
crmeation burials in some instances. Where a second adult appeared to be represented within a burial by the
presence of only one or two duplicate skeletal elements, it is possible that this represents cross-contamination
between cremations due to incomplete clearance of the pyre site (see below). Most of the dual burials identified were
those of an adult with an immature individual (infant/juvenile). In such cases, the recovery of only a few fragments of
the immature bone may be more easily explained by the fragility of the remains and the incomplete recovery of bone
from the pyre site for burial (see below; McKinley 1989; 1994a).
344
Animal: presence is marked with some identification by the writer where possible. Unless otherwise stated, the bone
is always burnt. Some indication of colour may be given where bone was other than the buff/white of fully oxidised
bone.
Burial type: a brief description of type of burial with an indication of presence '+' or absence '-' of redeposited pyre
debris e.g. charcoal, burnt flint, ?fired clay etc. Where nothing is stated the records were incomplete.
Key to abbreviations:
Pathology Animal Burial type
o.p. Osteophytes imm. Immature redepo. Redeposited
o.a. Osteoarthritis u/b Unburnt
m.v. Morphological variation h/c Horse/cattle
d.d.d. Degenerative Disc Disease

Discussion

Demography
A minimum of 486 individuals were identified within the cremated bone assemblage. It was possible,
within limits, to age 96.9% of those identified; broadly there were 12.3% immature (<18 years) and 70.3%
adult. 148 adults were sexed within varying degrees of confidence, i.e. 44.7% of adults; immature
individuals could not be sexed. Of the adult 'population', 30.5% were sexed as female and 14.2% as
male, but the highest proportion - 55.3% - either had insufficient evidence for sexing or the traits were
contradictory.
Female Male
Age group Number
? ?? ? ??
Infant 1-2 yr 4
Infant 1-5 yr 14
Infant 3-5 y 3
Infant/juvenile 1-12 yr 10
Juvenile 5-8 yr 10
Juvenile 5-12 yr 3
Juvenile 8-12 yr 3
Juvenile/subadult 5-18 yr 4
Subadult 13-15 yr 4
Subadult 13-18 yr 4
Subadult 15-25 yr 1
Subadult/adult 15-25 yr 5
Subadult/adult >13 yr 77 1 1
Adult 18-25 yr 4 2 2
Adult 18-30 yr 3 1 1 1
Adult 18-40 yr 7 2 1
Adult 25-30 yr 1 1 1
Adult 25-40 yr 17 2 4 2 2 1
Adult 30-40 yr 29 2 8 4 1 4 1
Adult >25 yr 17 1 3 2 3
Adult >30 yr 68 4 4 6 4 3 6
Adult >40 yr 69 5 11 12 3 3 4
Adult >50 yr 8 3 2
Total 471 25 36 40 9 15 23
Table 000: Age group frequency, BAL-15 cremation burials
The absence of any infants of less than one year may be a result of one or more factors. As the site has
been so disturbed, such delicate bone as may have been collected from the pyre would be the first to
suffer and be lost. Alternatively the lack of very young infants may have a ritual background. Other
contemporary inhumation cemeteries both in Baldock and elsewhere (McKinley 1994d; 1997), show
repeatedly the recovery of foetal/neonate remains from non-cemetery areas, illustrating the differential
treatment such individuals could expect to receive.
Demographic comment is limited in a cemetery such as this. Apart from the usual constraints imposed
when dealing with cremated bone (see McKinley 1989a; 1994b), parts of the demographic record are
obviously absent, i.e. young infants, and in others areas, identification has been severely limited due to
much of the site being disturbed. Sexing was felt possible for only 44.7% of adults, which means that the
relative numbers of females to males produced must be treated with extreme caution. The mean age for
both male and female adults is in excess of 30 years but no greater detail can be extracted from the data.
Caution was exercised in sexing to avoid any methodological bias, and an additional difficulty to sexing
this group was the apparent low level of sexual dimorphism, the group as a whole tending towards more
feminine traits.

345
The cremation burials within the cemetery are believed to span the late first to the late third centuries.
There was contemporaneity of use with the inhumation burials in the same cemetery. Excavations in
Baldock have uncovered a number of Romano-British inhumation and cremation cemeteries over several
years and others remain to be excavated. The amassing of all the cemetery data and phasing of the
related sites would be a more appropriate time at which to attempt a more comprehensive demographic
assessment.

Pathology
Four hundred and six pathological lesions (the same lesion in more than one bone of the same group,
e.g. lumbar vertebrae, has been counted as one lesion in this assessment (see archive for details)), and
23 morphological variations were noted in 177 individuals.
Incomplete recovery of skeletal remains limits diagnosis, as many diseases may produce similar lesions
and it is necessary to assess the skeleton as a whole. As cremation burials, particularly on a disturbed
site, characteristically represent both incomplete and fragmentary skeletal remains, discussion of
pathology is severely curtailed. Only a brief resumé of the number and type of lesion occurring will
therefore be given.
Osteophytes are irregular new bone growths which may proliferate around a joint. The lesion may occur
alone, in which instance it is largely related to age, with other predisposing factors, and is not classed as
a clinical disease, or it may be found in combination with other lesions such as eburnation (polishing and
pitting in a joint surface), in which case it may be indicative of a joint disease, the most common of which
is osteoarthritis. Osteophytes were the most commonly noted lesions (103), the bones most frequently
affected being the atlas vertebra (20 individuals), finger phalanges (one or more in 14 individuals),
thoracic/lumbar spine (one or more in 11 individuals), axis vertebra (11 individuals) and thoracic spine
(one or more in 9 individuals). Osteophytes tend to increase not only in severity with age but also in the
number of joint groups affected, hence the older adult female (4192) has six joint groups in the upper and
lower limb, and axial skeleton affected by the lesion.
Osteoarthritis is a disease affecting the synovial joints and is basically the result of a wear-and-tear
process. The weight-bearing joints of the spine and lower limb are most prone to development of the
disease. Lesions were recorded in 69 bones or groups, the largest number being in the thoracic spine (19
individuals), costo-vertebral articulations (10 individuals), cervical spine (9 individuals), temporo-
mandibular joint (7 individuals) and lumbar spine (6 individuals). Up to three joint groups were affected in
one individual.
Exostoses are new bone growths which may develop at tendon or ligament insertions in response to
stress. They may reflect age related wear-and-tear, be the result of traumatic events or related to other
diseases such as diffuse idiopathic hyperostosis (DISH). Lesions were observed in 70 bones. The femur
was the most commonly affected bone (29 individuals), lesions most often being along the proximal
dorsal muscle attachments, with some around the proximal notch in the head and a few along the
trochanters; occasionally two sites were affected. The superior anterior insertions in the patella were
affected in 10 individuals and the dorsal sides of finger phalanges shafts in 10 individuals. There were
lesions along the iliac crest in eight individuals. An old female, grave 7456(7451), had lesions at six
locations: lumbar spinal process, iliac crest, finger phalanges, femur shaft and trochanter, and anterior
patella. She also showed other extensive degenerative lesions, including osteoarthritis in all areas of the
spine, degenerative disc disease in the cervical and thoracic vertebrae, and osteophytes in the finger
phalanges.
Degenerative disc disease is manifest by pitting in the body surfaces of the vertebrae following
breakdown of the inter-vertebral disc. As with other degenerative diseases, this is largely related to the
age of the individual, reflecting wear-and-tear. Forty-five bones or groups were affected, most commonly
the thoracic/lumbar (18 individuals), cervical (14 individuals) and thoracic (8 individuals).
Schmorl's nodes were noted in eight bones/groups. These destructive lesions develop in response to the
rupture of the intervertebral disc allowing the nucleus pulposus to protrude into the body of the adjacent
vertebra.

Dental disease
Ante mortem loss of one or more teeth was observed in 23 individuals. Tooth loss increases with age and
may be related to one or more factors. Excess wear of teeth will eventually lead to their loss but may be
precipitated by periodontal disease, an infection of the gums (pyorrhoea), which may cause resorption of
the alveolar bone thereby loosening the tooth. This disease is not always easily observable in cremated
bone but was noted in 22 individuals, five of which had suffered tooth loss. Periodontal disease may
indirectly lead to tooth loss by exposing more of the tooth surface to caries attack. Cervical caries are
visible as a destructive lesion in the cervical root. The total destruction of a tooth crown from either
occlusal or cervical caries may be detected from the distinctive smooth concave lesion across the neck of
346
a tooth root, or if particularly severe, in one of the separated branches of a molar root. Fragments of
shattered enamel from erupted teeth were recovered, but occlusal caries would be difficult to detect in
these small pieces, and any severe lesions would so weaken the structure of the tooth crown as to render
it highly susceptible to destruction under the various pressures of cremation. Twenty-eight individuals had
one or more lesions in one or more tooth roots (see archive for detail). In five of these, there was an
associated infected pulp cavity, suggesting the lesion was severe. In three individuals, periodontal
disease was also observed and in four others, there had been tooth loss. Six individuals had dental
abscesses, one in association with carious lesions and one in association with tooth loss.
Calculus is rarely detected in cremated remains as the deposit is usually lost in the cremation process.
Two individuals had some calculus deposits.
Hypercementosis is a harmless condition involving excessive formation of secondary cementation. Two
individuals showed this condition in a molar root.
Cribra Orbitalia is manifest as sieve-like pitting in the roof of one or both orbits. Three adult females
showed the presence of this lesion, which is thought to be the result of a metabolic disorder caused by
childhood anaemia.
Three individuals had slight dental hypoplasia, developmental defects in the tooth enamel evident as
horizontal lines or pits. The lesion is indicative of growth arrest in response to disease, nutritional
problems or localised trauma (Hillson 1979). In cremated remains, these lines are usually only evident in
the unerupted tooth crowns of immature individuals, erupted tooth enamel, where present, tending to be
in only very small fragments.
A fragment of maxilla from old adult (6854) has a covering of new bone over the anterior portion of the left
antrum floor and a small pit/cyst. There was no indication of any associated destructive dental lesion, or
of a fistula in the antrum floor to suggest the infection had spread from caries/dental abscess. It is likely
that this is 'primary' sinusitis, a condition which usually originates from a nasal infection (Wells 1977).
Eight individuals had non-specific periostitis in one or more of the long bones. Three adult females,
4492(4313), 4541(4342) and 4951(4933), have extensive surface new bone over humerus, femur, tibia
and fibula long bone shafts; four individuals, including an older adult male, 5044(5046), and a juvenile,
5843(5836), have surface new bone over the femur shaft and one adult, 5206(5171), had lesions over the
tibia shaft.
Cremation burial 4885(4879), an older adult, contained a small fragment of calcined osseous material
with an apparently layered structure. The fragment has a similar appearance to gall/kidney stones
recovered by the writer from Anglo-Saxon cremation burials at Spong Hill and Sancton (McKinley 1993a;
1994). If this is a gall/kidney stone, it will be only the third to be have been recovered from cremation
burials, though a urinary stone has also been noted from a cremation on the Continent (Schutkowski,
1986).
Morphological variations may indicate family relationships within a skeletal group as the traits are
believed to be largely hereditary. It is necessary, however, to have fairly complete recovery of the
skeleton in order to reliably test the presence/absence of these traits to any end. Variations noted include
extra ossicles in the cranial sutures (8), metopic suture (6), absence of third molar (2), Vastus notch (2),
occipital 'bunning', third centre of ossification in first metacarpal, radix entomolaris, splitting of mesial root
in maxillary molar to give four branches, atlas double facet and calcaneal double facet.

Cremation technology and ritual

The cemetery was not only used for burial – the cremations were also carried out within the immediate
area. In view of the great amount of plough damage the site has been exposed to, it is likely that much
information pertaining to the pyre sites has been lost; the sites undoubtedly being directly on the surface,
or possibly slightly built up over time, with no negative features indicative of their location. A possible pyre
site or more probably an ustrinum was identified in excavation, situated on the south-western edge of the
cemetery away from the prestigious road-side positions. It consisted of a large spread of small fraction
charcoal incorporating quantities of cremated bone, burnt flint, and occasionally burnt pottery and grave
goods, e.g. bronze brooch fragments, iron nails etc.
The quantity of cremated bone recovered from the 0.5 m square spits excavated through the deposit
varies from >1.0 g to a maximum of 572.2 g. The maximum fragment size recorded was 60 mm with most
of the bone from each context falling into the 5 mm mesh sieve. The cremated bone from each of these
contexts represented the remains of only one individual with three exceptions, (4766), (4825) and (4905),
where an adult and an immature individual were identified. The latter combination of two individuals
corresponds with the make-up of the majority of dual cremation burials found on the site (see below).
The quantity of bone found in the cremation burials also varies considerably. The over-all average weight
of bone per burial, including dual burials, immature and animal bone, was 267.4 g, with a range of >0.1 -

347
1599.1 g. To counter-act the problem of disturbance and undoubted loss of bone as a result, total bone
weights from single undisturbed adult burials was analysed. From the unurned burials, the average
weight of bone recovered was 452.0 g with a range of 1.0-1599.1 g. It should be noted that it was
sometimes difficult to assess the level of disturbance for this group of burials and the average weight may
in consequence be lower than it should be. From the urned burials, the average weight of bone was 619.2
g with a range of 100.0-1419.0 g, with the greatest weight of bone from an urned burial being from a
disturbed vessel at 1585.5 g. From the 'boxed' burials, the average weight was 496.32 g, range 21.9-
1259.7 g. The total weight of cremated bone from an adult in modern crematoria is usually between c
1600-3000 g.
Although a certain proportion of bone may be lost due to taphonomic processes and during excavation
(see below), particularly in the less protected unurned and boxed cremations, there is considerable
variation in the amounts collected for burial. Bearing in mind that the weights given for this site may also
include cremated animal bone, it is apparent that, in most cases, large quantities of bone were not
recovered from the pyre for burial. It may, therefore, be expected that up to several hundred grammes of
bone will have been left at the pyre site.
This would seem to be the case on the pyre site, which may have been left uncleared following the last
cremation carried out there. The identification of the remains of only one individual in each of the pyre
spits, excepting those containing an adult and immature individual as described above, would suggest
that they were cleared of most remaining debris from the previous cremation before the next one took
place. Jacqui – I‟m happy that this was a pyre site, as there was extensive scorching to the underlying
chalk and numerous irregular hollows suggestive of heat damage. This would make sense in that too
great a quantity of debris at the base of the pyre would inhibit the free circulation of air necessary for
efficient cremation. What appears to have been a pyre debris pit was excavated on one of the Iron Age
cremation cemeteries in Baldock (BAL-1 F95), but none were found on this site. This may also provide an
alternative interpretation for the charcoal filled feature excavated at Cirencester (McWhirr et al. 1982), CS
73 8 burial 293, which seems to have contained a small quantity of fragmentary, poorly cremated human
bone. That the pyre sites were re-used and not always efficiently cleared may be implied from the
occasional presence of intrusive' bones in some burials. These were burials in which a single duplicate
bone from a second, adult, individual was present in what was clearly not a fully dual burial, nor were the
neighbouring burials always close enough or disturbed as to suggest contamination from such a source.
In these instances, the most likely area of contamination seems to have been the pyre site itself, where
the odd bone may have been missed during the clearing-up process.
Efficient cremation requires sufficient time, temperature and oxygen supply; should any of these three be
curtailed the complete combustion of the organic components of the body may not be achieved (McKinley
1989a; 1994). The efficiency of cremation may be assessed macroscopically from the colour of the bone
(Shipman et al. 1985), black/blue indicating inefficient oxidation, through to buff/white indicating full
oxidation. Certain areas of the body are prone to poor oxidation as a consequence of their position on the
pyre, e.g. the feet being at the edge of the pyre will not get as hot as the axial skeletal area. Some bones
have a greater covering of soft tissue than others, which, if time is limited, may not become directly
exposed to the air/heat to enable their combustion (McKinley 1994a). Many of the spongy bones, being
components within joints, have much surrounding soft tissue, which inhibits their early combustion.
The efficiency of cremation in this cemetery is generally relatively good, with the majority of bone from the
burials being white in colour, but a substantial minority have at least a few poorly cremated bones, and
there are two which at best may be described as only partially cremated, 4219(4110) and 4900(4848).
Incomplete cremation of the bone, illustrated by black/blue coloration, was seen in almost all of the bones
in the skeleton within the assemblage as a whole, but usually there was variation within a single bone.
Such variation suggests that the latter part of the process was disturbed in some way, i.e. after the soft
tissues had burnt away and possibly following a certain amount of fragmentation of the bone as the pyre
collapsed. Poor oxidation to one side of the skull, the spine but not the body of a vertebra or the proximal
but not the distal end of a bone, would suggest that bones became buried in pyre debris at the base
towards the end of the process. Ethnographic sources (McKinley 1994a) suggest that it takes about one
ton of wood to cremate an adult; such a quantity would build up large amounts of ash at the base of the
pyre. Should a bone become partially buried in this ash, the oxygen supply would be restricted and the
cremation process with it. Such an occurrence may be overcome by tending of the pyre. The implication
is that at least with a minority of these cremations, tending of the pyre, if carried out, was not particularly
efficient.
Blue/black coloration of the internal spongiosa of a long bone articular surface or the innominate suggests
there was insufficient time for cremation to complete. This may have been for a number of reasons, such
as an early drop in temperature from lack of fuel or adverse weather. Extreme cases may be seen in the
two partial cremations 4219(4110), an adult female, and 4900(4848), an adult male. Burial 4219(4110)
was found in a short (0.8 m) shallow grave, the axial region clearly articulated, with the head in the correct
anatomical position (Figure 90). The body had apparently been folded into the grave, the upper half bent

348
down from the hip across the lower half. The grave was so shallow and the bend in the body so acute it is
difficult to see how it could have been achieved if all the soft tissue had been present. About 60% of the
skeleton was recovered. The anterior and inferior mandible was charred, with heat fractures in the
anterior tooth crowns; the rest of the mandible was unburnt. The maxilla was not burnt but the incisors
were slightly heat fractured and discoloured (Plate 74). Other bones of the skull were unburnt except for
one fragment of foramen magnum border and small fragments of vault, which were slightly charred on the
external surface. All vertebrae, ribs and the innominates were unburnt, as were the clavicles and
scapulae. The proximal humeri were unburnt but the mid-distal shaft had browned slightly with some
charring. The proximal radii and ulnae were charred, with other fragments fully cremated. Metacarpals
and finger phalanges were either charred or fully oxidised. The anterior shaft, which has less surrounding
soft tissue than the posterior, of at least one femur was charred or fully cremated; other fragments were
slightly charred only at the broken ends – left distal only, right distal and proximal. Tibia and fibula shafts
were mostly fully oxidised with some slightly charred; tarsals and foot phalanges were fully cremated.
Small fragments of charred soft tissue residue, a light black slag-like substance of incompletely oxidised
ligament/muscle tissue, were also found. Here, the bones of the forearm, hand, legs and feet, those with
least soft tissue prior to burn-off prior to exposure of the bone, had been oxidised. The upper arm and
thigh were slightly charred in places, these bones have more soft tissue surrounding them and remain
insulated from the heat and oxygen necessary for cremation for longer. The axial skeleton, with most
associated soft tissue, was unburnt. The facial bones of the skull are unburnt apart from slight charring to
the anterior mandible, as one may expect with a corpse placed supine on a pyre. Lack of burning seen in
the parietal and occipital areas of the vault may be as a result of position (peripheral), or there may have
been a cover of some sort (skin/fur pillow/cap), which would inhibit combustion. In this instance the
cremation was obviously curtailed long before completion; it may be that the fuel used to construct the
pyre was woefully inadequate to needs or, possibly more likely, that adverse weather conditions, such as
a torrential downpour, doused the pyre before cremation was completed. It is certain that at least the
ligaments and probably some of the muscle tissues in the upper half of the body must still have been
intact at the time of burial, judging from the articulation of the axial skeleton, but sufficient soft tissue had
gone as to enable burial in the shallow grave. In a modern cremation, the rib-cage may be upstanding but
empty after about 45 minutes, i.e. the internal organs have burnt away but cartilage, ligaments and
muscle may not have. The cremation had been in process long enough to oxidise the organic
components of the distal ends of the upper and lower limbs, which would take about 30-45 minutes in

modern crematoria (personal observation).

Plate 74: Partially cremated body (4110) in situ
Figure 90: Burial 4219(4110) (scale 1:10)
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Burial 4900(4848) does not present such an extreme case, the lack of oxidation being observed in only
the axial skeleton, where all the vertebrae are unburnt, and the innominates are charred only between the
greater sciatic notch and the acetabulum and on the ilium between the gluteus medius and maximus
muscle surfaces. The rest of the skeleton is white except for charred fragments of proximal femur,
insulated by the buttock and thigh muscles, and odd fragments of vault and tarsal bones. This cremation
had obviously progressed much further than that outlined above prior to being stopped, by which time the
pyre may have sunk low and bones of the spine become buried in pyre debris at the base.
The sides and bases of several of the graves containing the remains of unuerned burials appear to have
been scorched, and the wood forming the lining within some of the boxed graves was charred. This
suggests either deliberate charring of the graves as part of the mortuary ritual, or deliberate/incidental
deposition of very hot pyre debris (>500° C; experimental deposits of cooler material have failed to
produce scorching) into the grave fills. The latter possibility would suggest the close proximity of the pyre
sites to the place of burial and rapid deposition of the debris after cremation; probably within hours of the
pyre being lit (leaving the material overnight, for example, would render it too cool) and without any
dousing of the pyre before collection for burial (McKinley 2004). Pyre debris consisted largely of charcoal
and occasionally burnt flint and soil scraped up from the pyre base. The quantity of pyre debris deposited
within a grave varied considerably and was clearly related to the type of deposit. 59.8% of the burials
were made unurned, either in deep or shallow grave. Less than 2% had no associated pyre debris, a
further 19% are unclear but the remaining 78% have pyre debris in the grave, often in large quantities.
39.2% of the burials were made urned; 2% included a few small fragments of charcoal in the urn, 16.5%
had pyre debris in the grave, 78.7% had no associated pyre debris and the remaining 2% were unclear.
The quantities of charcoal in each case were small. 1.0% of the burials were 'boxed'; all had pyre debris
in association with them.
The relative position of the various archaeological complements withinthe undisturbed graves containing
the remains of unurned burials indicated that the burial – i.e. the deposition of the cremated bone – has
been made as a distinct mortuary deposit from the pyre debris within the grave fill. In the boxed graves
5481 and 6579, for example, the bone was observed in excavation to be concentrated in one part of the
grave, suggesting that it was originally held within some form of organic container (e.g. a textile bag). In
the graves where the sides appeared to have been scorched the pyre debris seems to have been
deposited prior to the burial being made, whilst in other graves the debris was deposited over the burial.
The amount of bone collected for burial varied greatly (see above) with no apparent reasons for the
differences in quantity. There was no significant difference between the amount of bone present in
unurned, urned or boxed burials (see above), nor on the basis of age, other than the obvious
immature/adult or sex of the individual. Even dual burials do not necessarily contain more bone than the
singletons (they are usually those of an adult with an immature individual). The quantity of bone collected
may have depended on nothing more than the inclination of the attendant. Neither does there seem to
have been any deliberate selection of bone for deposition, a random number of bones from each skeletal
area being the norm.
Two vessels were emptied by the writer. Vessel 6724(6726) contained the remains of an older mature
female; the urn had been damaged and contained much soil. There was no apparent deliberate sorting of
the bone for deposition and bird bones were also found in all levels. The undisturbed and lidded vessel
5843(5836) was found to contain the remains of a young juvenile; the vessel contained very little soil as it
had been protected by the ceramic lid (see annotated plans and sections (Figure 000). Here again the
distribution appeared random with bone from each of the skeletal areas distributed in all levels. One point
of interest, however, was that both femoral distal epiphyses were found touching in level 2 NW quadrant
and both femoral proximal head epiphyses were found together in level 4 SE quadrant. This may be
purely coincidental but it suggests that these two pairs of bones were gathered from the pyre site together
in an otherwise random selection. The implication is that the attendant either recognised and placed the
bones together as a pair, or that the pyre had collapsed so as the bones were together in the debris
indicating a lack of movement such as stirring to tend the pyre, or raking together of the remains to
facilitate easier en masse collection of the bones.
The size of the fragments lifted from urn 5843(5836) were surprisingly large for a juvenile. Many of the
epiphyses recovered were whole, the first sacral segment was complete, as were some other vertebral
bodies. The maximum fragment of skull was 49.0 mm and of long bone 75.0 mm, and 77.7% of the bone
fell in to the 10 mm mesh sieve (see Figs.00-00). The vessel was, however, undamaged (there had been
a lid to keep out soil and water); the fill was in the same light loose state it had probably been in when it
was deposited. Urn 6724(6726) had not been so fortunate: there was no lid, or it had long gone, and the
vessel had filled with compact soil and been badly cracked by some force exerted on it. To soften the soil
and facilitate easier excavation, the contents of the vessel were sprayed with water at regular intervals
but still remained extremely hard. As a result, long bones repeatedly fractured during excavation and
spongy bone crumbled to unrecognisable dust despite the care with which they were removed.
Fragments of long bone in excess of 120.0 mm were uncovered in the vessel but the maximum fragment

350
size remaining after all the bone had been removed was 90.0 mm. It was apparent from their position in
the vessel that some bones had been deposited whole, but during burial had finally parted along
dehydration fissures formed during cremation (see clavicle in level 6). The site records often make
references to the length of bones prior to excavation which fragmented or crumbled on removal, e.g.
4182(4162), fragments of up to 100.0 mm were recorded but the maximum fragment post-excavation was
19.0 mm; 4486(4320), long bone fragment of 180.0 mm recorded but maximum fragment remaining 40.0
mm; 4541(4342), fragments up to 200.0 mm, maximum fragment remaining 59.0 mm. Such fragmentation
on excavation was also evident from the number of fresh breaks seen in many bones.
The fragment sizes presented in Table 000 are clearly not going to be representative of the fragment size
at time of deposition of the burial, only at post-excavation. The maximum size fragments recorded by the
writer were 59.0 mm for skull and 112.0 mm for long bone. There is a significant difference in size of
fragments depending on the type of deposit; only 'undisturbed' burials have been assessed, as the bone
from disturbed burials will have been even further fragmented. The largest percentage of bone in both the
'boxed' and unurned burials were in the 5 mm sieve fraction, c 40-50%, with the 10 mm sieve fraction
containing almost equal percentage in about half. The urned burials had the largest percentage of bone in
the 10 mm sieve fraction, usually between 50-70%, with the 5 mm sieve fraction containing the next
largest quantity. The implication is that the increased protection afforded by the urns preserves the
fragment size closer to that of the original.
Taking into consideration the distortion in the recorded fragment size as illustrated above, there is no
reason to suppose that any deliberate breakage of bone preceded deposition. The size of fragments
corresponds with those expected as a result of dehydration fractures during cremation, breakages
sustained during any tending, pyre collapse and collection of the hot, brittle bones from the pyre site
including raking, accidental trampling and handling, and – significantly – post-depositional fragmentation.
Occasional finds showed that the corpse did not always go on to the pyre unaccompanied. The presence
of nails and charcoal in many of the gaves has been taken as an indication that the corpse was placed in
a coffin or possibly on a wooden bier or bed. Although the presence of some sort of container or an
alternative support for conveying the corpse to the pyre is likely, the most probable origin of any charred
wood from the pyre debris is from the pyre structure itself. The presence of nails, provided they were
coffin nails, my support the idea that coffins were used, but nails may be found in other articles e.g. boxes
containing belongings, and may have been present in reused timbers forming part of the pyre itself. Iron
staining noted on some bones was usually in association with nails.
Very occasionally, fragments of melted bronze or bronze staining was noted on bones indicating that
some personal possession were placed on the pyre with the corpse. Burial 4742(4671) had yellow
colouring on the inner side of one vault fragment; this coloration has been noted in modern crematoria in
conjunction with the use of zinc lined coffins (Dunlop 1975).
18.9% of the burials contained some animal remains; 13.5% contained cremated animal bone. The
quantities were usually small, with the exception of burial 6680(6699), which included several hundred
grams of pig? bone. A single species was usually represented with more than one observed in only four
burials. The most common species were bird(s) (?domestic fowl); lamb and pig (possibly immature) were
also identified. Bird elements at least appeared to be representative of entire animal, suggesting whole
carcasses were added to the pyre. Some butchery marks – knife marks – were noted on one lamb/pig
bone. Oyster shell, unburnt?, was found in three burials. Unburnt animal bone, usually horse/cattle tooth
enamel fragments, were found in 4.8% of the burials.
The percentage of burials with cremated animal bone corresponds very closely with the 14.0% identified
from the Wallington Road cemetery, BAL-11 (above), where cattle, sheep, bird, pig and small mammal
were identified. Species also correspond with those found in the Clothall Road cemetery (Stead & Rigby
1986, 61-75). On BAL-15, only 8.6% of immature individuals have animal bone compared with the 26.0%
of adults with animal bone, which was a distribution observed at the Anglo-Saxon cremation cemetery at
Spong Hill (McKinley 1994). There is no apparent distribution of animal bone generally, or of particular
species, in relation to the sex of an individual.
Twenty-three (4.8%) of the burials were dual. Three were of two adults, one including one female and one
male; the remaining twenty were of an adult with either an infant or a young juvenile, including seven
female and four male adults. In most of these, the two individuals had been placed together in the urn or
grave but in one, 5864(5852), the adult male bones had been placed in a grey ware urn, while the bones
of the young juvenile were placed in an adjacent grey ware beaker, the two being placed in a square
grave with three other accompanying vessels. Only one dual burial was identified from the Wallington
Road cemetery, BAL-11 (above) and none from the Clothall Road site (Stead & Rigby 1986).
The quantity of infant/juvenile bone in the dual burials was often very small, with perhaps only a few
fragments of skull vault being identified, particularly with the infant burials. Although a cremated infant
presents a complete skeleton, the remains are very fragile; if the infant were cremated together with an
adult, requiring a larger pyre and more time to cremate than if cremated alone, the chance of recovering
351
many of the bones from the pyre, particularly in view of the fact that not all remains were collected, is
remote (McKinley 1994). It is a possibility that there were more of this type of dual cremation which it has
not been possible to identify due to minimal recovery and subsequent loss of the fragile infant bone due
to taphonomic factors.
The preference for urned, 'boxed' or otherwise unurned burials bears no apparent relation to the age or
sex of the cremated individual. Though it was noted by the excavators that a greater proportion of the
urned burials were situated in the more prestigious road-site positions, there is no significant spatial
distribution based on age or sex within the cemetery. Immature individuals were found both in close
association with other burials in the densest areas of the site and on the peripheries, metres away from
the nearest neighbour. Cremation graves, even where densely placed, rarely cut one another, implying
the presence of grave-markers. Apart from the deposition of the adult male and juvenile in two vessels in
one grave 5864(5852), there are no obvious 'groups' of graves such as are found in later Anglo-Saxon
cemeteries (McKinley 1994a), where two or up to several urned burials may be placed within one
extensive grave. An exception may be burials 5582(5570)/5569(5562), two unurned cremations made in
adjoining figure-of-eight grave, representing the remains of two elderly females.
The shallow 'surface' deposits present a problem in that being so close to the surface they have suffered
greatest from plough damage, often leaving only a few grams of bones. A parallel for such deposits are
seen in the brandshuttungsgrab (burnt heap graves) type graves found in Germanic migration period
cemeteries, where the cremated bone had the pyre debris heaped-up over it. However, the difficulty in
only having the very base of these deposits with so little bone is ensuring the correct interpretation has
been applied and that an alternative may not be more appropriate, such as a pyre base/debris pit or even
just surface deposition.

Dental disease in a Romano-British skeletal population

Francis Thornton [1992]
This section is an edited version of a dissertation prepared in 1988 for submission to the Undergraduate
School of Archaeological Sciences at the University of Bradford. The full paper can be consulted at
Bradford University and the Museum Resource Centre, Hitchin, North Hertfordshire ed. 1992.

Acknowledgements
I should like to express my gratitude especially to Dr Keith Manchester and Dr F J Jones as my
supervisors during the study. In addition I would like to thank Charlotte Roberts, Keith Dobney, Dr Denise
Hodges and Frances Lee for their assistance and encouragement. My thanks also go to Gil Burleigh,
Keeper of Field Archaeology for North Hertfordshire, for access to the information regarding Romano-
British burials from Baldock.

Introduction
“Our knowledge of disease in earlier peoples is derived from archaeological and historical research. The
human remains of antiquity, be they dry bones, mummified remains or bog-preserved corpses, reveal
evidence of many diseases” (Manchester 1983). Likewise teeth, which survive better than bones due to a
greater resistance to acid soils, can supply evidence of lesion, pathology and morbidity specific to
dentition. Similarly research into documentary evidence and the analysis of the excavated refuse of
human consumption can enhance our knowledge of associated aspects such as diet, dentistry and oral
hygiene.
The paper will examine the dental features of the skeletal remains from the hitherto unknown Romano-
British cemetery and surrounding isolated burials at BAL-1, California, Baldock. Approximately 139
inhumations were recovered and passed to the University of Bradford for examination. From these, 122
individuals were sufficiently complete to feature in the dental study. In addition, the details of animal
bones recovered from the site were to be considered as an indication of diet.

Method of study
The study being primarily concerned with the dental diseases of a Romano-British skeletal population
recovered from a given site in Baldock, required the consistent recording of the evidence as an essential
part of the exercise.

Recording
Prior to the examination of any dental features or preparation of a recording system, a detailed list was
drawn up of Dental Recording Criteria under the following headings:
 Disease Categories - 6 diseases plus attrition
 Location of Disease - 5 locations per tooth
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 Severity of Disease (or wear grade for attrition)
 Tooth Categories
 Age Group
 Sex Category
The five code letters used for the location of the lesion (e.g. Occlusal, O) were augmented by the
standard Brothwell symbols for the tooth categories. The degree of severity of the disease was graded 0
to 4 on a Normal to Severe basis. For the attrition of molars, the Brothwell (1981) classification applied, in
which case the grade was entered in parenthesis. Table 000 details the Dental Report Recording Criteria
together with Sex Categories.
To accommodate the recording of the comprehensive data, two new Report Sheets were designed for the
Permanent and Deciduous dentitions. They were drawn up around the basic Zsigmond system, which
was extended in block form in such a way that the specific condition for each tooth could be identified,
positioned and quantified. Additional blocks were incorporated for the recording of sex category and age
grouping which only required a tick in the appropriate box. Table 000 provides a sample of a Permanent
Dentition Report sheet with the specific blocks identified and typical entries. Such a type of report sheet,
in addition to accommodating considerable data in a simplified form, also aided the retrieval of information
for subsequent analysis.

Evidence from skeletal remains

From a preliminary examination it was evident that many of the burials from BAL-1 had previously been
disturbed and were therefore incomplete. Although the skull was missing in many instances, when post
mortem tooth loss was recorded in association with a particular skeleton, the details were included in the
analysis. It also applied to fragmentary remains of maxillary or mandibular features when they could
contribute specific details relevant to the investigation. The Tables also include age group letter and sex
category together with teeth recovered. The letter codes employed represented the following age ranges:
A - immature
B - young adult
C - young to middle aged adult
D - middle aged adult
E - elderly adult
In the instances where teeth had not been recovered, the abbreviation NSOT, no skull or teeth, or SFNT,
skull fragments but no teeth, was applied. However, the other data with regard to age grouping and sex
was significant and featured in the population statistics.
Disease categories Locations for diseases Degree of severity/wear
Caries O Occlusal 0 Normal
Calculus B Buccal 1 Slight
Periodontal disease L Lingual 2 Mild
Dental abscess (location and grade) M Mesial 3 Severe
Hypoplasia D Distal 4 Gross
Malocclusion
Tooth categories
U Tooth unerupted
E Tooth erupting
X Tooth loss ante mortem
\ Tooth loss post mortem
- Tooth broken, no crown
Table 157: recording criteria

Dental report - permanent dentition

Statistics of skeletal remains and teeth recovered: BAL-1 122 inhumations, 44 males (36%), 50 female
(41%), 16 unknown (13%), 12 subadults (10%); 98 had skulls or skull fragments, 87 had some portion of
dentition; 1375 teeth examined, which represented a third of the possible total teeth.

Age at death
Figure 91 illustrates the percentage of male and female burials in respect of the various groups. The
'Indeterminate aged adults' were not included in the graph, nor in the subsequent statistical calculations.
Whilst the majority of males and females died in the same age group young to middle aged adult, the
percentage of females was only marginally greater. However, when viewing the adjacent columns it was
353
evident that more females died in the age groupings young and young to middle aged adult, whilst the
peak of male deaths spanned the age groups young, young to middle aged and middle aged adult. The
earlier age of death for females was probably as a result of the stress of child bearing over the period of
fecundity.
When the data was viewed statistically, Table 158, the Critical Value for Chi Square Test (Yeates &
Skipworth 1985), it was found that there was no statistical significance in the age of death group between
the sexes. On averaging the age of death for both sexes, discounting Indeterminate group, average male
32.4 years, average female, 32.8 years.
Age group A (0-17) B (17-25) C (25-35) D (35-45) E (45+) I Total %
males 2 6 17 9 5 5 44 36
females 0 9 22 2 9 8 50 41
unknown 1 2 4 0 0 9 16 13
subadults 12 12 10
122 100
Table 158: age at death

25

20

15 Males
Number

Females

10 Unsexed

0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Age Group

Figure 91: Percentage of individuals v Age group

Dental examination
In the majority of instances, before any detailed dental examination could take place, it was necessary to
reconstruct the individual dental sequence. It frequently entailed partial reconstruction of maxilla or
mandible prior to re-assembly of teeth. Further to identification of the more obvious carious lesions, the
following interpretations were applied to the dental observations:
 Healing of tooth socket indicated ante mortem loss.
 Overcrowded jaws or misplaced teeth considered malocclusal.
 Concentrations of plaque or tartar were recorded as calculus.
 Resorption of alveolar bone adjacent to the root was considered symptomatic of periodontal disease.
 Underdevelopment of tooth enamel, transverse lines or porosity were indicative of dental hypoplasia.
 Wear of occlusal surface, evidence of secondary dentine or pulp cavity were considered as attrition.
 Cavity in mandible or maxilla to buccal or lingual surface was indicative of dental abscess.
 Clear tooth socket in mandible or maxilla was considered as post mortem tooth loss.
No Context Age Sex Total teeth Total carious
1 F4B E M 3 0
2 F7 C M 1 0
3 F18 (Sk 1) L2 C M 11 4
4 F18 (Sk 2) I F NSOT -
5 F18 (Sk 3) I M 17 1
6 F18 (Sk 4) C F 3 1
7 F18 (Sk 5) B M 21 6
8 F34 A U NSOT -
9 F92 C M 1 0
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10 F230 B F SFNT -
11 F333 A S/A SFNT -
12 F466 D M 14 2
13 F475 B M 31 6
14 F484 <5832/3> B U 4 0
15 F484 <5879/80> C U NSOT -
16 F484 <5998> I M SFNT -
17 F488 (Sk 1) C F 5 0
18 F488 (Sk 2) D M 3 1
19 F516 D M 28 6
20 F544 C F 25 4
21 F550 <4456> I U NSOT -
22 F550 <4476> B U 18 5
23 F556 A S/A 19 3
24 F557 C F 10 1
25 F610 C F 20 2
26 F632 C M SFNT -
27 F637 D M 7 1
28 F638 A` S/A 16 0
29 F642 C F 14 2
30 F643 (Sk 1) B F 7 0
31 F643 (Sk 2) L3 B F 27 4
32 F644 B F NSOT -
33 F649 C M 27 1
34 F653 C F 12 4
35 F654 C F NSOT -
36 F833 D M 30 3
37 1019/20 I U NSOT -
38 1022 C F 22 7
39 1028 C F 31 1
40 1029 A S/A SFNT -
41 1040 E F 22 3
42 1047/71 (Sk 1) E F 2 1
43 1047/71 (Sk 2) B F 23 1
44 1047/71 (Sk 3) B F 20 3
45 1049 E M 19 0
46 1063 A S/A 7 0
47 1070 E M 14 6
48 1071 (see 1047) - - - -
49 1072 C M 30 4
50 1077 E F 24 1
51 1078 C F 24 1
52 1079 I U SFNT -
53 1086 I F 8 1
54 1087 C F SFNT -
55 1090 C M 26 3
56 1093 C F 16 5
57 1107 C F 24 1
58 1111 E F 5 0
59 1122 D F 15 4
60 1124/7 B M NSOT -
61 1133 I U NSOT -
62 1136 E M 10 2
63 1151 E F 14 3
64 1174 A M 24 1
65 1190 E F 1 0
66 1191 C M 16 2
67 1194 I F 21 2
68 1203 C M 28 4
69 1209 A S/A SFNT -
70 1237 D M 17 4
71 1242 A S/A SFNT -
72 1251/2/4 I M SFNT -
73 1262/3 C U 5 0
74 1281 E F 11 3
75 1282 E F 16 4
76 1283 I U NSOT -
77 1300 D M 29 0
78 1317 C M NSOT -
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 79 1319 E F 28 1
80 1320 C M 18 7
81 1328 (Sk 1) C M 15 0
82 1328 (Sk 2) C U 5 3
83 1329 I F NSOT -
84 1331 C M 25 6
85 1342 E M 6 3
86 1356 A S/A 5 0
87 1365 I F NSOT -
88 1372 B M 28 2
89 1374 C M 14 0
90 1375 I U NSOT -
91 1382 D F 10 5
92 1385 I U NSOT -
93 1386 (Sk 1) C M 27 4
94 1386 (Sk 2) C U 3 0
95 1391 C F 11 0
96 1418 I M NSOT -
97 1421 I F NSOT -
98 1425 B F SFNT -
99 1426 B M 23 0
100 1446 C F 26 0
101 1447 C F 29 7
102 1466 I F NSOT -
103 1480 C M 15 5
104 1481/2/3 I U NSOT -
105 1484/5 A S/A 7 0
106 1487 C F 17 3
107 1488 I M 2 0
108 1496 A M 25 3
109 1702 B F 22 7
110 1703 C F 3 1
111 1704 I U NSOT -
112 2225 D M 22 1
113 2229 B F 14 3
114 2236 C M NSOT -
115 2264 I F NSOT -
116 2343 (see 1480) - - - -
117 2602 D M 21 0
118 2619 C F 22 6
119 3606 (see 3652) - - - -
120 3614 C F 9 3
121 3622 A S/A - -
122 3633 A S/A 4 0
123 3638 A S/A 22 0
124 3644 B M NSOT -
125 3652 C F 10 2
Table 159: burial and dental statistics, BAL-1
Key: Age groups (A = 0-17, B = 17-25, C = 25-35, D = 35-45, E = 45+, I = Indeterminate adult); Sex (M =
male, F = female, S/A = subadult, U = unknown): NSOT = No skull or teeth; SFNT = Skull fragment(s), no
teeth

Problems in studying dental pathology from archaeological remains

Teeth were frequently lost or damaged post mortem and the anterior teeth, which were usually less
affected by caries, were the most commonly missing teeth. Ante mortem tooth loss also created problems
in evaluating caries incidence when the loss was probably the result of caries complicated by some other
disorder. Tooth losses for any reason biases the analysis of dental disease.

Dental observations and results

On examining the reconstructed dentitions, it soon became evident that the most prevalent dental disease
was caries. Independent of the origin or severity of the carious lesion, 14% of the total number of teeth
recorded exhibited the defect. It compared well with the 'frequency of caries' study by Brothwell (1981).

Skulls with carious teeth and their location in the dentition

Of the total number of skulls recovered, 70% featured carious teeth. From the data extracted from Table
160, the number of skulls with carious teeth were compared with the total number of skulls for each age
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group (Table 161). As may have been expected, the number of skulls with carious teeth increased with
age up to the 35-45 group. The reduction in numbers above that age was attributed to the increase in
ante mortem tooth losses, which in the majority of instances was probably associated with caries.
However, it cannot be assumed to be the case based on the condition of the remaining teeth.
Subsequent to more detailed analysis of the position of the carious teeth in the dentition, no preference
could be detected with regard to mandible, maxilla, or sex. However, anterior or posterior locations were
very significant with regard to that particular disease. In Figure 000, the carious teeth were tabulated
under the 4 teeth types, Incisor and Canine-Anterior teeth, Premolar and Molar-Posterior teeth, against
the age groups. The histogram clearly indicated the prominence of caries in the posterior teeth of every
age group. It should not be overlooked however, that the figure was slightly biased due to the increase of
anterior tooth losses post mortem.
Age group A B C D E I Total skulls
Skull carious 3 8 27 10 10 3 61
Skulls per group 9 12 37 11 14 4 87
Table 160: number of skulls with carious teeth as a percentage of the total number of skulls for
each age group

60

50

40 Incisors
Canines
30
Premolars

20 Molars

10

Figure 92: Location of carious teeth by age group (laterality not considered)
Anterior Posterior Total
Age group
I C P/M M
0-17 A 0 1 0 4 5
17-25 B 2 2 11 22 37
25-35 C 6 7 24 56 93
35-45 D 4 1 5 13 23
45+ E 4 6 11 11 32
Indeterminate I 0 1 3 2 6
196
Table 161: distribution of carious teeth compared with age groups

Dental caries lesions

It is evident from the above details in Tables 160 and 161 that dental caries applied to the majority of the
dentition, with the molars the worst affected. It was then necessary to consider some of the examples of
the areas of carious attack and the severity of the lesion and its consequences.
Plates 74-6 feature a plan and a close-up views of a mandible, illustrating the varying grades of severity
of carious lesions from a fissure on the occlusal surface. The upper view displays only slight traces of
attrition, yet three carious lesions were noted of which the left 1st molar example had penetrated the
enamel. More extensive wear was noted on the middle view, with example of occlusal attack at a more
advanced stage penetrating the pulp cavity. The carious lesions ultimately result in total loss of the tooth
crown (Plate 75), and may lead to apical abscess. Plate 76 illustrates approximate attack between left 1st
and 2nd molar, which was typical of trapped food debris and poor oral hygiene.
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Plate 74: Plan view of mandible, showing carious lesions

Plate 75: Loss of tooth crown from caries

Plate 77 illustrates a plan view of a maxilla, featuring gross caries to the right 2nd molar and left canine.
In the close-up view (Plate 78) severe mesial attack was noted to the right 3rd molar, which was probably
a result of the extensive occlusal caries on the 2M.
Plate 79 shows a close-up view of a mandible in which the carious lesion to the 1st molar resulted in the
gross destruction of the tooth crown leaving only roots. Note the localised alveolar infection which could
possibly have indicated the development of an apical abscess. In Plates 80-1, the two examples of
maxilla feature an apical abscess on a number 2 incisor and 2 molar. Both were associated with caries
and have drained to the buccal surface. Examples of buccal caries attack at the cemento-enamel junction
were also evident in the series of photographs.

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Plate 76: Caries located between first and second molars

Plate 77: Gross caries in right second maxillary molar and canine

359
Plate 78: severe mesial attack to right 3rd molar

Plate 79: Gross destruction of tooth crown, leaving only roots

Summarising the caries evidence, in addition to the prevalence of its posterior location and increasing in
severity with age, the most common area of lesions were the occlusal fissures, buccal surface enamel
junction and interstitial cavities.

Statistical analysis
Since 90% of the skulls with carious teeth were attributable to both sex and age group categories, the
data was then subjected to statistical analysis by Chi Square test (White et al. 1985). The Critical Value
computed indicated that there was a significance between sex and carious age groups. However, the
critical value was very near that obtained from the Statistical Tables and a repeat test with more data
would therefore be recommended.

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Plate 80: Apical abscess on second incisor

Plate 81: Apical abscess on second molar

Calculus and Periodontal disease

The evidence of mineralised plaque build-up on the tooth surface was symptomatic of calculus, and it was
the thickness of the deposit on the buccal surface above the gingival margin that was used for grading the
disease (Dobney & Brothwell 1986). It was the deposit which was invariably the irritant responsible for the
inflammatory response in periodontal disease which resulted in the alveolar absorption around the tooth.
In the study of the BAL-1 inhumations, periodontal disease was frequently noted in association with
buccal caries, and as such increased in prevalence with age. In the examples which feature extensive
periodontal disease lesions to the bone, calculus was present or there was evidence of its previous
existence. The brittle concretions were easily dislodged during cleaning or handling, but close
examination of the dentition may reveal a clear area with an encrusted edge indicating the width of
previous deposit. Localised areas of bone resorption may be the result of an infection from impacted food.
Generally, calculus was more widespread in the lower age groups but the deposits were only slight to
mild. The more severe examples with thicker deposits were noted primarily on the buccal surfaces of
mandibular molars, and it extended to a distal deposit in some cases on the 3rd molar. Rarely were both
dentitions affected: it was as if the influence of mastication had cleaned away food debris. The presence
of caries and periodontal disease were another indication of poor oral hygiene.
Plates 82-3 feature two mandibles in which the calculus deposits on anterior and posterior teeth were
indicated by arrows. In Plate 000, the incisors clearly displays the remnants of what had been
considerable deposits. Both jaws also featured bone absorptions symptomatic of periodontal disease.

361
Plate 82: Calculus on anterior mandibular teeth

Plate 83: Calculus on posterior mandibular teeth

Plates 84-5 illustrate the frontal view of two mandibles which displayed the classic symptoms of
periodontal disease.

362
Plate 84: Periodontal disease

Plate 85: Periodontal disease

Plate 85 shows that the resorption of the bone had produced a collar around the root of the tooth. Both
jaws also featured the remnants of calculus deposits, the only intact piece being on the left canine tooth.

Dental abscess
Of the 122 burials, 13 individuals (9 male and 4 female) were diagnosed as suffering from a total of 21
dental abscesses of which the majority were of posterior locations. All the abscesses were associated
with various combinations of dental caries, periodontal disease, calculus and attrition. Most of the
abscesses featured buccal drains as shown in Plate 80; no lingual drains were detected.

Enamel hypoplasia
Hypoplastic defects in the form of a transverse line, or lines, in the enamel, were attributed to pathological
or nutritional deficiency in childhood, and were usually on the incisors or canines. From the BAL-1
population, 12 examples of linear hypoplasia have been recorded. All exhibited either a single or double
interruption of enamel development without any porosity, and in all cases except one, applied to incisors
or canine teeth.

363
Plate 86 illustrates a maxilla which features enamel hypoplasia to the central incisors. Plate 87 is of an
upper number 2 incisor recovered as a post mortem tooth loss, which featured two transverse lines in the
enamel.

Plate 86: Dental enamel hypoplasia to maxillary central incisors

Plate 87: Loose upper second incisor with enamel hypoplasia

Dental attrition
Dental attrition is not a disease, but the wear to teeth which was the result of a diet of coarse particles in
food that could induce dental disease. The effect could result in the loss of occlusal surface before caries
began to develop and if wear was extreme, an abscess would be more likely to occur than caries, due to
exposure of the oulo cavity. The loss of specific teeth through disease or lack of tooth development could
produce abnormal wear patterns. None of the dentitions examined displayed gross wear; however,
attrition would have contributed to the ante mortem losses particularly of posterior teeth.
Plate 88 shows an example of abnormal attrition in a mandible with an 'overbite' resulting in severe wear
to the buccal surface. Although not easy to see in the photograph, the molars featured little wear.

364
Plate 88: Abnormal attrition to buccal surface from overbite
In Plate 89, the plan view of a mandible, shows a more uniform distribution of wear noted to the occlusal
surface. Also observed was the lack of wear to the right 3rd molar and lack of eruption of its opposite
number. Plate 90 illustrates a mandible in which abnormal wear has taken place to the left 1st and 2nd
incisors due to failure to erupt of impacted left supernumerary canine.

Plate 89: Wear to occlusal surface

Malocclusion
Malocclusion, or dental overcrowding, may be the result of normal or large permanent teeth erupting in a
small jaw. No gross examples of displacement or rotation were detected in the study of the material from
the BAL-1 inhumations.
Plate 91 illustrates an inferior view of a maxilla in which there was inadequate space for the 2nd incisors,
causing them to become depressed lingually in the dental arch. Plate 92 shows a superior view of a
mandible with overcrowding of anterior teeth in which the right 1st and 2nd incisor and left 2nd incisor
were displayed lingually.

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Plate 90: Abnormal wear resulting from impacted supernumerary left canine

Plate 91: Malocclusion of second maxillary incisors

Tooth losses
Careful excavation techniques will recover the majority of post mortem tooth losses and in some
instances, as at Baldock, erupted tooth buds. This will permit reconstruction of the dentition and enable a
more comprehensive pathological study. With ante mortem losses, it is speculative to identify the disease
responsible. With incomplete dentitions it would be difficult to produce meaningful statistics on the
prevalence of dental disease in a cemetery population. In the study of the BAL-1 evidence, of the 98
skulls, or skull fragments, from the 122 burials, 14 were missing mandibles.
Data was extracted from the Record Sheets of the various age group dentitions featuring ante mortem
losses, with or without caries, to test if there was any statistically significant association with caries.

366
Plate 92: Crowding of anterior mandibular teeth with malocclusion of incisors

Diet
The influence of diet on dental disease, both from a coarseness of the particles causing attrition to the
chemical composition inducing caries and the formation of calculus, have been well attested in studies by
Hardwick and Humphrey (1960) and quantified by Brothwell (1969). The actual constituents of the diet
can only be inferred from the archaeological recovery of food debris, and the literary evidence of the
period. There is considerable written material with regard to the Roman army diet, and the Davies (1971)
and King (1984) studies indicate a different civilian diet from animal bone remains.
From the 1968-72 excavations at Baldock (Stead & Rigby 1986), the animal bones recovered were
allocated to three phases:
 Pre-Roman conquest
 Conquest to AD 150
 AD 150 to 5th century
It is only the remains from phase 3 which were of dietary implication in respect the BAL-1 investigation.
The great majority of the bones were from domestic cattle, but few of them showed evidence of cutting or
chopping marks. minimum numbers for the different species are given in Table 162.
Sheep 118
Cattle 67
Pig 28
Horse 12
Red deer 6
Goat 1
Table 162: minimum number of individuals by species (after Chaplin & McCormick 1986)
Davies (1971) indicated that there was an increased proportion of sheep at non-military sites; this is
similarly demonstrated at Baldock.
Since cereal products would provide the major portion of the diet, it was the evidence of these coarse
grain types that was required to further establish the basic diet. In the literature available on the site of
Baldock, there was no reference to any recovered cereals. Although some ovens were attributed to
domestic use, there were, however, no carbonised seeds.
As in all such studies, the dietary conclusions are non-specific. However, a microscopic analysis of a
sample of calculus (Dobney & Brothwell 1986), would give a more accurate insight into the diet and oral
ecology.

Conclusion
The dental diseases observed from the late Romano-British skeletal remains from Baldock BAL-1 showed
that of the teeth available for study (35% of the total), the vast majority exhibited pathology of several
types. The most prevalent were caries, which affected 70% of the dentitions. Few of the teeth displayed

367
prominent calculus deposits; however, in numerous cases it was evident that larger deposits had been
present at some stage. These can be easily dislodged by handling, cleaning or transportation. The
general level of attrition was low and a few examples featured enamel hypoplasia, which was considered
symptomatic of nutritional deficiencies.
Although this paper is not concerned with other aspects of the skeleton, the general impression noted
during age assessment was of a healthy population. The average age at death figures, of 32.4 years for
males and 32.8 years for females differ slightly from those quoted by Brothwell (1981) of 34.8 years for
males to 31.9 years for females. However, it must be remembered that the latter figures were obtained
from osteoarchaeological analysis covering a large sample from several Romano-British sites.
As for diet and oral hygiene, the high carious rate would suggest that the diet contained some sugar,
probably honey, bread supplied the carbohydrates and the animal bone remains infer the availability of
meat to supplement the protein content. From the overall dental disease content and the evidence of
calculus and periodontal disease in particular, it could be reliably inferred that oral hygiene was not
practised to any great extent. Few mouths were totally free from disease.
In submitting the above conclusions, it must again be emphasised that the 122 inhumations featuring 87
skulls is a relatively small sample. Emery (1963) has argued for caution when dealing with such small
samples and states that statistical analysis can be misleading although mathematically and scientifically
accurate. Similarly Brinch and Müller-Christensen (1949) demonstrated that incomplete dentition studies
could influence disease frequency assessments. For that reason, it would be recommended that the Chi
Square tests for the various significance associations be re-applied when more data is available. It may
also be possible to combine the age at death and dental data in this report with previous skeletal reports
of Baldock material.
However, one of the problems with the osteoarchaeological record is the general lack of uniform
standards of reporting which often prevents the making of realistic comparisons or the combining of data.
With regard the teeth, it is therefore recommended that a universal set of dental criteria for the various
diseases be drawn up, together with a mutually accepted system of grading the lesion or dental anomaly.
To standardise the recording of such evidence, a computerised format of the upper and lower dental arch
would permit the various diseases, graduation and specific location of defect per tooth, to be consistently
recorded. It would then be possible to recall a particular dentition which could be schematically illustrated
from the tabulated data.

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7: Ecofacts
Animal remains
Sheila Hamilton-Dyer [1990; revised 1992, 2006]

General Introduction
The amount of animal bone recovered from the sites in the Baldock Project is considerable. With limited
resources, it was decided to examine a selection of the available bone material. After consultation with
the excavator, three main groups were chosen. These are :
a) All animal bone associated with Roman and Iron Age cremations and burials.
b) The pre-Roman Iron Age pit alignment and ditches.
c) Major deposits of the Roman period settlement: three wells of the late third and fourth centuries AD,
and nine pits mostly of the first and second centuries AD. There are also a small number of bones from
general layers.
The fragments numbered nearly twenty thousand in total and were obtained mainly by hand recovery.
Some sieving was carried out on the pyre debris pit complex and on some layers below the water table in
the wells.
Dog measurements and pathology are the subject of an extended study by Kate Clark.
The taxa identified, together with codes used in text and tables, are listed in Table 000.

Species list and abbreviations used in text and tables

HOR domestic horse
COW domestic cattle
S/G domestic sheep, may also include some goat
SHE positively identified as domestic sheep
GOA positively identified as domestic goat
LAR cattle sized fragments (probably mostly cattle but may also include horse and Red deer)
SAR sheep sized fragments (probably mostly sheep but may also include some pig, Roe and large dog)
PIG domestic pig
DOG domestic dog
CAT domestic cat
HAR hare, probably brown, Lepus europaeus
MMAM medium mammal, probably mostly dog but may include some hare or cat
MUS mustelids, including probable weasel, Mustela nivalis, and polecat, Mustela putorius
SMM small mammals, including wood mouse, Apodemus sp; mouse; field vole, Microtus agrestis; water vole,
Arvicola terrestris; and shrew, Sorex spp.
MAM unidentified bone, probably mostly SAR and/or LAR
FOW domestic fowl
ANAS/D domestic duck or mallard, Anas platyrhynchos
GOO domestic goose or greylag, Anser anser
BIR unidentified bird fragments, probably fowl
BIRO other bird, includes woodcock, Scolopax rusticola; sparrow sized small passerines; and swallow,
Hirundo rustica
AMPH amphibian, includes common frog, Rana temporaria and common toad, Bufo bufo
EEL common eel, Anguilla anguilla
RUT RUT roach, Rutilus rutilus
SCA ERY rudd, Scardinius erythrophthalmus
CYP FAM cyprinidae - roach, rudd family
ESO LUS pike, Esox lucius
FIS fragments of fish not identified to group or species.

Methods
The methods used for identification and recording were based on the FRU (Faunal Remains Unit,
Southampton) Method 86 system, with some modifications (see FRU archive). Identifications were made
using the modern comparative collections of S Hamilton-Dyer and the Faunal Remains Unit.
Measurements were taken with a vernier calliper mainly following von den Driesch (1976) and are in
millimetres unless otherwise stated. Withers heights of the domestic ungulates are calculated using the
factors recommended by von den Driesch and Boessneck (1974). Withers heights of dogs are calculated
using Harcourt's factors (1974). Archive material includes metrical and other data not in the text and is
kept on paper and floppy disk.

369
Some of the fragments identified only as cattle- or sheep-sized (LAR, SAR) could have been taken further
to anatomy and sometimes species, but it was not considered cost effective for the small amount of
additional information gained. LAR fragments are probably cattle, except in the well deposits, where
horse bones are common. SAR is mostly sheep but also includes some pig. There may be a small
overlap with medium mammal (MMAM) in the wells, where there are large amounts of fragmented dog
bones, particularly ribs, vertebrae and limb bone shafts, some of which cannot be easily distinguished
from small sheep.
For cost effective speed, ribs and vertebrae, excepting atlas, axis and sacrum, have not been speciated,
only divided into LAR (cattle sized), SAR (sheep/pig sized) and MMAM (dog sized). In some cases, these
may overlap slightly. For the same reason, the fusion state of ribs and vertebrae has not been recorded in
most instances.
It is difficult to distinguish between some bones of sheep and goat. Few bones could be definitely
identified to goat: except for two horncore fragments and three bones from a foreleg, all the diagnostic
ovicaprid fragments (Boessneck 1969) were of sheep and it is assumed that the remainder also belonged
predominantly to sheep.
Lagomorph bones have been identified as probably all brown hare; some could theoretically be blue hare
or even rabbit, but this is extremely unlikely.
Fragments with fresh, that is, modern breaks, which probably came off other bones are not separately
recorded. Freshly broken bones which can be joined are counted as one bone rather than two.
Many bones, especially humerus and metapodia, have ancient breaks, which may be the result of
deliberate human action but, unless there is a definite mark left by an implement, butchery is hard to
prove.
For cattle and sheep radius, the measurement of the distal facet breadth (BFd) is that of the major facet
and does not include that facet which fuses with the distal ulna in older animals. It was considered that
measurement across all the facets would be exaggerated in these older animals. The BFd measurement
in von den Driesch is not illustrated for ruminants.

Animal bone from inhumations and cremation burials

California Large Enclosure

Pyre débris pit

The fragments were obtained mainly by hand recovery. Sieving was carried out on the pyre pit complex.
Species burnt unburnt total percentage
Horse 21 - 21 4.1
Cattle 8 1 9 1.8
Sheep/goat 4 11 15 2.9
Pig 7 - 7 1.4
LAR 21 2 23 4.5
SAR 14 12 26 5.1
Mammal 353 48 401 78.5
Fowl 1 6 7 1.4
Small mammal - (20) (20) 0.0
Amphibian - (1) (1) 0.0
Fish - 2 2 0.4
Total 429 82 511 (532.0)
Table 163: Pyre débris pit F96, species distribution (LAR = large ungulate; SAR = small
artiodactyl)
Although the insertion of the kiln had disturbed part of the feature, almost all of the animal bone is thought
to be from the pyre débris pit. Most of the fragments are charred, some are vitrified and distorted. Many
hundreds of fragments were examined, including over 2 kg of small burnt fragments which were identified
at best to large ungulate or small artiodactyl only. These have been recorded as approximately 200
fragments. The identifiable species represented (Table 163) are horse, cattle, sheep/goat, pig, fowl,
amphibian (frog or toad), and fish (rudd), together with an intrusive wood mouse. All twenty-one horse
fragments are burnt. They are all either tooth fragments or foot bones, including metapodia. None are
whole bones and the fragments have been severely damaged by burning. It is possible, but by no means
certain, that they represent the head and feet left on a hide, possibly used to wrap the human body on the
pyre. Probable use of bear skins have been reported by Stead in La Tène III burials at Baldock (Stead &
Rigby 1986, 53) and Welwyn Garden City (Stead 1967). Iron Age/Roman ritual use of horse skins has
been noted in Europe (Luff 1982). A carpal was the single unburnt cattle bone, the remaining eight

370
fragments were all burnt and again were mainly teeth and also some small foot bones. Again these were
perhaps the remains of a hide with head and hooves remaining. The seven charred pig remains
comprised fragments of right tibia and ulna and teeth. Although possibly all from one individual, and with
similar ageing data, these fragments are definitely NOT from the animals in the bucket burial. The burnt
sheep/goat fragments were of fibula, radius and 2 carpi. The unburnt remains were all head or teeth
fragments, apart from one small fragment of a metapodial. The remainder of the small artiodactyls
fragments could not be identified as pig or sheep/goat, they were mostly of rib and vertebra with some
long bones including small fragments of scapula and humerus which were probably sheep/goat and may
be from the same animal as the radius and carpi. Domestic fowl was represented by six unburnt bones
which could all be from one individual. A right humerus was the only whole bone, TL 76.6 mm. The single
burnt fragment was of a spurred (male) tarso-metatarsus. All of the twenty small mammal bones were
unburnt and almost certainly belong to one wood mouse which died in situ. The amphibian bone could
also be incidental, since small mammals and amphibians are often found in the base of pits and grave
cuts, being unable to climb out before the feature is infilled (Buckland-Wright 1993). Two unburnt fish
bones were recovered, one identified as an inferior pharyngeal of rudd, Scardinius erythrophthalmus. This
species is restricted to lakes and other still waters. Although common today, often colonising gravel pits
and canals, it is rarely identified from archaeological sites in Britain.
As the feature has been sieved it is unlikely that further bones were missed. It is difficult to say whether
these bones represent all of the animals used in the funeral ceremony. Some bones do not seem to be
the debris of feasting while others may have been disposed of elsewhere (e.g. after division amongst the
participants). The assemblage is in contrast with the provision of a single item, the prime pig meat, in the
associated bucket burial.
The animal remains identified to species were all of pig. Other fragments (mainly of ribs and vertebrae)
were almost certainly of pig as well. In total there were 84 fragments representing at least two animals.
Orientated north-west to south-east were most of the right side ribs and vertebrae of two animals, the two
sides of meat being laid opposite each other and right side down. A right foreleg joint, including the
shoulder, had then been placed just to the north-east of the northern one, with the distal parts of the
radius and ulna lying across the sacral region. There were no foot bones with this joint. A further joint had
then been placed across both of these joints. This was of the lower part of the back leg, the tibia, fibula
and astragalus but again without the foot. A further small group of bones were found to the north of the
main group. These represented another joint of ribs and vertebra, this one being of the thoracic region
only. These bones were too fragmentary when examined to tell whether they were from the right or left
side. Several of the bones were unfused including the vertebrae, the ulna, proximal humerus and tibia,
and the distal radius. The proximal radius, tuber scapulae and distal tibia were completely fused.
Determining the actual age of pigs from epiphyseal data alone has certain difficulties (Bull & Payne 1982),
but a tentative age at death of between two and three years would seem reasonable. Available
measurements were few; distal tibia (Bd) 27.7 mm, distal humerus (BT) 29.1, proximal radius (Bp) 28.1,
distal scapula (SLC) 22.1, (GLP) 34.3, (LG) 28.5, (BG) 24.4 mm. None of the fragments were burnt and
no butchery marks were observed. This does not necessarily imply that it was definitely uncooked and
that no meat was removed. The 1968 La Tène III burial (Stead & Rigby 1986, 53), unfortunately
disturbed, contained comparable pig remains.

Discussion
The practice of placing joints of meat in graves as an offering has been reported from many sites, both in
Britain and in Europe (e.g. Davis 1989; Lauwerier 1983; Maltby 1988; Whimster 1981). In some cases,
there seems to have been differentiation between male and female graves. At nearby Skeleton Green,
Wells (1981) suggests a possible correlation between female graves and bird remains; here, however,
the only two inhumations with bird remains (domestic fowl) and known sex, are male (table 000). There
does seem to be an association between pig and pre-Roman burials. Cattle, sheep and fowl are found
throughout but pig bones were not found in any of the Roman period burials. The frequency of pig
remains was also noted in the previous excavations at Baldock (Stead & Rigby 1986). This is in contrast
with nearby Skeleton Green where most were associated with sheep/goat and none with pig. The
Durotrigian cemetery at Poundbury (Buckland-Wright 1993) produced four associations with sheep/goat
and only one with pig. Likewise, most of the Maiden Castle offerings were of sheep/goat (Wheeler 1943).
The grave goods at Baldock therefore more closely resemble animal bone from cremations at
Verulamium (Davis 1989) and also from inhumations at Alington Avenue, Dorchester (Maltby 1988),
which have pig and fowl but no sheep/goat. The pig remains usually consist of a half head, hind limb joint
(usually with the pelvis but without the foot), or vertebra and rib joint. The offering may be any one of
these but is often a combination. The meat is usually laid in the burial and is unburnt. Sheep/goat
offerings, including LPRIA ones, seem to be of part joints and heads, and are more frequently placed in
urns. In an overview of animal bone in Roman graves, Lauwerier (1983) notes that pig and fowl are the
most frequent finds in graves whereas cattle and sheep/goat dominate the material from other contexts
and suggests the possibility that the grave goods were special, festive, meals. It has been noticed at
several sites that the pig feet are generally missing, but that half-heads and leg joints are common. The
371
findings at Baldock confirm this observation and no foot bones are present in any of the graves. As at
Verulamium, the pig joints often include part of the scapula or pelvis. This is in contrast to Alington, where
the joints did not include these high meat value elements. As the number of cremation burials is small it is
not possible to ascertain statistically whether there is a preference for one side of the body for ritual
burials. In the current Baldock material, however, both left and right portions are present.
The remains from the pyre debris pit F95 and associated bucket burial F106 are of particular interest.
Here there is an offering associated with the bucket burial of two right sides of pork and, separately, a
hindleg joint and foreleg joint. There are no head or foot bones. In the pyre debris pit, there is a mixture of
mostly cremated bone. This is of great variety and includes not only pig but horse, cattle, sheep/goat, fowl
and fish. It seems likely that this represents the extra special funeral activities for a person of particularly
high status. A La Tène III bucket burial discovered in 1968 (Stead & Rigby 1986, 53), unfortunately
disturbed, contained comparable pig remains.
Site Period Context pig s/g sar cow horse lar fowl fish Sex
BAL-1 LPRIA F106 Y - - - - - - -
BAL-1 LPRIA F95 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BAL-1 LPRIA F64 Y - - - - - - -
BAL-1 LPRIA/1st AD 3932 - Y Y - - - - -
BAL-1 5th AD 1464 - - - - - - Y - M
BAL-1 5th AD 1322 - - - - - - Y - M
BAL-2 LPRIA F134 Y Y - - - - - -
BAL-2 LPRIA F311 Y Y - - - Y - -
BAL-2 LPRIA F312 Y - - - - - - -
BAL-11 L 1st BC B175 - - Y - - - - - F
BAL-11 M 1st AD B118 - - Y - - - - - F
BAL-11 M 2nd AD B184 - - - - - - - Y M
BAL-11 M-L 2nd AD B22 - - Y - - - - -
BAL-11 M-L 2nd AD B186 - - - - - - Y -
BAL-11 E 4th AD B121 - - - - - Y - - Child
BAL-45 LPRIA 3898 - - Y - - - - -
BAL-45 LPRIA 3900 Y Y - - - - Y -
BAL-45 LPRIA 3905 Y - - - - - - -
BAL-45 L 4th-E 5th AD 3806 - - Y - - Y - -
BAL-45 L 2nd-3rd AD 3814 - - - Y - - - -
BAL-45 R 3872 - - - Y - - - -
BAL-45 4th AD 3923 - Y Y Y - Y - -
BAL-45 4th AD 3960 - Y Y - - - - -
BAL-45 L 3rd-E 4th AD 3971 - - Y - - - - -
BAL-45 R 7018 - Y - - - - - -
BAL-45 L 4th-L 5th AD 7023 - - - - - - Y -
Table 164: Summary of animal bone associated with inhumations and cremation burials.

BAL-2 F320 (dog burial cut into the east ditch, LPRIA, where the ditch crosses the pit alignment)
Apart from small fragments, the entire skeleton was recovered including tail and toes. The sternum was
unfused but all other bones were fused including the sacrum and vertebrae. The presence of an os penis
indicates a male animal. The skull and limbs have evidence of considerable trauma pathology. The height
at the shoulders has been estimated using Harcourt's (1974) factors on the lengths of the limb bones and
these estimates and other measurements are given in Table 165 below. Further measurements and
details of pathology are discussed together with those of other dogs in vol V.
The dog was obviously buried deliberately and not simply thrown in the nearest pit. Whether the position
of it in the ditch, in line with the pit alignment, has any ceremonial significance, or is just a coincidental
use of an easy place to dig, cannot be established from the bone evidence.
There were also seven incidental fragments which included five large ungulate skull fragments, a cattle
carpal and a sheep/goat lower first molar.
GL SD WH
left (101) 7.5 30.4
Femur
right (101) 7.3 30.7
withers height range 29.0 – 32.5 cm
left 106.3 7.0 31.9
Tibia
right 108.0 7.2 32.5
left 31.3
Hindleg
right 31.7
standard deviation 0.863
left 98.3 6.3 31.1
Humerus
right 97.9 6.6 30.9
Radius right 92.7 8.3 41.4
co-efficient of variation 7.85
Foreleg right 31.0
372
 Ulna right 102.1 29.0
Tr M1/P4
Mandible (both) 41.8 17.5
Skull 14.5
Table 165: Selection of measurements and estimated withers heights (Harcourt 1974)

The LPRIA pit alignment

A total of only 408 animal bone fragments were recovered from a number of pits in the alignment, these
coming from three separate excavations. The assemblage is dominated by sheep/goat material,
assuming that the majority of unidentified small artiodactyl material is also from sheep/goat. Cattle bone
(and unidentified cattle sized fragments) is the next most frequently encountered. The remainder is of pig,
horse and dog. No other species were identified (Table 166). One ovicaprid bone only, a sawn and
chopped horn core from pit F222, was identified as goat, one of very few at Baldock. Most fragments are
eroded and of 'chalky' appearance, none are ivoried. As a consequence of the surface erosion only a
small number of butchery marks have survived, several bones have been gnawed and a few are burnt. Of
the thirteen horse fragments identified nine were teeth from pit F256, one of these an upper premolar with
pathologically excessive, and uneven, wear perhaps signifying the use of a bit. A significant proportion of
the sheep/goat fragments (29 out of 76) were also loose teeth. One mandible showed evidence of minor
periodontal disease (pit F256). Few bones were measurable due to the fragmentation and poor
preservation. A single withers height estimation of 0.542 metres was available from a sheep metatarsus
(pit F222). In size and proportions, the sheep are of the small slender type typical of this period. One of
the three dog fragments was a skull of small round headed type, unfortunately very fragmentary (layer
(2937), pit [2790]). The maxilla contained room for five teeth only; the length of the 4th premolar was 16.1
mm. While dogs of this type are relatively common during the Roman period, they are usually rare in the
late Iron Age.
Sheep/
Site Feature Horse Cattle Pig LAR SAR Mammal Dog Total
goat
F215 - 1 3 1 3 12 - - 20
F216 1 4 1 1 1 4 - - 12
F222 - 6 14 3 7 16 - - 46
BAL-2 F249 1 - - - - - - - 1
F300 - - - - 2 - - - 2
Total 2 11 18 5 13 32 0 0 81
% 2.5 13.6 22.2 6.2 16.0 39.5 0 0
F189 - 1 - 1 - 1 - - 3
F191 - - 1 - - - - - 1
F192 - - - - - - 1 - 1
F193 - - - - 4 - - - 4
F194 - - - - - 1 - - 1
F195 - 1 - - 2 - - - 3
F196 - 2 - - 3 1 1 - 7
BAL-5
F197 - 1 - 1 - - - - 2
F199 - - - - - - - 1 1
F201 - - - - - 5 - - 5
F202 - - - - 2 - - - 2
F204 - - - - - 1 - - 1
Total 0 5 1 2 11 9 2 1 31
% 0 16.1 3.2 6.5 35.3 29.0 6.5 3.2
F256 9 8 18 6 39 56 - - 136
F258 - 1 - - 2 - - - 3
F260 2 6 3 1 3 - - 1 16
BAL-12 [2787] - 2 20 1 16 27 - - 66
[2790] - 5 16 4 36 13 - 1 75
Total 11 22 57 12 96 96 0 2 296
% 3.7 7.4 19.3 4.1 32.4 32.4 0 0.7
Grand totals 13 38 76 19 120 137 2 3 408
Percentages 3.2 9.3 18.6 4.7 29.4 33.6 0.5 0.7
Table 166: Pit alignment species distribution
There is no evidence of articulated or associated groups and, although the preservation is not good, the
appearance of the assemblage in general is that of scattered random disposal. There is no evidence of
ritual usage or disposal of a particular type of waste such as from slaughter, although there is a lack of
scapula and pelvis and also a slight bias in favour of head, teeth and feet (Table 167). Much of this may
be attributed to the small sample size and differential preservation. The quantity of loose teeth indicates
the potential loss of bone material, the resilient teeth surviving while other bone has been destroyed.

373
 Loose
Count Backleg Foreleg Head Feet Pelvis Shoulder Trunk Unidentified Total
teeth
Horse 2 3 - 7 1 - - - - 13
Cattle 3 3 8 4 14 2 1 3 - 38
Sheep/
11 6 13 29 14 - 3 - - 76
Goat
Pig - 4 9 2 4 - - - - 19
Dog - 1 2 - - - - - - 3
Cattle
1 2 9 - - - - 11 97 120
sized
Sheep/
pig - - - - - - 1 23 113 137
sized
Total 17 19 41 42 33 2 5 37 210 406
Horse 15.4% 23.1% 0% 53.8% 7.7% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Cattle 7.9% 7.9% 21.1% 10.5% 36.8% 5.3% 2.6% 7.9% 0%
Sheep/
14.5% 7.9% 17.1% 38.2% 18.4% 0% 3.9% 0% 0%
Goat
Pig 0% 21.1% 47.4% 10.5% 21.1% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Dog 0% 33.3% 66.7% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Cattle
0.8% 1.7% 7.5% 0% 0% 0% 0% 9.2% 80.8%
sized
Sheep/
pig 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0.7% 16.8% 82.5%
sized
Table 167: Pit alignment, distribution over the body: summary of selected species
The fragment numbers are too small to observe any significant differences in distribution along the length
of the alignment. It is, however, interesting to note that very little bone was recovered from BAL-5, the
most eastern site, and the greatest quantity is from the western site, BAL-12.

Ditches at BAL-1 and BAL-2

Bone material recovered from ditch deposits consisted of 2,598 fragments. One group of 714 fragments is
from F6, BAL-1, and is from circa 50 BC. The remainder are from various cuts and re-cuts on BAL-2,
most of the bone coming from circa early to mid first century AD. The species and their relative
representation are very similar in each assemblage (Table 168). Most noticeable in comparison with pits
of the same period groups is the lack of domestic fowl bones, there are only seven bird bone fragments in
total and three of these were from a raven in F6. Horse bones, in contrast, are slightly more frequent. The
amount of cattle bone is usually half to two-thirds the amount of sheep, while the amount of pig is variable
but, except in one small group of bones, never more than the cattle. Fragmentation is not as great as in
the pit material and the incidence of unidentified fragments is correspondingly less. Although the
individual bone fragments are larger, the preservation is not quite as good and loose teeth comprise just
over 20% of the cattle and sheep remains.
Other UND Fish
Site Feat. Horse Cattle Sheep/goat Pig LAR SAR Deer Dog Fox Hare Fowl Total
bird bird
BAL-1 F6 11 130 193 33 234 101 - 7 - - 2 3 - - 714
F158 - 26 58 10 15 38 - 1 - - - - - - 148
F217A 1 6 11 3 22 14 - - - - - - - - 57
F217 B 4 51 77 20 72 34 - 12 - - - - - - 270
F217/249
- 4 5 1 11 6 - 3 - - - - - - 30
BAL-2 B
F224 15 141 352 50 129 25 - 4 1 - - 1 - - 718
F226 - 3 10 8 17 28 - 1 - - - - - - 67
F248 15 107 83 25 191 82 1 10 - - 1 - 1 2 518
F341 3 13 19 4 29 7 - - - 1 - - - - 76
Total 49 481 808 154 720 335 1 38 1 1 3 4 1 2 2598
Percentage 1.9 18.5 31.1 5.9 27.7 12.9 0 1.5 0 0 0.1 0.2 0 0.1

Table 168: Ditches: species distribution

Horned sheep and cattle were present. One of the sheep skull fragments, though small, quite definitely
showed the presence of a double horn core. Such polycerate animals occur frequently in some modern
breeds e.g. Jacob and Hebridean but only rarely in others. Roman examples have been found at Col-
chester (Luff 1982) and at Newstead (Noddle 1980a) and there have been several instances reported
from East Anglia in medieval deposits (Thetford: Rogerson & Dallas 1984; North Elmham: Noddle 1980b;
Bury St Edmunds: Hamilton-Dyer 1993b).
A large quantity of sheep and sheep/goat jaws were recovered. Of 93 jaws with ageing information, 39
still had the deciduous 4th pre-molar, 29 had the permanent one. There were 26 jaws with the 3rd molar

374
in wear and 15 with the molar visible in the crypt but not erupted. There were no jaws which could be
described as being from aged animals, nor any of neonatal lambs (although these may not have been
preserved). A summary of eruption and wear stages is given in Table 169. Although the numbers are too
small for statistical analysis there seems to be a slight difference between F6 (mid first century BC) and
the early first century AD deposits, mainly from F224. In the later phase, there is a concentration around
stages 3 to 4 and again around stage 5, with almost no jaws outside these ranges. Very approximately
this suggests a cull of 1 year to 18 month animals and also 2 to 3 year olds. The earlier material is more
evenly spread but still with very few very young or very old animals: most would have been about 2 years.
Feature Stage
1 2 3 3/4 4 4/5 5 5/6 6 6/7 7
F6 - - 2 7 7 4 3 - 2 3 2
F217 - 1 - 2 1 - 2 - - - -
F224 - 1 5 6 11 4 13 4 1 1 -
F248 - 1 - 1 2 - 3 - 1 - -
Table 169: ditches: Sheep/goat tooth eruption and wear stages
Key:
Stage 1 deciduous premolar 4 not in wear
Stage 2 deciduous premolar 4 in wear, molar 1 not in wear
Stage 3 molar 1 in wear, molar 2 not in wear
Stage 4 molar 2 in wear, molar 3 not in wear
Stage 5 molar 3 in wear, molar 1 not in heavy wear (Grant stage H or more)
Stage 6 molar 1 in heavy wear, molar 2 not in heavy wear
Stage 7 molars 1 and 2 in heavy wear

Wells, BAL-1; pits BAL-1, BAL-2, BAL-10, BAL-17; layers and minor features BAL-1, BAL-11

Wells
A large quantity of dog bone was recovered from the three wells BAL-1. Pathology observed on these
bones, together with measurements, form a separate report by K Clark. Fragment numbers have been
arrived at in different ways for these two reports: the pathology report deals only with material having
fused epiphyses, bone from puppies is therefore not counted; similarly the main bone report does not
distinguish rib and vertebrae fragments beyond medium-sized mammal or sheep/pig sized mammal,
excepting in the case of axis, atlas and sacrum, and the dog bone total is correspondingly less.
Measurements taken for the separate report on dogs are more extensive than those taken for the main
report. Differences in duplicated measurements are small, usually less than 1 mm, and fall well within
acceptable limits.

Well F557 BAL-1 (late 3rd to 4th century AD)

Over 4,000 fragments were recovered, mostly from layer 4 and, especially, layer 5. The upper three
layers, 1 to 3 and the bottom layer, 6, together contributed 115 fragments only, in spite of the sieving of
layer 6 which was below the water table at 12.03 metres (Table 000).

Layer 4 (515 fragments).

Many of the fragments were identified as large ungulate or small artiodactyl limb bone only, probably of
cattle or sheep. Identifiable mammal fragments were mainly cattle and sheep (no goat) with a few
fragments each of pig, horse, dog, cat, and hare. There were also twenty-three bones from at least four
field voles, and sixteen frog bones. Bird bones are represented only by five fragments of domestic fowl.
One of these was a male and one a hen in lay. Three fish bones, rare at Baldock, were recovered; two of
these were identified as roach, a common fresh water species.

Layer 5 (3,641 fragments).

This large layer contributed the bulk of the animal bone. The material is considerably fragmented and
many of the bones have been identified only as large ungulate, small artiodactyl or medium mammal.
Taking the numbers of fragments identifiable to species as a guide, the large ungulate fragments are
probably cattle and horse in roughly equal proportions, the small artiodactyl fragments are mostly sheep
and the medium mammal fragments are mostly dog.
The largest number of identified fragments are of dog. At least 47 individuals are represented. This very
large number is however mostly attributable to the remains of 30 neonatal or peri-natal puppies. Of the
others, eleven are young animals with the femur epiphyses unfused (probably under a year) and six are
adults (over a year) with the femur fully fused. At least three of the immature group were probably under
six months as some of the jaws do not have the permanent molars fully erupted. All parts of the skeleton
are represented, although some of the more fragile elements and some of the smallest bones are slightly

375
under-represented. None have cut marks. Many bones are pathological. The animals were probably
disposed of as whole animals. Compared with ungulates the representation is biased as dogs have more
foot bones, but it is still a great quantity of dog material.
The second most frequent remains were of horse. Like the dogs there appeared to be several animals,
probably whole when disposed of although much fragmented now. The minimum number of individuals
(MNI) calculated on teeth gave a total of five animals while on other bones the MNI was four. All bones
were fused with the exception of one caput femoris. The skulls and jaws had become extremely
fragmented and only limited reconstruction was possible with the result that measurements were not
possible and most teeth were loose. As loose horse teeth are difficult to identify precisely, much ageing
information has been lost. Remaining information indicates animals of at least seven years old. Six foot
bones were pathological including an exterior cuneiform with a 'bubbled' appearance on the navicular
face and a crack though the opposite face.
In contrast, cattle bones did not appear to be from whole animals, but were mostly heads and feet, or
butchered limb bones. Of twelve radius eight had been axially split and most of the humerus fragments
were chopped pieces of the distal end. One humerus shaft fragment had shave marks probably caused
by using a heavy blade to strip the meat from the bone. One of the five scapula fragments also had shave
marks, on both edges of the blade, and the spine and processus coracoideus had both been removed.
Despite a large number of head and jaw fragments, only five jaws still contained teeth.
No goat was identified from the ovicaprid material and it is assumed that most, if not all, of the remains
represent sheep. There were almost as many sheep fragments as cattle and these too showed a slight
bias in favour of foot bones. The original numbers of foot bones would have been even higher as no 3rd
phalanges were recovered. These small bones are often under represented due to lack of preservation or
recovery (Payne 1972). Most elements are present and the bones of at least eight animals are
represented, four of which were lambs, not neonatal but only a few weeks old - the two halves of the
metapodia are joined but the bone is very porous and the proximal epiphyses have a perforated
appearance characteristic of very young animals. One jaw has the deciduous 4th premolar just in wear
while the 1st molar is still in the alveolar crypt. This is similar to a modern Manx lamb of fourteen days old.
Why these lambs had not been given to dogs or left for ravens is curious. Although the surface condition
of all the bones was good no butchery marks were observed. Remains are probably principally stripped
carcases from slaughter waste or possibly whole unused dead sheep. Other jaws with teeth all had the
3rd molar in full wear.
Pig was notable by its dearth – twenty-one bones only, spread across the skeleton and including remains
of more than one animal. Jaws with teeth numbered two only, neither with fully erupted dentition.
Other mammals included the remains of a half-grown male cat, a hare and three young hares. The cat
bones had no skinning or other marks, but one of the hares had been skinned as there was a cut mark
across the hind foot.
Small mammals included wood mice, field voles and common shrews. There were also large numbers of
amphibian bones, mostly frog, of at least sixteen individuals.
This layer contained the greatest number of fish bones found at Baldock. Unlike the layer above these
were not roach but eel, 97 bones from three or more small fish.
Bird bones were well represented, mostly by fowl of which there were 148 fragments. Other bird bones
included four of goose, two of duck, eight swallow bones from a minimum of two birds, eleven buzzard
bones, probably from one individual, and a sparrow-sized tibia. Swallow bones have been found in other
well deposits and it is possible that they may have nested in the upper structure of the well (Maltby 1993).
The fowl bones represent at least ten individuals and include both males (spurred tarsometatarsi) and
hens in lay (bones with medullary deposits, Driver 1982). Heads, toes, pelvis and sternum are under
represented. As most of the tarsometatarsi are complete the toes are probably absent due to recovery
bias. The small number of heads and mid-carcase remains may indicate the disposal of leg and wing
joints from meals rather than the meal preparation waste.

Well F18 BAL-1 (late 3rd century AD)

The higher levels of this well deposit are again few in bones and these are not the same as those from
the deeper layers. Layers 6 and 7 contain mostly sheep with no dog. The lower levels contain a high
percentage of horse and dog, especially in layers 10 and 12. There are no amphibian bones. The water
table was reached at 14.8 metres and sieving was carried out on material below this (layer ?). Layer 10
was also sieved.

Layer 10
Most fragments were identified as dog (177) of several individuals. Both adult and immature were present
and three different sizes were identified, one large, one medium sized and one small dog with a rounded
376
skull. A young animal provided many of the 109 horse fragments. All of the late-fusing group of epiphyses
were unfused. There were also fragments of another, older, individual. Only five fragments of cattle and
one of pig were identified.
There were nine cat fragments and 77 of small mammals - wood mice and shrew.
Birds were represented by 33 fowl bones and three bones of raven, probably from one individual.

Layer 11
This was a small layer but principally the same with the major items being horse, dog and fowl.

Layer 12
An even larger amount of dog bones than in layer 10, but horse fragments are less in proportion. No pig
bone were found at all. There was a similar amount of fowl and hare. The 85 horse bones gave an MNI of
two individuals. A minimum of eight dogs were identified from 258 fragments, there are probably other
fragments of dog which have not been identified beyond dog/small sheep sized. The dog material
included bones from two large animals, three small ones and one small one with bowed leg bones. One
animal was immature, one had very worn teeth. The presence of two os penis indicates that at least two
were male.

Layer 12a
A smaller but similar group with two more dogs (60 fragments). One was small with a round skull.

Well F484 BAL-1 (late 3rd century AD)

With time restrictions, the material from this well was not examined in as great a detail as the other two. In
particular, the great number of dog and fowl bones were not all separately identified. With the similarity of
fox bones to some of small dogs it is possible that a few bones may be of fox. Major bones, such as
whole main limb bones and mandibles, were recorded separately but broken and also minor bones such
as the phalanges and metapodia were recorded only as a group (e.g. '20 phalanges mixed sizes and
ages'). Measurements were also restricted, mainly to greatest length and minimum shaft width (but see
Clark, below, for additional information on dog measurements and pathology).
As with the other wells, material from the upper levels was negligible, and is of mixed provenance. The
water table was reached at 11.98 metres, part way into Layer 10. The lower levels, 10 and 11, contained
a large quantity of fragmented material. The bulk of this was horse, cattle, dog, fowl and to a lesser extent
sheep. Pig was once again virtually absent.

Layers 10/11
The largest amount of dog, 504 fragments, was in Layer 11, at a depth of around thirteen metres (sample
253 at 13 to 13.2 metres, 254 at 13.15 to 13.65 metres). The jaws represent at least twenty individuals
and fifteen axis vertebrae were also recorded. The presence of four os penis bones indicates that at least
four of the animals were male. The bones vary greatly in size and shape and include some curving leg
bones, some bones from small dogs and some were from an old large animal. Other carnivores were also
identified: these were mustelids, both stoat and weasel, and polecat/ferret and cat.
A large number of the fragments, 480 (12%), were of domestic fowl. In Layer 10, some of these bones
were very well preserved and of an ivoried appearance. This is a result of preservational conditions but
the process is not yet fully understood; a previous suggestion that it is a result of cooking (Coy 1975)
cannot be true for all cases as in situ skeletons have been found with part ivoried. It is more likely to be
associated with the breakdown of fatty chemicals. Several bones exhibited medullary bone and were
therefore from hens at the start of, or during, the laying season.
The material from sample 253 is highly fragmented with both old and new breaks. A number of fragments
are burnt. Most of the fragments can be identified only as large mammal, probably cattle or horse. There
are also dog toes, vertebrae, teeth and ribs. Fowl bones occur in variety. Hare is represented by teeth
only. Sheep teeth are also common. There are also bones of small animals including shrew, mouse, vole,
amphibians, and small passerine birds.

Discussion of the well deposits

In all the complete fragment count from the three wells is 10,014 and constitutes the major group of
material examined during the current project. Most of the bone is from the lower layers near, and in some
cases below, the present water table.

377
 Layer

Sheep/
goat

Cat

mammal

mammal
Cattle

Sheep

Pig

LAR

SAR

Dog

AMPH
Feature

Horse

MUST

Fish
Hare

Other bird

UND bird
Fowl

Small

Total
Medium
1 - 1 6 - - 10 6 1 - - - - - - - - - - 24
2 - 1 - - - 1 - 2 - - - - - - - - - - 4
3 3 23 1 - 2 6 4 1 - - - - - - - - - - 40
4 - 12 2 - - 21 4 - - - - - - - - - - - 39
5 4 7 12 - 3 7 10 - - - - - - - - - - - 43
6 - 11 28 2 3 43 40 - - - - - - - - - - - 127
7 19 6 226 25 1 14 120 - - - - - - 2 1 - - - 414
8 - 1 1 - - 4 - - - - - - - - - - - - 6
F18 9 - 2 - - - - 2 - - - - - - - - 1 - - 5
10 109 5 - - 1 48 6 177 9 - - - 33 3 - 77 - - 468
11 30 - 8 4 - 10 - 12 - - - - 13 - 3 2 - - 82
12 85 10 16 1 - 5 - 258 - - 6 - 26 1 4 - - - 412
12A 6 10 - - - 6 - 60 - - - - 8 - 3 - - - 93
Tota
256 89 300 32 10 175 192 511 9 0 6 0 80 6 11 80 0 0 1757
l
14. 1. 0. 10. 0. 0. 0. 0.
% 5.1 17.1 10.0 29.1 0 0 4.6 4.6 0 0
6 8 6 9 5 3 3 6
4 - 1 - - - 12 4 - - - - - - - - - - - 17
5 - 3 1 - - 6 1 - - - - - - - - - - - 11
6 - 2 1 - - 6 3 - - - - - - - - - - - 12
7 - 1 - - 1 2 3 - - - - - - - - - - - 7
8 - 4 2 - 1 15 8 - - - - - - - - - - - 30
9 3 - 19 - 1 66 53 3 - - - - - - - - - - 145
F48
4 10 87 79 65 2 6 316 60 5 - 2 2 - 200 7 40 - - - 871
24
11 207 358 182 3 1 973 61 504 20 6 8 280 42 - 2 - - 2893
6
Tota 139 24
297 448 270 5 10 193 512 20 8 10 480 49 40 2 0 0 3986
l 6 6
11. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 12. 1. 1.
% 7.5 6.8 35.0 4.8 12.8 6.2 0.1 0 0
2 1 3 5 2 3 0 2 0
1 - 6 4 - 2 14 20 1 - - - - - - - - - - 47
2 - 4 4 - - 1 - 1 2 - - - - - - - 2 - 14
3 - 2 1 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4
4 6 48 46 1 6 165 183 5 3 - 4 1 5 - - 23 16 3 515
36 18 24
F55 5 360 219 192 5 21 636 277 747 33 - 62 148 26 26 97 3641
6 1 5
7
6 - 1 2 - - 8 14 21 - - 2 2 - - - - - - 50
Tota 36 20 26 10
366 280 249 7 29 824 494 775 38 0 68 153 26 26 4271
l 9 4 3 0
0. 0. 11. 0. 1. 0. 0.
% 8.6 6.6 5.8 19.3 18.1 0 8.6 3.6 4.8 6.2 2.3
2 7 6 9 6 6 6
239 179 61 28 26 10 10001
Grand total 919 817 819 44 49 879 67 8 84 713 81 77
5 8 5 6 3 0 4
0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.
Percentage 9.2 8.2 8.2 23.9 8.8 18.0 6.1 7.1 2.9 2.6 1.0
4 5 7 1 8 8 8

Table 170: Wells, species distribution

The species composition (Table 170) is quite different from other types of deposit with large numbers of
articulated horse and dog remains and a high number of domestic fowl. The small species of the local
environment are also frequent, in part boosted by the sieving but part of the reason for sieving was
presence of large numbers of small bones (in fact one of the largest groups, F557 Layer 5, does not
seem to have been sieved and has the largest concentration of amphibian and small mammal remains).
The small mammals are probably pit-fall casualties. The amphibians were probably attracted by the damp
conditions and also became trapped.
The amount of horse is high but, because of the presence of whole or partial bodies, the number of
individual animals represented is less than the fragment count suggests.

Dog
In addition to the descriptions of dog bones from the contexts in this report, further measurements and
details of pathology form a separate report by Kate Clark.
The amount of dog is very high in all three wells, mainly in the bottom fills. Dog skeletons were frequent
from previous excavations but never as abundant as here. All types, sizes and ages are present, many
with pathologies. The representation in the wells is not quite the same. Well F557 contains the bones of
at least 47, but 30 of these are pups. Well F484 contains mostly adult dogs including several of very small
types. These are either small but of normal proportions or have distinctly bowed limb bones of the type
seen in Basset hounds, corgis and dachshunds, dogs which have legs rather short in proportion to the

378
body. The smallest bones are of fox size. In general terms, they are similar to Toy poodles and Yorkshire
terriers, although this does not imply that these small dogs looked like these modern breeds. It is often
assumed that such small dogs would have been lap dogs only, and in the case of the dog with inhumation
2487, this seems to be the case, but small dogs are capable of use as vermin catchers and badger
diggers and may also be used with cattle.
The reasons for death and disposal are unclear. The neo/peri-natal material may represent the deliberate
disposal of unwanted litters. This does not, however, explain the death of the older animals. A disease
such as distemper is a possibility, greatly affecting the young animals but adults too may not recover.
They may have all been killed, either simply due to the nuisance factor of a large population or as a
disease prevention – rabies for example. Ritual use seems unlikely. Some of the pathology indicates that
there were animals with fractures which had occurred recently and did not have time to heal before the
dog died. These animals may have had an accident and been cared for until they died or were killed. The
other explanation is that the animals were disposed of alive and did not die immediately from injuries
sustained during the fall. The wells are several metres deep with the dog bones near the current water
level, about 12 to 14 metres.
Associated bones from a similarly large number of dogs, including pups and dogs of different types, was
found in the large well at Oakridge (Maltby 1993). At Owslebury (Maltby 1987) late Roman cess pits were
also used for the disposal of pups and other bodies.

Other animals
Sheep bones were frequent and there were 31 whole bones from which withers heights could be
estimated using Teichert's factors (von den Driesch & Boessneck 1974). All the bones are assumed to be
from sheep as no goat remains have been positively identified from the wells (goat remains are very rare
over all the sites).
The sizes of the horses, cattle and sheep are discussed in the general discussion.
The amount of pig bone is very small, particularly in comparison with the larger pits (tables )
Fowl was frequent especially in Layers 10 and 11 in well F484 and Layer 5 in well F557.
Enough fowl bones were present to examine the sizes of the birds (Table 171). In comparison with
modern hybrids, they are all small but not dissimilar to some of the traditional breeds kept today. Most of
the measurements form a single close group but there are also a few small and large bones which fall
outside the main group. Where sex could be established with a reasonable certainty, there was a slight
dimorphism with bones with medullary (females) at the smaller end of the main group and, in the case of
the tarsometatarsus, the spurred ones (probable males) were all at the larger end. There was, however,
one considerable exception of a femur with medullary bone (well F557 Layer 5). The greatest length of
this bone was 76.1 mm. There were only three other bones of this size or larger. Close examination of the
other major limb bones reveals a number rather larger than the main spread, and these cannot now
simply be assumed to be males or castrates but may represent a larger type of fowl. There are also a few
bones, all from well F484 Layer 11, which are much smaller than those in the main group. They are also
smaller than any at sites such as Colchester (Luff 1982), Silchester (Serjeantson 2000) and Portchester
(Eastham 1975). The morphology of these bones matches that of the other domestic fowl bones and
does not match other small galliforms such as grouse and partridge. The articular ends are of similar size
to those at the lower end of the main size group but the shafts are much shorter. Bones of two birds have
been identified and include both leg and wing bones of this dwarf type. Many of the fowl bones have been
broken and, as these birds seem to have 'normal' articular ends, there may have been some other bones
which have not been identified as being from these birds.
Cat bones were few and were mostly from the bottom layers. Cat was identified from only one other
feature - a fragment in the late second to third century cess pit [2254] (BAL-1) This also had the
associated bones of at least two dogs and seems to have been used for disposal in the same way as the
wells.
Hare was present in all three wells, from the lower layers. In at least one case, the body had been
skinned.
Mustelids were present in the bottom layers of well F484. They were of more than one type, mostly
weasel but also some stoat and polecat/ferret.
GL Humerus Ulna Radius Coracoid Cmc Femur Tibia Tmt male No spur
51.8 48.5 42.5 47.3 26.4 57.4 94.6 71.6 45.4
59.5 55.6 43.2 47.6 27.2 65.2 96.2 72.7 60.9
59.8 58.9 52.5 48.1 27.4 66.0 97.7 63.4
60.0 59.0 53.7 49.4 32.4 67.5 98.8 64.2
60.7 59.2 53.9 32.5 67.5 100.5 64.2
61.1 60.1 53.9 32.6 67.8 100.8 64.9
379
 62.2 60.2 54.0 32.7 69.6 102.6 64.9
62.9 60.5 54.0 33.6 69.7 104.7 65.1
63.0 61.1 54.9 33.9 70.1 105.4 65.9
63.0 61.4 55.6 35.7 70.5 114.0 66.6
63.2 62.0 56.1 37.3 70.7 68.0
63.7 62.1 56.1 37.6 70.9 69.4
63.7 62.3 56.5 71.3 70.7
63.9 62.5 56.9 71.9 71.6
64.0 62.6 57.0 72.1 71.8
64.2 62.8 57.1 72.6
64.2 62.8 57.3 72.8
64.9 63.1 57.4 72.9
65.0 63.1 57.8 73.3
65.4 63.2 58.5 73.4
65.6 63.3 58.7 75.3
66.2 63.4 61.2 75.7
66.8 63.5 63.1 76.1
67.8 64.3 79.4
68.7 64.4 79.8
69.7 64.8
71.9 65.4
72.3 65.5
75.4 66.0
66.0
66.1
66.7
69.9
n 29 33 23 4 12 25 10 2 15
max 75.4 69.9 63.1 49.4 37.6 79.8 114.0 72.7 71.8
min 51.8 48.5 42.5 47.3 26.4 57.4 94.6 71.6 45.4
mean 64.5 62.4 55.3 48.1 32.4 71.2 101.5 72.2 65.1
sd 4.4 3.7 4.5 0.8 3.6 4.6 5.3 0.5 6.1
co-eff var 6.8 5.9 8.1 1.7 11.1 6.5 5.2 0.7 9.4

Table 171: Domestic fowl measurements

Smaller mammals, mainly mice and voles, were also found in the lower layers. These were often the
sieved layers but this was not always the case; Layer 4 in well F557 was not sieved, yet 181 small
mammal bones were recovered. Many amphibian bones were also recovered from this well.
A similar assemblage of small wild animals was recovered from the large well at Oakridge (Maltby 1993).
There, however, these were found at a higher level which seems to be associated with a period of
abandonment and may all have been pit fall victims. Although this may also be the case for some of the
Baldock material the presence of skinning marks on the hare bones indicates that these at least were
deliberately disposed of
Fish bones were present only in well F557. Eel and roach were identified. Roach is exclusively
freshwater, whereas the common eel is also found in salt water, although small ones like these are
unlikely to be from the sea, they are almost certainly from a local stream. Fish were also found in the
lower fill of a well at Skeleton Green (Wheeler 1981); this deposit was late Iron Age and contained not
only roach and eel but also chub, carp, flounder, plaice and Spanish mackerel (this last now known to be
associated with imported ceramic).

Deposition season
The available evidence suggests that the wells may have been used episodically rather than a single
deposition event. The evidence from well F557 in particular supports this view:
 The presence of young lambs implies a late winter - early spring deposition for these remains.
 The swallows would be in the area only during the summer months.
 The young hares are probably indicative of late summer or autumn as leverets are born any time
between about the end of February to the autumn. They achieve adult weight at six months but
several bones are still unfused at this stage. The autumn population is composed of about half young
animals.
 The amphibians could occur at any time with perhaps a peak in the late winter breeding season.
 The presence of medullary bone in some of the domestic fowl bones indicates death during the laying
season. Modern hybrid domestic fowl can be persuaded to lay all year round, although even in these
birds medullary bone is most noticeable at the onset of lay.
In short, the well seems to have been open for some time and not filled in one episode.
The wells are difficult to compare with anything else on site partly due to the difference in date with other
features, but also because well disposal may be a different strategy to pits - maybe bulk disposal of whole
380
and partial bodies and large groups of butchery waste rather than general household waste. It is probable
that once officially declared defunct, the wells were initially rapidly filled mainly with whole bodies, either
by those responsible for clearing waste from the settlement, or on a more casual basis. The deposition
was then of a different nature with fewer whole carcases, finally infilling with a variety of debris sometimes
together with slumping of the top fills. In two, wells the upper fill has been disturbed by the insertion of
inhumations sometime after abandonment. At Victoria Road, Winchester (Maltby pers com) three late
Roman wells closely resemble this pattern with a large number of associated bones, including dog
skeletons, in the lower fills.
Deposits including whole dogs, horse skulls, raven and fowl bones in deep shafts have often been
explained as votive offerings. Luff (1982) describes several such instances. In some cases, this would
seem the most likely explanation of an unusual assemblage. The wells at Baldock do not, however, seem
to have been used in this way; or if they were, then this was not the primary use. Many of the cattle,
sheep and pig bones are of butchery waste and are of mixed states of preservation. Some of the horse
bones were also eroded and several have been gnawed implying that they had been exposed for some
time before disposal.

Pits
A total of 4,640 fragments were recovered from nine pits on four sites (Table 172).

Total
Feature

Fowl
goat

Fish
Horse

LAR

Other bird
Mammal

SMM
Site

Phase

Cattle

Sheep/

Pig

Dog

UND bird
SAR

AMPH
Hare
D 4 16 41 4 46 26 - 36 - - 6 - 6 - - 234
2007
E - 8 21 7 24 40 - 1 - - - - - - - 101
BAL-1
F138 F 30 21 17 3 68 33 - 3 - 6 1 1 3 - - 186
2254 G 2 51 30 4 89 15 131 73 100 - 19 17 7 - - 538
F212 F - 41 55 22 97 51 - - - - - 2 - - - 268
BAL-2
F225 F 2 40 72 31 188 106 - - - - - - - - - 439
D 2 30 110 40 53 257 - - - 15 34 3 - 3 60 607
F - 8 20 9 27 25 - - - - - - - - - 89
F774
G - 29 106 24 92 124 40 - 1 4 8 2 4 4 69 497
BAL-10 I - 1 7 - 3 5 - - - - 1 - - - - 17
E - 7 3 1 13 5 - - - - - - - - - 29
F797 F - 23 33 2 34 27 - - - - - - - - - 120
G 1 45 192 20 150 317 1 2 - - 5 1 3 1 4 742
R5 D 2 42 114 48 115 227 - - - - 3 - - 2 - 553
BAL-17
R12 D 5 32 36 3 71 62 - 1 - - - - - - - 215
Total 48 394 857 223 1069 1320 172 166 101 25 82 26 23 11 103 4640
Percentage 1.0 8.5 18.5 4.3 23.0 28.4 3.7 3.6 2.2 0.5 1.4 0.6 0.5 1.2 2.7
Table 172: Major pits, species distribution
Key to phases:
D Early first century AD
E Later first century AD
F Early to mid second century AD
G Mid second to third century AD
I Fourth and fifth century

Pit [2007] BAL-1 (early first century AD)

The lower layers contributed 234 fragments, including 86 of one adult dog. Many of the remaining
fragments are of sheep together with cattle and unidentified cattle and sheep sized fragments. There are
a small number of pig, fowl and horse bones. One of the horse bones, a whole metatarsus, is pathological
with the tarsals and peripheral metapodial fused together with the metatarsus. The withers height of this
animal is estimated as 1.375 metres.
The upper layers contained 101 fragments, including a single dog bone which almost certainly belongs to
the dog in the lower layers. The remainder of the fragments are similar to those in the lower layers. Of
interest is a cattle scapula with a rectangular hole cut in the blade and knife cuts along the spine. This
type of butchery has been noted from Roman urban and military sites and has been suggested as
representing the waste of joints which have been smoked and then had the meat stripped from the bone
(Hamilton-Dyer 1993a; O'Connor 1988).

381
Pit F138 BAL-1 (early to mid second century AD)
This pit contained only 186 fragments but the range of species was comparatively large. Many of the
fragments are of cattle, sheep, horse, and unidentified fragments of this size range. The 30 horse
fragments were all teeth and toes of more than one animal. The cattle bone included a jaw containing a
3rd molar without the 3rd cusp, a metatarsus with a massively swollen distal shaft and bones of an ankle
joint found in articulation. Other bones included three of pig, three fragments of dog skull, six bones of a
wood mouse, a fowl humerus and a rook or crow ulna.

Pit [2254], probable cess pit, BAL-1 (mid second to third century AD)
The total of 449 fragments included 100 of hare. A minimum of four animals are represented, of mixed
ages. A metatarsus exhibited a large amount of exostosis round the distal joint. A further 73 fragments
were of several dogs, including two puppies, as several bones were unfused, including a distal tibia and
there is a jaw with the deciduous premolar not fully erupted. The presence of an os penis indicates that at
least one of the other dogs was male. A number of pathological bones were also noted. Additionally there
were 131 very small fragments identified only as medium sized mammal ribs, which were probably of
hare and dog. Cat was also present, with a fragment of pelvis. Cat bones have not been common at
Baldock. Several bird bones were present, including 19 probably from a single domestic fowl. The
tarsometatarsus was unspurred but as the bones were porous, this was a young bird and could be male
or female. The 17 raven bones were also probably from a single bird.
Bones from the larger domestic animals were comparatively few. They include three large cattle
horncores, possibly castrates, one of which was sawn at the base, presumably for removal of the horn.
There were jaws and foot bones but also fragments of humerus, radius and scapula. Horse was
represented by a radius and tibia. Hornless sheep were also present and, unusually for Baldock, there
were three post cranial bones of goat, a humerus, radius and ulna which are almost certainly from the
same animal.

Pit F212 BAL-2 (early to mid second century AD)

There were 268 fragments from this pit, highly fragmented and with a high proportion identified as cattle-
or sheep-sized only. Although many of the remains are of head and feet, there are also limb bones, ribs
and vertebrae. Both young and older sheep are present and two skull fragments are of horned animals.
Pig bones are also present but there are no horse or fowl bones. The two bird bones are a sparrow-sized
humerus and a probable corvid ulna fragment.

Pit F225 BAL-2 (early to mid second century AD)

There were 439 fragments from this pit. The material was similar to that from Pit F225, with a high degree
of fragmentation and much head and foot material present but again also fragments from other areas of
the body. Some of the cattle and pig bones were burnt, mostly head and foot bones. There were no bird
bones but there were two horse bones, a pisiform and a cut astragalus.
Some of the cattle bones had butchery 'shave' marks. The bones with these marks were a scapula,
radius, radius and ulna, humerus and two femora.

Pit F774 BAL-10 (late first to late second century AD)

This pit provided the largest sample of material from the pits, 1,210 fragments. Only half the pit was
excavated. There are only 17 fragments from the latest layer (mid third century) and effectively the
deposits cover the late first to late second centuries AD. Sheep predominate with cattle and pig roughly
equal at less than half the sheep total.
The earliest layers contained mostly sheep and sheep sized fragments; although it was high in head and
foot bones, other parts of the skeleton were also present. There are more bones from the foreleg and
shoulder than the hindleg and pelvis. This tendency was observed in some of the other pits but was not
as marked. Many of the bones had been gnawed (by dogs) and seven toes had an appearance
associated with digestion or partial digestion by dogs (Binford 1981; Payne & Munson 1985). There are a
number of bones of a neonatal lamb including the jaws with the deciduous 4th premolar erupted but not in
wear.
Pig bones at 40 fragments were, unusually, more common than cattle at 30 fragments. The pig remains
were mixed and included parts of a skull, atlas and axis which had all been axially chopped. The cattle
bones included a pathological jaw with evidence of a large abscess between molar 1 and premolar 4.
This jaw also had the congenital abnormality of no 3rd cusp on the 3rd molar. The cattle-sized fragments
were in a variety of conditions including gnawed, chopped and ivoried. Horse is represented by a tooth
and jaw fragment of a probable female. Other animals include a large number of frog and toad bones
from at least three individuals; an eel cleithrum and two fish fragments; three fragments of a sparrow-
sized bird; 34 fowl bones including several tarsometatarsi from young birds as well as one with a spur, i.e.

382
adult male; bank vole; house mouse; and five bones of a weasel, the skull of which has pathological
damage near the left ectorbital.
The middle layers contained 89 fragments only, of cattle, sheep and pig.
The middle to upper assemblage closely resembles that from the lower. Again several bones had been
gnawed and two sheep toes and a calcaneum had been digested. No horse was present and the amount
of fowl was less. Other minor species included a bone of hare, a woodcock radius and three fragments of
a pike of about 1 kg total weight.

Cess pit F797 BAL-10 (early second to third century)

The pit contained 891 fragments, mostly from the later phases. The sheep fragments dominate at three
times the number of cattle.
The assemblage from the middle layers contains at least one cattle ankle. There are also two horncores.
The sheep material includes three jaws with either the 2nd or 3rd molar not in wear. There is also a
hornless skull. Unlike Pit F774, pig bone is infrequent.
The material in the upper layers is more similar to that in Pit F774. Pig bones are more frequent but fewer
tan those of cattle. The cattle and cattle size bones are mainly of head and feet but also include
butchered limb bones, ribs and vertebrae. One unidentified shaft fragment has a cleaver 'shave' mark.
The twenty pig bones are almost entirely of head and feet and include male canines. A calcaneum had
been gnawed by a rodent. Sheep bone includes two neonatal lambs, and at least two others with the
distal tibia unfused, i.e. probably under a year old. There were several sheep and sheep/goat jaws: in
five, the 3rd molar had erupted and was in light wear but a further eleven were younger than this, with the
deciduous premolar 4 present and molar 2 or molar 3 not in wear.
Both horned and unhorned skull fragments were present. Ribs were present but not as many vertebrae,
and pelvis was again under-represented. One bone, an astragalus, showed the characteristics of dog
digestion. Dog was itself present in the form of an axis and a loose tooth. There were also four frog
bones, a fish bone of the cyprinid family and part of an ulna of a wader bigger than woodcock.

Pit R5 BAL-17 (early to mid first century AD)

Many of the 558 fragments from this pit were sheep or sheep-sized (114, 227). Cattle bones numbered
42 with 115 cattle-sized. Pig was as frequent as cattle at 48 fragments, and some of the sheep- and
cattle- sized fragments may also be of pig. There were also two fragments of horse, eight of domestic
fowl and two unidentified fish bones, rare at Baldock. The two horse bones were measurable and are
included in Table 172. Many of the bones of cattle sheep and pig were head and foot bones, including
phalanges, implying disposal of slaughter waste. There are, however, several butchered limb bones, ribs
and vertebrae indicating the probability of a mixed source for the deposit.

Pit R12 BAL-17 (early to mid first century AD)

This pit contained a smaller sample than R5, with different proportions of cattle sheep and pig. This pit
contained almost equal amounts of cattle and sheep with only a few bones of pig. Again there was a high
proportion of head and foot bones. Fowl bones were absent but there was a single bone of dog, a
humerus. There was also a fragment of horse scapula and four bones from the ankle joint of a young
horse, probably under a year old as the proximal epiphysis of the 1st phalange was unfused.

General discussion for all bones

In the main, MNI (minimum number of individuals) has not been calculated; in many cases there are
insufficient fragments from each deposit (Luff 1982, ch 1). It can be a useful measure of relative
importance of the species in features where many bones are of complete or partial skeletons and where,
as a result, the importance of a species may be exaggerated. For example twenty raven bones may well
be from a single individual whereas twenty fowl bones may be from several partial carcases. MNI
calculations are not so useful in mixed deposits, especially where the total number of bones is low. The
bone counts reported are not only of whole bones but are frequently of fragments. In the case of cattle,
the bones are often broken or cut into more pieces than those of sheep (and pig) and therefore the
fragment counts usually represent a smaller number of animals. If the fragment counts of each species
are to be used as a guide to the relative contribution to the diet, allowance must also be made for the
difference in size of the animals. Cattle are larger animals than sheep (and pig) and therefore provide
more meat. The greater fragmentation of the cattle bones helps to offset this difference in meat
contribution.
Even supposing the MNI figures represent the actual number of animals present, the number of animals
represented by the bones does not accurately reflect the living composition. This is because of the
difference in breeding rate and age at death. For example a horse may be kept for more than ten years
whereas a pig will probably be killed before maturity unless intended for breeding. The presence of bones
383
of ten pigs and of one horse can therefore represent the living presence of the same number of animals.
Although this is a simple explanation of a complex situation, it should be taken into consideration when
examining the relative importance of the different species. At Baldock, sheep were probably the most
numerous animal.

Butchery
Sheep bones show few butchery marks, mainly knife marks from jointing. Many of the bones are
incomplete but it is difficult to say how much of this is due to butchery, as spiral fractures from chopping
are not easy to distinguish from breaks caused at, or after, disposal.
Cattle bones are similarly problematical but the large size of the bones usually leads to division by
cleavers, often leaving distinctive marks. A number of cattle bones, particularly from the later features,
showed 'shave' marks; these are made by running a cleaver along the length of the bone to remove the
(raw) flesh and, in the process, sometimes removing a sliver of bone along with the meat. Another
butchery style was found in pit [2007]. This is a cattle scapula with a hole in the blade and knife cuts
along the spine. The joint had probably been smoked and then the meat sliced from the bone. These
appear to be butchery styles associated with urban and military sites but are infrequent or absent from
rural (i.e. native) sites (O‟Conner 1988; Lauwerier 1988; Maltby 1989; Hamilton-Dyer 1993a). The
carcases were not axially split as in modern butchery practise but seemed to have been decapitated and
the limbs excised and the ribsides removed by lateral cutting. Butchery was probably carried out with the
animal lying on its side. Similar butchery was reported by Luff (1982).
Pig limb bones show butchery marks similar to those found on sheep bones. The head, jaws and
sometimes the vertebrae may also be axially split. A half pig‟s head seems to be one of the favoured
items for inclusion in cremation burials. The head of a pig contains more accessible flesh and fat than a
sheep's head and is less likely to be regarded as waste than from the sheep.
It is interesting to note that the importance of pig meat in the Iron Age burials is not reflected in the
proportion of pig bones in the settlement deposits. This reinforces the view that pig was often regarded as
a special provision for feasting and ritual use.
Other bone modifications included gnawing and burning. Many of the deposits contained a mixture of
different states of preservation indicating the mixed source of these assemblages.

Sizes of the animals

Cattle, horses and sheep

With the high degree of fragmentation, also found by Chaplin and McCormick (1986), and the large
proportion of head and foot fragments, there were not as many measurable cattle bones as the fragment
numbers might suggest. The measurements fall in the same range as those previously reported from
Baldock, adding to this valuable corpus of data. Withers height estimations from whole bones are listed in
Table 173. The range is from 1.090 metres to 1.333 metres. Almost all of these derive from the wells.
They are similar to others in area and several are of the larger size reported from areas under the direct
influence of Roman rule (Davis 1987; Teichert 1984)
Context Feature Anatomy Side Measurement (mm) Withers height (m)
L3 Ditch F224 metacarpus R 180.0 1.103
L7 Ditch F217 metatarsus R 200.0 1.090
2240 Ditch F6 metacarpus L 182.0 1.115
L4 Well F18 metatarsus L 232.0 1.264
metatarsus R 225.0 1.226
metatarsus R 226.0 1.232
L11 Well F484
metacarpus L 190.0 1.164
metatarsus R 223.0 1.215
metatarsus R 214.0 1.166
metatarsus L 215.0 1.172
metatarsus L 227.0 1.237
metatarsus L 236.0 1.286
metacarpus R 185.0 1.133
metacarpus L 184.0 1.127
L5 Well F557 femur R 370.0 1.284
femur L 325.0 1.128
radius R 301.0 1.294
radius R 310.0 1.333
radius L 285.0 1.226
tibia L 343.0 1.183
tibia L 328.0 1.132
Max 1.333

384
 Min 1.090
n 21
Mean 1.196
SD 0.069
CV 5.769
Table 173: Cattle withers heights (Fock‟s intermediate factors for cattle)
As in the case of the cattle most whole horse limb bones are from the wells. The range of calculated
withers heights (Table 174) is not as great as those previously published from Baldock (Chaplin &
McCormick 1986), probably because of the smaller number of whole bones available (50 compared with
117). It should also be noted that these calculations were not derived in the same way: the previous
calculations were based on the total length of the bone, not the lateral length as here.
Context Feature Anatomy Side Lateral length (mm) Withers height (m)
L6 Ditch F217 metatarsus L 236.0 1.258
L2 Ditch F248 metatarsus L 250.0 1.333
L1 metacarpus R 205.0 1.314
Pit R5
L2 humerus R 264.0 1.286
2050 Pit [2007] metatarsus R 258.0 1.375
L5 humerus L 245.0 1.193
humerus R 233.0 1.135
radius R 287.0 1.246
L7 tibia R 302.0 1.317
metatarsus R 247.0 1.317
metacarpus R 185.0 1.186
Well F18 metacarpus R 200.0 1.282
L10 metacarpus L 200.0 1.282
metacarpus R 240.0 1.538
metatarsus R 272.0 1.450
L12 metacarpus R 216.0 1.385
radius R 324.0 1.406
L12A tibia R 320.0 1.395
metatarsus R 246.0 1.311
metatarsus L 252.0 1.343
L11 metacarpus R 210.0 1.346
radius R 298.0 1.293
radius L 324.0 1.406
Well F484 metatarsus L 243.0 1.295
metatarsus L 248.0 1.322
metatarsus L 253.0 1.348
L10
metacarpus R 203.0 1.301
metacarpus L 193.0 1.237
radius R 305.0 1.324
metatarsus R 260.0 1.386
metatarsus R 245.0 1.306
metatarsus R 236.0 1.258
metatarsus L 234.0 1.247
metatarsus L 242.0 1.290
metacarpus R 210.0 1.346
metacarpus L 212.0 1.359
metacarpus R 191.0 1.224
metacarpus L 192.0 1.231
humerus R 244.0 1.188
L5 Well F557 humerus L 248.0 1.208
humerus L 260.0 1.266
radius R 298.0 1.293
radius L 299.0 1.298
radius L 311.0 1.350
tibia R 290.0 1.264
tibia R 292.0 1.273
tibia L 311.0 1.350
tibia L 309.0 1.347
tibia L 290.0 1.264
tibia L 294.0 1.282
metacarpus metatarsus overall
MAX 1.538 MAX 1.450 MAX 1.538
MIN 1.186 MIN 1.247 MIN 1.135
n 13 n 15 n 50
MEAN 1.310 MEAN 1.323 MEAN 1.306
385
 SD 0.870 SD 0.052 SD 0.072
CV 6.641 CV 3.930 CV 5.513
Table 174: Horse withers heights calculated using Kieswalter‟s factors
Sheep bones, like horse and cattle, were often incomplete. There were, however, 39 whole limb bones,
mostly from the wells. The length measurements of these and the estimated withers heights are given in
Table 175. It can be seen that all of the 31 from the wells are larger than 0.6 metres. This is in contrast
with the eight heights calculated from other features, all of which are less than 0.6 metres. As the well
deposits are later, circa third century AD, it is tempting to suggest that the sheep in this area had been
improved or were from different stock. The small sample size should be noted. None of the sheep
measurements fall outside the ranges reported by Chaplin and McCormick, where it was suggested that
there was no discernible difference in sizes over time. At Owslebury small horned sheep were present in
deposits dated to before the third century AD, whereas later sheep were larger and polled. A wide range
of variability in Romano-British sheep has been found by O‟Connor (1982).
Context Feature Anatomy Side Measurement (mm) Withers height (m)
Layer F502 metacarpus R 116.0 0.567
B14 Ditch F224 metacarpus L 120.4 0.589
L5 metacarpus R 116.5 0.570
Ditch F217 metacarpus L 114.2 0.558
L7
metatarsus L 124.3 0.564
L1 metacarpus R 115.9 0.567
Pit R5
L2 metacarpus R 114.7 0.561
765 Pit F774 metatarsus R 126.9 0.576
L6 metacarpus L 134.6 0.658
L7 metacarpus R 134.8 0.659
metacarpus R 138.6 0.678
L11
metacarpus L 138.7 0.678
L6 metatarsus L 143.5 0.651
L7 metatarsus R 143.0 0.649
metatarsus L 151.9 0.690
L11 Well F18
metatarsus R 151.3 0.687
radius R 161.2 0.648
radius L 163.0 0.655
humerus R 152.2 0.651
L7
femur R 178.2 0.629
tibia L 216.0 0.650
tibia R 215.0 0.647
metatarsus L 145.4 0.660
metacarpus L 138.4 0.677
L10
metacarpus L 137.2 0.671
metacarpus R 135.8 0.664
metatarsus R 148.6 0.675
Well F484
metatarsus L 147.2 0.668
metacarpus R 134.7 0.659
L11
metacarpus L 134.7 0.659
radius R 158.4 0.637
tibia R 209.0 0.629
metatarsus R 145.1 0.659
metatarsus L 145.2 0.659
metacarpus R 132.1 0.646
L5 Well F557 humerus R 141.5 0.606
humerus L 140.5 0.601
radius R 159.0 0.639
tibia L 212.0 0.638
pre-wells wells overall
MAX 0.589 MAX 0.690 MAX 0.690
MIN 0.558 MIN 0.601 MIN 0.558
Table 175: Sheep withers heights (Teichert‟s factors for pre- and proto-historic sheep)

Domestic fowl
The largest group of measurable domestic fowl bones are from the wells and are detailed in that section.
The size of domestic fowl seem to be very variable from Romano-British sites. At Exeter (Maltby 1979)
and Fishbourne (Eastham 1971), there was a large range of sizes, whereas at Portchester (Eastham
1975), there was little variation and at Colchester (Luff 1982), there were large bones but not smaller
ones. None report any similar to the dwarf ones from well F484.

386
The sizes of the dog bones are detailed in the separate report by K Clark. Briefly, there are several
different types of dog represented in this material including some very small animals but the largest types
reported by Harcourt (1974) were not found.

Sex and Ageing

In most cases, sex of the main domesticates was not investigated. It was felt that the possibilities of
different sources of stock together with the very low numbers of pelvis rendered detailed analysis of sex
impossible. Where possible the identification of probable females, males and castrates was recorded in
archive.

Sheep ageing from mandibles

The greatest number of ageable mandibles is from the ditches. The pattern of both ditch phases is
strongly suggestive of meat production, the lack of lambs and old animals implying that wool and milk
were of secondary importance, this assumes that the group is representative of the flock structure. This
emphasis on prime meat animals may, instead, reflect the deliberate selection of highly saleable meat
animals from a mixed flock. The small amount of data from other features appears to be similar and, from
these small samples, there is no evidence for an increase in the proportion of prime meat animals through
the Roman period as proposed from the previous material (Chaplin & McCormick 1986). There are slight
differences in the anatomical distribution. Head and foot bones are frequent in all the sheep material but
in the pits this is together with a lack of hind limb bones. A lack of bones from the hind quarter was also
noted by Chaplin & McCormick; similarly, a high percentage of forelimbs was noted from the third to
fourth centuries at Colchester (Luff 1982). Mutton-ham is a traditional way of preserving sheep leg joints
in the manner of ham; perhaps there was a market for a similar preparation and the bones from these
joints are to be found elsewhere, perhaps at Verulamium.
Cattle, horse and pig jaws were not sufficiently frequent to make a detailed analysis of age structure.
There were fewer unfused cattle bones than those of sheep, probably indicating that most of the beef was
from dry cows and old plough oxen. Horse bones are also usually of adult, often aged, animals but here
there were some with unfused epiphyses. Perhaps these died or were culled because of injury or
disease. As might be expected with an animal kept primarily for meat, the pig bones were mostly of
immature animals.

Wild resources
The most noticeable feature of the wild fauna is its paucity. Species recorded are mostly small incidental
species not exploited by people but indicative of local conditions. These are mice, including field mouse,
field voles, shrew, frog, toad, small passerines of sparrow size and swallow (well F557). Corvids, both
rook and raven, were probably scavengers around the settlement. This could well be the reason for the
part skeleton of the buzzard in well F557. Mustelids of two types were present: weasel and polecat.
These may possibly have been kept or encouraged for rodent control, but were perhaps more likely to
have been hunting around the settlement and fallen into the wells. One fox bone was found; there was no
sign of skinning on this radius from ditch F224. A partial fox skeleton was reported from a previous
excavation (Chaplin & McCormick 1986). Animals which have probably been utilised are very few indeed.
The main mammal is hare, which was found in a number of features, particularly the wells, especially
F557, and also cess pit [2254]. Deer remains are restricted to a few antler fragments only. The utilised
birds are restricted to goose, duck and two bones of waders. There is a possibility that even the duck and
goose could be domestic, or at least tamed. Fish are rare even in the sieved layers and none are of sea
species. Fish are usually infrequent finds on most Romano-British sites. Some high status sites may have
sea fish, often those similar to Mediterranean species, e.g. bass and sea-breams (Dorchester: Hamilton-
Dyer 1993b).
Few wild animals have been reported from previous excavations. Even the bear claws (Stead & Rigby
1986, 53) may have been from a traded skin.
Baldock was a thriving market town not far from the major centre of Verulamium and it is reasonable to
suppose that birds and other animals could have been traded from/through a wide geographical area and
from all strata of society. It is therefore all the more surprising to find almost no hunting and fowling
activities expressed in the bone remains. A similar picture is obtained from most sites of the period. The
main reason is likely to be cultural rather than reflecting any lack of available game, a similar picture
would emerge from examination of modern domestic waste – few English dustbins would contain the
bones of fallow deer and wild duck, yet they abound in many areas.
This group of material is selective and is not as large as that examined previously, however many of the
observations on the present material are comparable with the earlier report, in particular the general
picture of mixed midden material. There is some variation over time but greater differences occur
between context types, although it should be noted that the most striking deposits, the wells, are also the
latest and cannot be compared with any other features of this period. Late third and fourth century wells in
387
the earlier study also contained horses but did not contain such large numbers of dog bones. Wells of this
period from other sites have also contained a high proportion of associated bones, often including horses
and dogs. Assuming these are representative of the general population they provide a large body of
material for detailed study.
As there is a further body of material which has not been examined here, and no doubt there will be bone
recovered from future excavations, there is ample scope for further work on animal remains from Baldock.
Areas of interest include further studies on the sizes of domestic fowl, dogs and sheep, and the
examination of third- and fourth-century material from contexts other than wells.

Summary not of canine material from wells F484, F557 and F18
Kate M Clark [1989]
The bones analysed are those which are completely fused. The contexts also produced large amounts of
juvenile and neonatal material which is not analysed, but which is reported above by Sheila Hamilton-
Dyer. Fusion sequence necessarily means that a range of maturity will be reflected in the material
examined.
Primary analysis was for the range of size exhibited by the remains. Long bone lengths were used to
establish the range in terms of shoulder height using Harcourt‟s (1974) factors. Regression analysis was
used to test the viability of using metapodia as well as limb bones to increase the number of bones
susceptible to height assessment. This was based on Harcourt‟s indices as applied to 175 fox skeletons
of a single population, and the calculation of regression equations for metapodia to the means of shoulder
heights calculated via those indices. This is not, of course, a reproduction of Harcourt‟s original
derivations, only an application and extension. The shoulder heights of the live foxes is not known and
therefore the equations derived for the metapodia are not related to primary observation. For useful
purposes, however, metacarpals 3 and 4 gave ranges of height comparable with those calculated from
the limb bones. Metacarpals 2 and 5 produced the correct sequence of heights but the ranges are too
narrow. The metatarsals produced similar results in the foxes, but when the method was tried on larger
dogs, both modern and archaeological, the height estimates were too low.
The shoulder height range of the BAL-1 well dogs is between 27 and 54 cm. This is within Harcourt‟s
limits of 24 to 72 cm for Romano-British dogs. However, as the Iron Age range is 29 – 58 cm, such
comment is perhaps less useful than first appears. This is a qualification that can be applied to many
faunal remains reports which comment on the stature profile of the represented dogs.
To see if it was possible to look beyond these rather general ranges, a review of post-Harcourt reports
(after 1974) was undertaken and 203 dog measurements collected or calculated. These were all datable
to Early, Middle of Late Iron Age, first, second, third or fourth century AD, at least to the extent that they
could be placed in chronological order. The sample sizes have necessarily meant that the Iron Age has to
be amalgamated, as do first and second century AD, but third- and fourth-century material can be treated
independently.
This post-1974 sample for the Iron Age is shown here, along with Harcourt‟s original observations. The
picture is similar. For the Romano-British period, the later sample is more comparable in number with
Harcourt‟s group and the results are even more closely reproduced.
To see if there are any indications of change within the Romano-British period, I divided the post-1974
group into three broad height categories: dogs under 35 cm, between 35 and 50 cm, and anything over
50 cm. Here, each category is expressed as a percentage of the period sample. These height distinctions
are quite arbitrary and are presented here just to illustrate broad changes. There is no suggestion that the
type of dog necessarily changes on these boundaries.
What seems to be emerging is that the variability which Harcourt notes as a feature of the Romano-British
period may be more of a gradual evolution, culminating as late as the fourth century and possibly arising
from an indigenous genetic pool already visible in the Late Iron Age. This is not to say that imported
animals may not have had a part in the development of the variability, but the smoothness of the
transition, even given that the chronology still has to be rather coarse, could indicate increasing selection
over time from a genetic source which was already in place.
To summarise the changes apparent in the Romano-British canine, then, not only are we seeing the
appearance of diminutive dogs, but we are seeing an increasing number of small dogs in general. Whist
very large dogs are also making an appearance, the stature of the general dog population is decreasing
significantly.
Bringing the BAL-1 group into the picture, it has a marked similarity to other late dog assemblages,
although of course the sample sizes are still low.
Combining metrical analysis and handedness to make an estimate of the number of adult dogs probably
present in each well, Well F18 Layer 12 produced material from seven dogs which could be measures,
388
and Wells F484 and F557 produced nine each. This method of course only works where it is fairly certain
that the majority of each skeleton is present in the layer as you are relying on the survival of at least one
intact long bone. However, including metapodia in the measurable group makes this a reasonable
expectation.
These numbers are likely to be minimum numbers and indeed may be significant underestimates. The
presence of an individual dog was identified on the derived shoulder heights and handedness of
elements. Tests on shoulder height factors on the comparative fox group of 175 individuals showed that
the range of height produced by using all the long bones in an individual was about 2 cm, but there was
no way of predicting which bones gave the limits of the range. For these dogs, elements where
handedness could not be applied were therefore allocated to the nearest group within 4 cm.
Additionally, analysing directly from shoulder heights may result in inadvertent pairing of incompatible
bones. For example, a 1 mm difference in humerus length will result in a shoulder height difference of 3
mm. 1 mm is outside acceptable experimental error, but 3 mm is unlikely to be significant within a range
of 2 cm.
So what is presented here is probably the minimum number of measurable animals, ranked in order of
relative height. Each individual‟s height is derived from the mean of its contributing elements.
There is a gap in the represented heights in each of the wells, which covers about 10 cm of the middle
range dog. As it occurs in each feature, it needs some comment. All I can say at the moment is that this
gap is also reflected in the fourth-century sample from the other sites I have so far looked at, but the
numbers are too low as yet to attempt any further analysis. This gap is far less apparent in the larger
third-century group. However, if we look at the broad height categories for the later dogs, presented here
on absolute numbers and not percentages, there is a close similarity between the BAL-1 wells and other
fourth-century groups. It will be possible to increase the sample sizes for the fourth century material in
general, and also for Baldock in particular, by incorporating the work already done by Finbar McCormick
and Sheila Hamilton-Dyer, plus other Baldock material that I have examined.
If the BAL-1 well dogs do retain their close association with fourth-century dogs in general as far as
stature is concerned, can we say that what ends up in the well is a reasonable reflection of the stature of
the dog population at that time? This implies that the other fourth-century dogs that have been reported in
sufficient detail for this type of analysis are themselves representative. This comes back to my earlier
point that the dogs which attract metrical attention are those which are found in a degree of articulation,
and this articulation may well be a consequence of their mode of deposition. The background against
which these dogs have to be assessed should be that disarticulated material found usually at less than
1% of faunal assemblages which are a consequence of post-consumption human discard.
Well F557 contained the remains of at least 30 neonatal pups.
In Well F484, at least four animals had conditions which affected the skeleton. Two of them had active
osteomyelitis in at least one paw. One dog at least was also lame in the hind paw. One dog had an
advanced osteomyelitis of the distal femur with three interconnecting draining sinuses. Another animal
had suffered fracture of the proximal femur, which was displaced and infected, although some healing
had occurred. All these dogs were probably less than 35 cm high. A larger dog of around 40 cm exhibited
osteoarthritis in a forepaw, as did an animal of about 35 cm, and a small dog of about 27 cm had
osteoarthritis in the right hind limb. A small dog had advanced spondylosis deformans extending from at
least the seventh cervical to the sixth lumbar vertebrae, and additionally exhibited compression fractures
of two vertebrae, which I will return to in a moment. One of the larger dogs had a traumatic lesion over the
left orbit with the formation of a bone cyst.
It is a similar picture in Well F557. An animal of around 39 cm was lame, with osteomyelitis of the right
forepaw and the same animal is likely to have established osteoarthritis of the same paw. A smaller
animal of about 32 cm was also lame in the left forepaw. A large dog of about 46 cm had an established
osteoarthritis of the proximal femur, and possibly of the complete coxofemoral joint. Infections of the
sacrum, scapula and a vertebra of dog or dogs of unknown height are visible. Two dogs of unknown but
differing height had suffered comminuted and unreduced fractures of the radius and ulna; these fractures
have some callus formation over the shattered ends of the bone, but there is no union. Death probably
occurred within two or three weeks of these trauma. Two animals had infections of the palate, and two
animals had depression fractures of the frontal bone, one associated with the formation of a bone cyst.
In Well F18, the dog of about 46 cm showed sings in the fore and hind limb of a deficiency disease,
possibly rickets or osteomalacia. A slightly smaller animal was lame in the left forepaw, and a very small
dog of around 27 cm was arthritic in the right hind limb. There is a healing fracture of the palatine process
of a maxilla, and another dog had a symmetrical and bilateral depressed fracture of the maxillae and
nasal bones, which has significantly altered the contours of the animal‟s head.

389
Animal bone from BAL-15 1994
Kate M Clark and Mary Iles [1995]

Introduction
A total of 60.027 kg of animal bone was recovered during the excavation, the majority of the phased
material emanating from well-stratified datable deposits from the Late Iron Age and Romano-British
periods. A small quantity of bone dated as 'prehistoric', as well as bone from Neolithic and Bronze Age
contexts was quantified, but does not contribute to the discussion in this assessment. The material from
contexts undated at the time of the assessment was not examined.

Assemblage Assessment
The assessment was carried out at the Centre for Human Ecology on 2nd and 3rd October 1995 by M.
Iles and K Clark. A total of 5882 fragments was examined from dated contexts, of which 25.9% were able
to be identified.
Period Fragments Identifiable % Identifiable
Prehistoric 289 76 26.3
Late Iron Age and Late Pre-Roman Iron Age 554 173 31.2
Late Iron Age/ Early 2nd AD 1738 425 24.5
Romano-British 1282 332 25.9
Late Iron Age-Late 2nd AD 680 146 21.5
Late Iron Age-4th AD 1339 374 27.9
Total 5882 1526 25.9
Table 176: animal bone, BAL-15 1994
The period description 'prehistoric' includes broadly dated contexts described by the excavator as
'prehistoric', 'Iron Age', 'Iron Age/Romano-British', Late pre-Roman Iron Age', 'Late Bronze/Early Iron Age
to late 1st century AD', 'Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age to Romano-British', 'prehistoric to Late Iron Age'
and 'prehistoric/ Romano-British'. A total of 76 identifiable bones was recovered from these contexts and
we do not feel that they would make a material contribution to this assemblage should their dating be
improved. They are therefore not discussed further here.

Bone Condition and Identifiability

The condition of the bone has been measured on a scale of 1 to 5.
 Level 1 indicates bone in an excellent state of preservation where fine butchery, pathology etc. is
visible.
 Level 2 includes bone which is in generally good condition, but with some post depositional
disruption to the surface such as root damage.
 Level 3 indicates that diagnostic fragments are identifiable to element and species.
 Level 4 includes only a portion of diagnostic fragments identifiable beyond element.
 Level 5 material can only be identified as bone.
Feature Fragments Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5
Period
Type (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Ditches 376 - 63.8 35.6 <1.0 <1.0
LIA & LPRIA Pits 146 - 6.8 90.4 2.7 -
Other 32 - 12.5 68.8 - 18.8
Ditches 494 <1.0 26.1 48 25.5 -
Pits 439 - 56.3 43.5 <1.0 -
Wells 427 - 19.2 80.8 - -
Cremations 12 - - - 100 -
LIA/Early 2nd AD
Graves 241 <1.0 53.9 34 11.2
Solution 86 - - 100 - -
Hollows
Other 39 - 17.9 41 41 -
Ditches/ 450 - 46.7 46.9 4 2.4
gullies
Graves 112 - - 97.3 2.7 -
Solution 339 - 8.3 73.5 18.3 -
Romano-British Hollows
Road/ Ditch 119 - 100 - - -
Cremations 49 - - 100 - -
Well 46 - - 100 - -
Other 167 - 25.7 67.1 7.2 -
390
Table 177: bone condition and identifiability, BAL-15 1994
This table shows there is a fair degree of uniformity across the assemblage, the majority of the bone
falling into categories 2 and 3. The level of identification is, of course dependent on the presence of
diagnostic zones (see below), but we would expect to see in this assemblage both general butchery
patterns and gross pathology, and be able to extract usable age indicators, e.g. fusion data.
Preliminary examination suggests that there is an interesting contrast between the relative condition of
the material from pits and ditches in the Late Iron Age material and the Late Iron Age/early 2nd century
AD, the earlier material, and the detailed comparison of these feature types between the two periods may
produce useful information about site formation processes.
The table below shows the identifiability within feature groups for each period, where sample size permits.
(The top figure is fragment count and the figure in brackets is the percentage of the assemblage that was
identifiable).
Period Feature Type
Ditch/ Pits Wells Graves Solution Cremations Clearance Others
gullies hollows layers
LIA & 376 29.0 146 30.8 - - - - - - - - - - - -
LPRIA
LIA/Early 2 494 22.1 439 22.1 427 23.4 241 31.1 86 30.2 - - - - - -
nd AD
Romano- 450 28.7 - - 46 41.3 112 23.2 339 21.8 49 30.6 - - 167 28.7
British
LIA to Late 451 20.8 - - 105 18.1 62 21.0 49 34.7 - - - - - -
2nd AD
LIA to 4th 275 29.5 679 24.0 210 29.5 - - - - - - 89 37.1 - -
AD

Table 178: identifiability within feature groups by period, BAL-15 1994

There is a clear disparity between the sample sizes from feature types within each period, and the
apparently high identifiability of, for example, the Romano-British wells or the Late Iron Age 'other
features'. This is likely to be a result of their small sample size. Overall, the level of identifiability at
assessment is very satisfactory and suggests that valid comparisons between species representation,
and some aspects of intra-species variation will be possible.

Species representation

Late Iron Age and Late Pre-Roman Iron Age (phase 2)

A total of 554 fragments was recovered from this period, and 31.2 % are identifiable to species:
Feature Total Unidentified Cattle Sheep/Goat Pig Horse
Ditch 376 265 35 69 5 2
Pit 146 101 8 37 - -
Graves 1 - 1 - - -
Layers 9 5 - 2 2 -
Pit/ Ditch 6 2 - 4 - -
Post Hole 4 1 2 1 - -
Indeterminate 12 7 2 3 - -
Feature
Total 554 381 48 116 7 2
Table 179: species representation, Phase 2 BAL-15 1994

Late Iron Age/ Early 2nd AD (phase 3)

A total of 1738 fragments was recovered, of which 425 (24.5 %) are identifiable to species
Feature Total Unidentified Cattle Sheep/Goat Pig Horse Fox Bird Fish
Ditches/ Gullies 494 385 27 69 11 1 - 1 -
Pits 439 342 15 64 16 1 - 1 -
Wells 427 327 32 56 9 1 1 - 1
Cremation 12 12 - - - - - - -
Graves 241 166 14 24 5 26 - 6 -
Solution Hollows 86 60 12 10 4 - - - -
Post Hole 17 7 - 10 - - - - -
Sill Beam? 15 10 2 3 - - - - -
Pit/ Ditch 7 4 1 2 - - - - -
Total 1738 1313 103 238 45 29 1 8 1
Table 180: species representation, Phase 3 BAL-15 1994
391
Most of the bone recovered is from ditches/ gullies, pits and wells and there is a useful parity of sample
size and identifiability in these groups. The graves also produce a useful sample, and the higher
incidence of horse and bird bone in the graves is interesting and is discussed separately. The relative
proportions of cattle, sheep/ goat and pig are given below:
Feature Type Cattle Sheep/ Goat Pig Total Identified
Ditches 25.2 64.5 10.3 10.7
Pits 15.8 67.4 16.8 95
Wells 33 57.7 9.3 97
Table 181: proportions of cattle, sheep/goat and pig by feature type, BAL-15 1994
The concurrence of the sample sizes between the feature types is particularly useful when issues of
differential preservation and the disposal of animals are discussed. The consistency in the relative
proportions of the main food animals between the different feature types is also interesting and worthy of
further work.

Romano-British (phases 3 to 5)
All animal bone from contexts dated to the Romano-British period, whether early or late, has been
amalgamated for the purposes of this assessment. A total of 1282 fragments was retrieved, of which 25.9
% are identifiable to species. These are summarised below.
Again, most of the bone recovered in this period comes from the ditches/gullies, as well as the road/ditch,
solution hollows and graves. In contrast to the earlier periods very little material was recovered from pits.
This may imply changing attitudes towards the disposal of animal bone on the site.
Ditches/gullies, graves and solution hollows all have similar proportions of bone identifiable to species,
although the quantity of bone recovered varies between the feature types. The lower proportion of
identifiable bone from the road/ditch contexts is interesting, especially as the bone was considered to be
in better condition than bone from other feature types analysed in this period.
Feature Type Total Unidentified Cattle Sheep/Goat Pig Horse Dog Bird
Ditches/ Gullies 450 321 56 40 10 9 4 10
Pits 3 2 1 - - - - -
Wells 46 27 4 15 - - - -
Solution Hollows 339 265 34 28 5 6 1 -
Graves 112 86 8 16 2 - - -
Cremations 49 34 6 6 3 - - -
Clearance 73 62 1 8 2 - - -
Layers
Layers 1 1 - - - - - -
Indeterminate 11 10 - 1 - - - -
Features
Machine 79 44 27 7 1 - - -
Road/ Ditch 119 98 12 5 - 3 1 -
Total 1282 950 149 126 23 18 6 10
Table 182, species representation, Phases 3-5 BAL-15 1994

Late Iron Age to Late 2nd AD and Late Iron Age to 4th AD
Animal bone recovered from contexts broadly dated to these periods is summarised below. Material from
the ditches/gullies and wells in both groups would make a useful contribution to the animal bone
assemblage if it can be more tightly dated, as would material from the pits dated Late Iron Age to 4th
century AD. Bone retrieved from graves, although small. may also make an important contribution to our
understanding of the significance of this material if more precise dating can be accomplished.

Late Iron Age to Late 2nd AD (phases 2-4)

Feature Type Total Unidentified Cattle Sheep/Goat Pig Dog Bird
Ditches/ Gullies 451 357 30 55 9 - -
Wells 105 86 5 10 2 - 2
Graves 62 49 8 2 - 3 -
Pits 10 8 1 1 - - -
Road/ Ditch 3 2 1 - - - -
Solution Hollows 49 32 11 6 - - -
Total 680 534 56 74 11 3 2
Table 183: species representation, Phases 2-4 BAL-15 1994

392
Late Iron Age to 4th AD (phases 2- 5)
Feature Type Total Unidentified Cattle Sheep/ Goat Pig Horse Dog Bird
Ditches/ Gullies 275 194 47 12 6 15 1 -
Pits 679 516 73 75 9 6 - -
Wells 210 148 12 42 5 - 1 2
Graves 1 1 - - - - - -
Machine 9 6 3 - - - - -
Pit/ Ditch 20 20 - - - - - -
Post Hole 20 4 7 8 - 1 - -
Clearance 89 56 19 12 2 - - -
Layers
Solution 19 11 2 5 - 1 - -
Hollows
Roads 17 9 7 - - 1 - -
Total 1339 965 170 154 22 24 2 2
Table 184: species representation, Phases 2-5 BAL-15 1994

Grave Deposits
A total of 26 fragments of horse bone came from five Late Iron Age/early second century AD graves.
These include nine bones from an articulating lower hind limb (context 494); nine carpal bones and a
lateral metapodial (context 999); a 1st phalanx and lateral metapodial from beneath the feet of the
inhumation (context 970); a radius, metacarpal, lateral metacarpal and carpal bone from context 492; and
a horse carpal (context 828). The tendency towards bones of the lower limb is notable and further work
on this phenomenon is clearly indicated.
Of the eight bird bones recovered from the Late Iron Age/early second century material, six come from
grave deposits, and of these five are from one grave (context 479).

Horse interred with adult human

A near complete horse was interred with an adult human (context 1051 and 1050), which was
provisionally assigned to the Late Pre-Roman Iron Age/ Early Romano-British period. The presence of
well developed canine teeth suggests that the individual was male and examination of the pelvis will give
further conformation of the sex of the animal. An estimation of the withers height from the radius gives a
height of approximately 1.40 m, which is considered large, but not outside the expected range for horses
during the Romano-British period. The horse is estimated, from epiphyseal fusion and wear on the
incisors, to have been between five and ten years of age, and measurements of the premolars and
molars should improve the precision of this estimate. Hyperostosis (extra bone growth) in the form of a
discrete spur was noted on the temporal bone and this may be a useful indicator of possible exploitation.

Recommendations
The size of the samples and the level of identifiability of the material from Late Iron Age and Late pre-
Roman Iron Age deposits is sufficient to warrant further analysis. Taken as a whole, the assemblage
would make an important contribution to our understanding of attitudes toward the creation and disposal
of animal waste during the late Iron Age and Romano-British periods. The main areas of discussion that
should be developed here are:
 differences in the condition of the bone, and species represented between the feature types, in the
light of previous work at Winnall (Maltby 1985), Owslebury (Maltby 1987) and Mingies Ditch (Wilson
1985);
 comparison of the Late Iron Age/early second century AD and the Romano-British material to
investigate changing methods of utilisation and disposal;
 estimation of the age at death for the cattle and sheep/goat, especially from mandibles;
 the apparent deliberate disposal of horse bones, particularly feet, in the graves warrants further
investigation especially in the form of a literature search of similar sites;
 the horse skeleton should be examined in detail for pathological abnormalities including the lesion on
the skull noted above. Measurements of the total length of the limb bones would give an estimate of
the withers height of the specimen in question. This could yield useful information about the
conformation of the animal, and will enable comparison with other material of similar date held on the
Animal Bone Metrical Archive database, at Southampton University (Centre for Human Ecology
1995). Analysis of tooth crown heights should give a tighter estimation of age.

393
Environmental Remains
Land molluscs, carbonised cereals and crop weeks, charcoal, avian eggshell and coprolites from
prehistoric and Roman contexts.
Peter Murphy [1990]

Introduction
During excavations conducted by North Hertfordshire Museums under the direction of Mr G Burleigh in
the 1980s, a large collection of samples (mainly from Late Iron Age and Roman contexts but including
some earlier prehistoric material) was taken. This collection was assessed early in 1990 and samples
with the potential for yielding useful palaeoecological and economic information were selected for
analysis. In this report, results from analyses of molluscs, avian eggshell, coprolites and carbonised plant
material are presented.

Molluscs
Soils in the vicinity of Baldock are predominantly rendzinas and brown calcareous soils with some argillic
brown earths and most archaeological features are cut into the underlying chalk. Given these conditions,
land mollusc supply the main source of evidence for local vegetational change. No buried palaeosols
were available for sampling but mollusc assemblages were extracted from a Neolithic pit at BAL-15, from
a Bronze Age pit in BAL-1, from Middle/Late Iron Age pits in the pit alignment at BAL-5 and BAL-12, and
from the fill of a solution hollow at BAL-15. Mollusc shells were also present in Late Iron Age and Roman
contexts but these were almost exclusively of common open-country taxa with some synanthropic snails
(Helix aspera) and occasional shade-requiring taxa (Discus rotundatus, Ena obscura). Assemblages of
this type are only to be expected in and around a major settlement and were not thought to be worth
detailed examination. Extraction methods were those of Evans (1972). Ecological data are taken from
Evans (1972) and Kerney & Cameron (1979).

BAL-15 [7402] (Neolithic pit)

A 2 kg sample from this feature was wet-sieved, using conventional methods for the extraction of
mollusca, but apart from Ceciloides acicula, very few shells were retrieved. Shells from the flot from a 25
kg sample, taken primarily for retrieval of carbonised plant material (limacid plates etc.) were not retrieved
by flotation. The sample included roots, intrusive seeds and small coal fragments: the feature was not
well sealed. It is therefore not surprising that some of the mollusc shells present are also recent and
intrusive, notably and introduced species, Candidula sp. On the other hand, the sparse fauna present is
quite different from those in features of later date: woodland taxa predominate. Clearly, detailed
ecological interpretation of such a sparse and contaminated assemblage would be unwise but a markedly
more shaded habitat than that which existed locally later does seem to be indicated.
Carychium tridentatum (Risso) 1
Carychium sp(p) 13
Cochlicopa sp 1
Columella edentula (Draparnaud) 1
Vertigo sp(p) 2
Pupilla muscorum (Linné) 4
Vallonia sp(p) 4
Acanthinula aculeate (Müller) 1
Punctum pygmaeum (Draparnaud) 4
Discus rotundatus (Müller) 1
Arionid granules +
Vitrina sp 1
Aegopinella pura (Alder) 4
Zonitidae indet. 1
Ceciloides acicula (Müller) +++
Clausilia bidentata (Ström) 1
Candidula sp 1
Helicella itala (Linné) 1
Helicellinae indet. 3
Trichia hispida gp. 4
Indeterminate (small apical fragments) 2
Charcoal fragments +++
Cereal grain fragments +
Gramineae indet. 1
Table 185: Macrofossils from [7402]

394
BAL-1 F90 (Bronze Age pit)
Two samples were examined (Table 00). They produced mollusc shells, bone fragments, small mammal
bones and teeth, avian eggshell, small quantities of charcoal, charred hazel nutshell fragments, a
fragment of a charred barley grain and a grass caryopsis. The presence of some intrusive material in the
pit fill is indicated by scraps of Helix aspera shell and avian eggshell, neither of which would be expected
in a Bronze Age context. The sparse land mollusc assemblages from these samples are composed
almost entirely of open-country taxa with a few abraded shells and fragments of Clausiliidae and
Zonitidae. Although the samples are evidently contaminated by some intrusive material, there is no
evidence for anything other than open conditions during infilling of this feature.
Sample F90 L1 FF F90 L1 N of FF
Pomatias elegans (Müller)* + -
Cochlicopa sp - 1
Truncatellina cylindrical (Ferussac) 1 -
Pupilla muscorum (Linné) 13 4
Vallonia costata (Müller) 1 -
Vallonia excentrica (Sterki) 7 -
Vallonia spp 15 5
Zonitidae indet. (abraded) 1 -
Ceciloides acicula (Müller) + +
Clausiliidae indet.* - +
Helicella itala (Linné) 2 3
Trichia hispida gp 7 1
Helix aspersa (Müller)* + -
Bone fragments (some burnt) + +
Small mammal bone + +
Avian eggshell fragments + +
Cereal indet. (caryopsis) - +
Hordeum sp (caryopsis fragment) 1 -
Corylus avellana (nutshell fragments) + +
Gramineae indet. (caryopsis) + -
Charcoal + +
Sample weight (kg) 3.5 2.0
Table 186: macrofossils from F90
* Non-apical whorl fragments

BAL-5 F196 and BAL-12 [2790] (Mid-Late Iron Age pit alignment)
A column sample, collected by the excavators, was available from [2790], together with samples from
Layers 4 and 5 in F196. The samples, as received, were desiccated and part-disaggregated but samples
from F196 L5 and from below 50 cm in [2790] were basically pale brown calcareous loams with a high
content of chalk fragments and the upper samples were brown chalky loams. From their lithology and
lower content of shells, the lower fills seem to have formed quite rapidly, presumably by erosion of the pit
sides. There is, however, no significant variation in species composition through these fills (Table 3).
Open-country taxa vastly predominate. The consistently high frequencies of Pupilla muscorum suggest
that areas of are ground existed in the vicinity, whilst the comparative abundance of Vallonia costata
implies very dry conditions. Remarkably, Vertigo pygmaea is apparently absent. This snail favours
habitats with a continuous grassland cover. Overall then, an open, dry, at least partly bare habitat seems
to be represented. This might have resulted from heavy grazing, trampling or even, perhaps, deliberate
de-turfing around the pit alignment.
Context: 2790 2790 2790 2790 2790 2790 2790 2790 196(4) 196(5)
Depth (mm): 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Pomatias elegans (Müller)* - + - + + + + 1 - -
Cochlicopa spp - 12 6 - 1 3 3 - 11 2
Truncatellina cylindrical (Férussac) - - 1 - - - - - 5 -
Pupilla muscorum (Linné) 3 106 56 15 17 17 10 4 91 54
Vallonia costata (Müller) 2 15 15 8 5 1 - - 34 3
Vallonia excentica (Sterki) 5 23 13 5 3 1 2 - 36 18
Vallonia spp 20 61 23 9 5 9 4 1 112 26
Punctum pygmaeum (Draparnaud) 2 - 2 - - - - - 4 2
Discus rotundatus (Müller) - - - - - 1 - 1 - -
Limacidae indet. 1 - - 1 1 - - - 1 -
Ceciloides acicula (Müller) + + + + + + + + + +
Clausiliidae indet† - - - 2 - - - - - -
Helicella itala (Linné) 3 28 6 3 3 3 5 3 32 14
Trichia hispida gp 6 3 4 3 4 5 3 1 - 2
Cepaea/Arianta - - - - - 2 1 - - -
Helix aspersa (Müller) 1 - - - - - - - - -

395
 Indeterminate† - 6 2 - - - - - - -
Ostrea shell fragments + - - - - - - - - -
Bone fragments + + + + + + + - + -
Charcoal fragments + + + + + + + + + +
Fallopia convolvulus (charred 1 - - - - - - - - -
nutlet)

Table 187: macrofossils from pits in the pit alignment

All samples 1 kg.
Notes: * Non-apical whorl and operculum fragments.
† Shells abraded or badly encrusted with sediment.

BAL-15: southern solution hollow

The two solution hollows excavated in 1989 were both sampled for analysis of mollusca and other
macrofossils but only samples from the southern feature were examined in detail. The fills of this feature
were as follows (soil descriptions refer to moist, partly disaggregated samples as received for analysis
and layer thicknesses are as measured by the excavator:
6495 (300 mm) Dark greyish-brown loam; slightly stony; rounded-angular flints to 40 mm, chalk fragments to 15 mm; brick/tile
fragments; rare small charcoal fragments; fibrous and fleshy roots.
6496 (200 mm) Brown/dark brown loam; slightly stony; sounded-angular flints (some heat-shattered) to 45 mm, chalk
fragments; rare small charcoal fragments; rare fine fibrous roots.
6497 (250 mm) Brown loam; slightly stony; rounded-angular flints to 55 mm, rare chalk fragments under 10 mm; rare small
charcoal fragments; rare fine fibrous roots.
6498 (100 mm) Dark yellowish-brown loam; slightly stony; rounded-angular flints to 55 mm, very rare small chalk fragments
under 10 mm; very rare small charcoal fragments; rare fine fibrous roots.
6499 (150 mm) Dark yellowish-brown sandy clay loam; slightly stony; rounded-angular flints to 60 mm, chalk fragments to 35
mm; very rare small charcoal fragments; rare fine fibrous roots.
6500 (50 mm) Yellowish-brown sandy loam; stony; abundant chalk fragments to 20 mm; very rare small charcoal fragments;
rare fine fibrous roots.
A column sample subdivided at 50 mm intervals was collected by the excavators. Mollusca and other
macrofossils extracted are listed in Table 188.
Layer: 6495 6496 6496 6497 6497 6497 6498 6498 6499 6499 6499 6501
Depth (mm) below top of 200- 0-50 100- 0-50 100- 200- 0-50 50- 0-50 50- 100- 0-50
layer: 250 150 150 250 100 100 150
Pomatias elegans (Müller) + + + + + - - - - - - -
Vertigo sp(p) - - - - - - - 1 1 - - -
Pupilla muscorum (Linné) 1 1 - 4 7 4 1 - 1 - - 2
Vallonia costata (Müller) - - - 1 - - 1 - - - - -
Vallonia excentrica (Sterki) - - - 1 5 - 2 - - - - 2
Vallonia sp(p) 1 4 3 8 13 6 - 1 2 1 2 1
Limacidae - - - - - - - - 1 - - -
Indeterminate - - - - 1 - - - - - - -
Ostrea edulis (fragments) + + + - - - - - - - - -
Mytilus edulis (fragments) + + + - + - - - - + - -
Avian eggshell fragments + + - - + + - - - - - -
Fish bone + - - + - - - - - - - -
Small mammal bone - + + + - - - - - - -
Mammal bone fragments ++ ++ ++ + + + + + + - + -
Charcoal ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ + + + + + +
Cereal indet. (caryopses) - - 4 1 - - - - - - - -
Hordeum sp(p) (caryopses) 3 - 1 - - - - - - - - -

Table 188: mollusca and other macrofossils from the southern solution hollow at BAL-15
+ (for mollusca) = non-apical fragments. All samples 1 kg.
The shell assemblages retrieved are clearly very restricted both in terms of numbers of individuals and
species diversity. It seems probable that this is related to rapid accumulation of deposits and also,
perhaps, because the solution hollow fills were derived from largely decalcified deposits: some common
thin-shelled taxa are conspicuously absent. Excluding the intrusive burrowing snail Ceciloides acicula and
abraded scraps of Pomatias elegans, the assemblages are composed entirely of „open-country‟ snails
and provide no evidence for any phases of scrub development. The slightly higher numbers of shells from
the brown loam (6947) suggest that this represents a phase of stability and incipient pedogenesis. The
upper fills (6496) and (6495) include marine mollusc shell fragments, eggshell, bone, larger charcoal
fragments and charred cereals. It seems likely that these were derived from domestic refuse spread on
arable fields and that the top fills are material dragged into the hollow by ploughing.
Artefactual evidence (G Burleigh pers. comm.) indicates that infilling of this solution feature occurred over
a long period from the Late Neolithic onwards. However, it would seem that infilling was not a continuous

396
process and most of the fills seem to have accumulated quite rapidly in phases when local vegetation
cover was sparse and soil surfaces unstable.

Carbonised crop plant remains, weed seeds etc.

Samples had been collected from Iron Age ditches in BAL-2, a solution hollow in BAL-1, Roman wells in
BAL-1 and BAL-9 and Roman pits in BAL-10 and BAL-18. Many of these samples had been wet-sieved in
a coarse mesh and consisted only of charcoal, which has not been examined. Some unprocessed soil
samples were, however, available. The soil samples from the Roman wells were from their upper fills and
did not include macrofossils preserved by waterlogging. Plant material, preserved predominantly in a
carbonised state, was extracted by water flotation using a 0.5 mm collecting mesh. Mollusc shells were
also present but have not been examined in detail. They consist mainly of open-country terrestrial taxa,
with Anisus leucostoma in the well F34.

BAL-1 F13/15 and F95 (Roman kiln and Late Iron Age pyre débris pit)
Close to the centre of a square ditched burial enclosure, a burial (F106) and pyre pit (F95) of Late Iron
Age date had been sealed beneath a barrow, into which was subsequently inserted a Roman „kiln‟
(F13/14). The entire fill of F95 had been collected and most of it sieved in a coarse mesh to recover
artefacts and cremated bone but some small soil samples and pre-processed flots from this feature and
F13/14 were available. Some of these samples had been collected in relation to a 0.5 m grid, others were
not precisely located within each feature. Material identified is listed in Table 00. The samples also
produced a typical open-country mollusc fauna dominated by P. muscorum, Vallonia spp., H. itala and the
T. hispida group with some Cochlicopa spp and Vertigo pygmaea; some shells were burnt. The plant
material associated with the Iron Age pyre débris pit comprised sparse remains of cereals, grassland
plants and rhizomatous and tuber fragments. At present, few of the latter can be identified, though a tuber
of the onion couch grass, Arrhenatherum elatius, is present. Overall, these assemblages closely
resemble material from Bronze Age cremations at Brightlingsea, Essex (Murphy, in prep.) and elsewhere
in the country (Robinson 1988). It seems probable that the use of cereal straw, including incompletely-
threshed ears and uprooted grassland plants as kindling for the pyre is represented.
Samples from the kiln F13/14 consisted mainly of spelt chaff with some grains of wheat and barley, oat
awn fragments and a few weed seeds. It is likely that this charred material was derived from crop
processing waste used as fuel, though the precise function of the kiln is uncertain.
Context F95 F95 F95 F95 F13/14 F13/14 F13/14 F13/14 F13/14 F13/14
L7
Grid square - 19 26 27 37 38 45 46 47 (a)
Cereal indet. ca. fr. + + + + + +++ + + + +
Cereal indet. ca. 4 - 1 4 13 8 5 23 - 3
Cereal indet. spr. - - - - - - - - - 1
Triticum sp(p) ca. 5 1 - - 10 7 - 2 3 -
Triticum sp(p) gb. - - - - 17 55 5 30 22 3
Triticum sp(p) ri. - - - - 2 4 - 1 - -
Triticum sp(p) spb. - - - - - 10 2 8 1 -
Triticum spelta L gb. 4 1 - 2 1 37 1 60 18 2
Triticum spelta L spb. - - - - - - - 1 - -
Triticum spelta L spf. - - - - - - - - - -
Hordeum sp. ca. 1fr - 1 - 1 - - 1cf - -
Hordeum sp. ri. - - - - - 1cf - - - -
Avena sp. a. fr. - - - - - - - + - -
Malva sp. - - - - - - - fr - -
Medicago lupulina-type - - - - - - 1 - - -
Legumimosae indet. 1 - 2co Fr - - - - - -
Rumex sp(p) 1 - - - - - - 1 - -
Corylus avellana L - - - - - - - + - -
Plantago lanceolata L 2 - - - - - - - - -
Sherardia arvensis L - - - - - - - - - 1
Compositae indet. - - - - - - - 1 - -
Bromus mollis/secalinus - 2fr - - fr 2 - - - -
Gramineae indet. - - - - 10 24 4 4 - -
Arrhenatherum elatius (tu) 1 - - - - - - - - -
Monocotyledones + + + + - - - - - +
?Gramineae (rh)
„Tubers‟ (c) 15+fr 2+fr 2+fr 5+fr - - - - - -
Tubers/rhizomes (d) 2 1 - 1 - - - - - -
?Flattened tubers 4 2 - - - - - - - 1
Indet (e) 1 - - - - - - - - -
Indet (f) 1 - - - - - - - - -
Stem fragments + + + + - - - - - +
Indeterminate seeds etc. 2+1(m) - - 3 - - - - - -
Sample wt (kg) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) 0.9 5.3 0.5 (b)

397
Table 189: carbonised plant remains from F95 and F13/14
All taxa are represented by fruits or seeds unless otherwise indicated.
Abbreviations
a – awn; ca – caryopsis; co – cotyledon; fr – fragment; gb – glume base; m – mineralised; rh – rhizome; ri
– rachis internode; spb – spikelet base; spf – spikelet fork; spr – „sprout‟; tu – tuber
Notes
(a) Described as „smear at S edge of pit‟ on label.
(b) Samples received pre-processed; soil weight unknown.
(c) Rounded ovoid tubers attenuated at either end. Clear epidermal cell patterning giving an
impression of fine cross-wise striation.
(d) Ovoid organs with projecting „stumps‟ of roots.
(e)/(f) ?Vegetative material.

BAL-15 Miscellaneous plant remains from cremations

During coarse sieving for the extraction of cremated bone, large plant material from the cremations had
been retained. Almost all specimens proved to be recent and intrusive, but carbonised „tubers‟ of
Arrhenatherum elatius came from (4126), (5284) and (5570).

BAL-1 and BAL-2: plant remains from other Iron Age contexts
Plant remains from the depression in BAL-1 (F519) and from ditched (F217 and F224) and a hearth
(F328) in BAL-2 are listed in Table 00. Cereal remains, mainly of spelt with some emmer and barley and
an associated weed flora are represented. There is some variation in sample composition: the hearth
F519 contained grain and weed seeds with relatively little chaff, whereas hearth F328 produced relatively
more chaff. The Layer 6 in ditch F217 included a concentration of charred cereal chaff, mainly of spelt.
Interpreting such a small group of samples in terms of specific activities is impossible but it is probable
that the samples are related to the processing of cereal crops in the vicinity and to the charring of waster
material either in refuse fires or whilst being used as fuel for the hearths.
Site BAL-1 BAL-2 BAL-2 BAL-2
Context F519 F217(a) F224 F328
Layer L3 L6 L5 L1
Cereal indet ca. fr + ++ + +
Cereal indet ca 34 + 1 15
Cereal indet spr - + - 6
Cereal/grass c. fr. + - - -
Triticum sp(p) ca 28 +(b) 2 6
Triticum sp(p) gb 7 +++ Fr 35
Triticum sp(p) ri - + - 4
Triticum sp(p) spb - +++ - 3
Triticum sp(p) spf - - - 1
Triticum dicoccum Schubl gb 3 - - 1
Triticum spelta L gb 1 +++ - 34
Triticum spelta L spf 1 +++ - -
Hordeum sp ca 4 - fr -
Avena sp a.fr + - - -
Stellaria media-type 1 - - -
Vicia/Lathyrus 3+2co - - -
Medicago lupulina-type 10 - - -
Polygonum aviculare agg 7 - - -
Fallopia convolvulus 3 - - 1
Rumex sp(p) 12 - - 1
Rumex acetosella agg 3 - - -
Sherardia arvensis L 2 - - -
Gallum aparine L - - - 1
Eleocharis sp 2 - - -
Bromus mollis/secalinus 3+1cf + - 3
Gramineae indet. 9 + - 14
Indet. seeds etc. 19 - - 6
Sample wt (kg) 4.4 5.0 6.1 5.0
Table 190: plant remains from Late Iron Age contexts in BAL-1 and BAL-2
All taxa are represented by fruits or seeds unless otherwise indicated.
Abbreviations
a – awn; ca – caryopsis; co – cotyledon; fr – fragment; gb – glume base; ri – rachis internode; spb –
spikelet base; spf – spikelet fork; spr – „sprout‟
Notes
398
 (a) This sample included a high proportion of very fragmented material and quantification was not
possible.
(b) Includes germinated grains.
Other samples from these areas F224 L(6), F566 and F610 L(1) either produced only charcoal and a few
cereal grain fragments or were too small to be worth examining.

BAL-1 and BAL-10: plant remains from Roman wells and pits
These are listed in Table 00. The samples from the uppers fills of wells F18 and F34 are again composed
predominantly of spelt chaff with some sprouted grains, traces of barley and a sparse weed flora.
Samples of this type are extremely common at Roman sites and are probably related to disposal of
charred residues from refuse fires in which crop processing waste had been burnt. The remaining
samples produced little material. F794 contained some macrofossils and concentrations characteristic of
latrine pits though mineralised seeds were not seen.
Context F18 F34 F34 F34 F484 F794 F796
Layer L12A L3 L4L L5 L9 (c) - (d) -
Cereal indet ca.fr. + + + + - - -
Cereal indet ca. 1 3 - 1 - 2 -
Cereal indet spr. 2 2 4 3 - - -
Cereal indet ib(si) - - + - - - -
Triticum sp(p) ca 2 2 2 3(b) - 1 -
Triticum sp(p) gb 64 55 15 42 - - -
Triticum sp(p) ri 28 17 11 44 - - -
Triticum sp(p) spb 4 10 10 19 - - -
Triticum sp(p) afr (si+c) + - + + - - -
Triticum spelta L gb 80 60 68 94 3 1 -
Triticum spelta L spf 1 3 13(a) 7 - - -
Hordeum sp ca - 1 2 - - - 1
Hordeum sp ri.fr. 1 1 2 5 - - -
Hordeum sp a.fr. (si+c) - - + - - - -
Caryophyllaceae indet - 1 - - - - -
Atriplex patula/hasata - - 1 - - 1 -
Leguminose indet - - - 1 - 1 -
Rumex sp. 1 - - 2 - 1 -
Polygonaceae indet 1 - - - - - -
Lithospermum arvense L - - 9 - - 1 -
Galium aparine L - 1 - - - - -
Tripleurospermum maritimum L - 1 - - - - -
Bromus mollis/secalinus - - 1 2 Fr 1cf -
Gramineae indet. 1 4 12 1 - - -
Indet. seeds etc. 1 2 2 - -- - -
Sample wt (kg) 9 1.4 2.6 1.0 1.8 3.3 1.8
% flot sorted 3.125 12.5 6.25 6.25 100 100 100
Table 191: plant remains from Roman wells and pits
All taxa are represented by fruits or seeds unless otherwise indicated.
Abbreviations
a – awn; c – carbonised; ca – caryopsis; fr – fragment; gb – glume base; ib – inflorescence bract
fragments; ri – rachis internode; si – silica skeletons; spb – spikelet base; spf – spikelet fork; spr –
„sprouts‟
Notes
(a) Including a part-fragmented rachis section.
(b) Some germinated grains.
(c) Described as „fill from deep holes in well side‟. A few uncarbonised weed seeds (Stellaria,
Sonchus etc.) also present.
(d) Sample also includes bone fragments, small mammal bone, a fish scale, Ostrea shell fragments
and some phosphatic concretions but no mineralised seeds were observed.

BAL-15 charcoal samples

Numerous charcoal samples had been collected during the excavation, but of these, only samples
thought by the excavator to represent possible structural or artefactual items, with a few from pyre
deposits and possible garden features have been examined. A maximum of 30 fragments >6 mm was
inspected. Identifications are given in Table 00. The samples from (4021) and (4022) were not of wood
charcoal and may perhaps represent débris from some industrial activity.
Sample Context Description
132 4021 Sample consists of coal and charred amorphous vesicular material
399
 143 4022 Sample consists of coal and charred amorphous vesicular material
252 4022 Sample consists of charred amorphous vesicular material and
powdery carbon („soot‟)
133 4030 Quercus sp (oak): mature wood
340 4063 Quercus sp: mature wood and ?bark
269 4086 Not located.
267 4086 Quercus sp: mature wood
325 4108 Fraxinus sp (ash): mature wood
498 4110 Quercus sp: mature wood
499 4110 Quercus sp: mature wood
511 4110 Quercus sp: mature wood
515 4110 Quercus sp: mature wood
418 4112 Fraxinus sp: mature wood
441 4120 Quercus sp: mature wood
421 4121 Quercus sp: mature wood and bark
427 4135 Quercus sp: mature wood
428 4135 Quercus sp: mature wood
637 4273 Quercus sp: mature wood
730 4281 Not located
733 4281 Prunus sp: large fragments, mature wood
945 4310 Quercus sp: mature wood
1004 4326 Not located
1001 4326 ?Quercus sp (small fragments only)
1034 4349 ?Quercus sp (small fragments only)
1071 447 Not located
1072 4471 Quercus sp: mature wood
1260 4509 Quercus sp: mature wood
1085 4656 Quercus sp: (small fragments only)
1145 4671 Quercus sp: mature wood
1234 4855 Quercus sp: mature wood
1490 5160 Quercus sp: mature wood
1641 5170 Quercus sp: mature wood
1745 5845 Quercus sp: (small fragments only)
1747 5857 Daub fragments with charcoal flecks
1781 6417 Sample of dark brown loam with small fragments of Quercus
1835 6725 Sample of dark brown loam with charcoal flecks
1875-7 6860 Samples from this context not located
Table 192: charcoals

Avian eggshell
Shell fragments came from a second-century AD cremation from the Royston Road cemetery (BAL-15 ‟89
6833(6829)) and contexts with a Roman cess pit (BAL-10 (782), (786) and (787)). In addition, partly intact
eggs came from the cremations BAL-15 ‟89 (7269) and Stead‟s Area A (TC/DH). Specific identification of
avian eggshell from archaeological contexts is not usually possible, though characteristics of size and
shell thickness give at least some indication of the size of bird represented (Keepax 1981, 323).
Dimensions of the material from Baldock are given in Table 00. Shell thicknesses were measured using a
screw-gauge micrometer.
Site code Year Context Comments
BAL-VII 1971 TC/DH Partly intact egg. Diameter c 37 mm, length not determinable. Three detached
fragments 0.28-0.31 mm thick
BAL-15 1989 6829 Fragments. Range 0.25-0.31 mm; mean 0.27. n = 19
BAL-15 1989 7269 Partly intact egg. Dimensions not determinable. Loose fragments. Range 0.28-
0.36 mm; mean 0.31 mm. n = 30
BAL-10 1983 782 Fragments. Range 0.27-0.36 mm; mean 0.33 mm. n = 30
BAL-10 1983 786 Fragments in a dish. Range 0.26-0.36 mm; mean 0.32 mm. n = 30
BAL-10 1983 786 Fragments from pit fill. Range 0.29-0.38 mm; mean 0.33 mm. n = 30
BAL-10 1983 787 Fragments. Range 0.28-0.38 mm; mean 0.34 mm. n = 30
Table 193: dimensions of avian eggshell
The fragments were mostly in a relatively unabraded state, though those from cremation 6833(6829)
were somewhat weathered, perhaps accounting for their lower mean thickness. On thickness criteria
alone, the shell fragments show very similar means and ranges, and these all fall within the range of
thicknesses for modern domestic fowl eggs quoted by Keepax (1981).

400
Coprolites and faecal concretions
Specimens collected during the excavation of Roman pits and wells are listed and described in Table 00.
Many of these include large bone fragments and are thought probably to be canine coprolites. Other
specimens including those from F773 and F77, however, appeared from their macroscopic contents (sloe
fruitstones, corn-cockle testa, very small mussel shell fragments and bone fragments under 5 mm) to be
of probable human origin. Small sub-samples of these were disaggregated in dilute HCl and the resultant
suspensions of material were examined by transmitted light at high power. The suspensions included
angular-rounded sand grains, phytoliths, occasional pollen grains, small charcoal fragments, eggs of the
intestinal parasites Ascaris and Trichuris and amorphous brown aggregates. There were occasional
scraps of plant tissue but no fragments of cereal periderm or bean testa. High power examination thus did
not confirm a human origin, though the overall composition and context of the samples makes this highly
likely.

BAL-1 1983 F557 L(5) Off-white soft porous coprolite fragments up to 20 mm; bone fragments up to 5 mm;
some impressions of monocot stem fragments.
BAL-10 1983 F768 Off-white to brown hard brittle porous platey faecal concretions up to 20 mm; some
mineralised monocot stems and fragments of epidermal tissue.
BAL-10 1983 F742 Pale brown ovoid coprolite, 35 × 20 mm; large bone fragments.
BAL-10 1983 F771 Off-white fragments up to 35 mm of ovoid coprolites; large bone fragments. Off-white to
brown platey faecal concretions and coprolite fragments up to 45 mm; monocot stem
fragments; none fragments up to 10 mm.
BAL-10 1983 F773 Off-white ovoid coprolite 35 × 27 mm; bone fragments up to 20 mm. Off-white ovoid
coprolite 45 × 30 mm. Off-white to brown platey faecal concretions and coprolite
fragments up to 55 mm; large monocot stem fragments up to 20 mm long; epidermal
tissue fragments; cavities representing moulds of Prunus spinosa fruitstones; 1 mm
Mytilus shell fragments; small bone fragments up to 5 mm; moulds of fly puparia.
BAL-10 1983 F777 Off-white ovoid coprolite 32 × 21 mm; high proportion of large bone fragments; monocot
stem fragments. Off-white to brown platey faecal concretions up to 40 mm; monocot stem
fragments; scrap of Agrostemma testa.
BAL-18 1984 906 Two fragments of off-white ovoid coprolites up to 30 mm with bone fragments.
BAL-18 1984 913 Off-white coprolite fragment, 32 mm, with bone fragments. Ovoid off-white coprolite 35 ×
25 mm; some monocot stem fragments.
BAL-18 1984 914 Small off-white coprolite fragments.

Table 194: coprolites and faecal concretions

Molluscan analysis from solution hollow feature, BAL-15 1994

Peter Murphy [1995]
During excavations in 1989 at Baldock, mollusca from a solution hollow in an adjacent area were
extracted and identified (above). Only sparse assemblages, dominated by open-country taxa, were
retrieved. It was thought that this pointed to the rapid accumulation of deposits, probably in several
discrete phases, from the Neolithic period onwards. The low density of shells was also possibly related to
the fills having been derived, at least partly, from de-calcified deposits in the vicinity.
Sub-samples from a monolith collected by A D W Richmond through a similar solution hollow in 1994
(sample 48: BAL-15 ‟94, Area 10) have been rapidly evaluated to determine whether molluscs from this
feature might have greater potential for reconstruction of local landscape change.

The deposits
The monolith showed the following stratigraphy:
Depth (m) Description
0 - 0.10 Brown loam; slightly stony with chalk pebbles and subangular flints; bone
0.10 - 0.50 Pale brown loam, becoming sandy loam below; slightly stony, with concentrations
0.50 -0.65 Pale yellowish-brown loamy sand; slightly stony, with subangular flints
Table 195: solution hollow stratigraphy, BAL-15 1994
Sub-samples (c. 0.4 kg) were removed from 0-100, 250-350 and 550-650 mm. The samples were wet-
sieved on a 0.5 mm mesh, and the material retained was then rapidly scanned under a binocular
microscope at low power.

401
The basal sample was devoid of shells. That at 250-350 mm produced a few Vallonia excentrica and
Pupilla muscorum. From the sample at 0-100 mm came rare shells of V. excentrica, P. muscorum, Trichia
hispida group and Helicella itala.

Conclusions
The samples from this feature closely resembled those from the 1989 solution hollow, including only very
sparse assemblages of open-country snails. It seems improbable that further sampling for molluscs would
add any significant information to that reported above. The calcareous, aerated character of the deposits
means that pollen is unlikely to be preserved, but soil micromorphological analysis could be employed in
an attempt to define deposit taphonomy.

Micromorphological samples from solution hollow feature, BAL-15 1994, Area 10

Richard Macphail [1995]

Introduction
The Baldock site was visited on the 9th of September 1994. The soil survey of England and Wales have
mapped the area as Swaffham Prior Soil Association, which comprises a parent material of chalky drift
and chalk (Jarvis et al. 1983). The shallow soils across the site are classed as typical brown calcareous
earths. The presence of deep non-calcareous loamy soils with typical argillic brown earths (Moulton Soil
Series), striped and polygonal features (of periglacial origin), have also been noted. The "solution feature"
to the south of Area 10 can be classed as an area of the above Moulton Series.
The archaeological context is as follows (A D W Richmond, pers. comm.):
The "solution feature" was sealed by supposed medieval ploughsoil and made ground, in all some 80 cm
thick, an a Late Iron Age surface was exposed below this. At Baldock these sandy "solution features"
were cut into by Late iron Age features and also were foci for Roman graves. A baulk through one of
these "solution features" showed a soil stratigraphy, the upper part of which contained "stone lines" where
Late Bronze Age artefacts were concentrated, and above was a stone-free soil which had accumulated
by the Late Iron Age.

Field Analysis
The parent material found at the base of the "solution feature" is a sand to loamy sand, and above are
two soil horizons. The lowermost horizon is a moderately firm sandy loam soil characterised by clay
coatings and is recognised as a Bt (clay enriched) soil horizon. Above the weak brown sand appears to
be the clay and iron-depleted Eb soil horizon. This Eb over Bt horizon stratigraphy allows this soil to be
classed as a typical argillic brown earth (Avery 1990). This type of soil formed during the Holocene (Sub-
Boreal and Atlantic periods) when it has been suggested that, under a woodland vegetation cover, clay
was translocated from the Eb horizon to the Bt horizon. In East Anglia there is a literature on the
presence of an ecological mosaic of lime-loving plants on the chalk, with patches of acidophyle plants
(heath) on areas of decalcified drift. In its natural state this would probably be the case at Baldock now.
The sandy drift at Baldock, however, although concentrated and deepest in "solution features" was
probably extant across the whole area. Field analysis suggests that the in situ typical argillic brown earth
was truncated (loss of topsoil Ah horizon) and buried by a sandy colluvium, characterised by "stone-
lines". Work by Mike Allen (Allen 1992; 1994) has indicated that such concentrations of stones may
represent rare-event high energy colluvial fans, resulting from the erosion of arable bare ground. At
Ashcombe Bottom, Sussex, where joint work was carried out (Macphail 1992), a soil micromorphological
investigation of a buried argillic brown earth and overlying colluvium produced a detailed soil history of the
site and local landuse, from the Neolithic onwards. A complex of dateable sandy soils has also been
studied from West Heslerton, N. Yorkshire (Powlesland et al. 1986) where blown sands occur over a
calcareous substrata.
At Baldock, it appears likely that blown sands formed patches of drift over the chalk, and forest argillic
brown earths formed in the "solution hollows". Prehistoric disturbance led to erosion and colluviation of
local soils, some episodes marked by high energy stone fans.
Above the sands containing "stone-lines", there is a further fill of sand that pre-dates Iron Age occupation,
and which may represent colluviation or wind-blowing of local sands, again possibly relating to arable
activity.

Investigative approach
Undisturbed samples for soil micromorphology (Courty et al., 1989) were taken to investigate the
formation history of the buried argillic brown earth (samples 1 and 2) and any human impact upon it.
Samples 3 and 4 were collected to study the origins of the Bronze Age and pre-Iron Age fills. The detailed
analysis of the soils and fills of this one "solution hollow" is likely to give clues as to how these features in
402
general developed during prehistory across the site, especially if archaeological data can aid this
extrapolation. It should also indicate when the decalcified sandy soil cover was removed locally to expose
calcareous brown earths, altering the soil status markedly from acid to base-rich.
Thin section samples (1, 2, 3 and 4) and bulk samples (x) from "solution feature".

c. 80 cm of ploughsoil and made ground above excavated (Late Iron Age) surface.
Sample Depth (m) Description
4x4 0.07-0.15 0-280 mm: dark brown (7.5YR3/2) sand; few to occasional stones; common charcoal flecks;
smooth, diffuse boundary.
3x3 0.15-0.33 250-330 mm: dark brown (7.5YR3/2) sand; occasional to many stones("stonelines"); Late
Bronze Age artefacts; smooth, diffuse boundary.
2x2 0.36-0.44 330-470 mm: brown to dark brown (7.5YR6/4-5/4) weak buried sandy Eb horizon; rare
stones; earth-worm channels; irregular, clear boundary.
1x1 0.57-0.65 470-900 mm: dark brown (7.5YR5/6) moderately firm buried sandy loam Bt horizon; clay
coatings; rare stones; diffuse, wavy boundary.
xB(t) - 900+ mm: strong brown (7.5YR5/6) buried loamy sand B(t) horizon.
Table 196: soil micromorphology of the solution hollow, BAL-15 1994
[Samples are stored at the Institute of Archaeology, UCL]

Charcoal identification

Pyre debris pit

By Michael Keith-Lucus
The pyre pit contained a wide range of species, all of them trees or shrubs which one might expect on the
chalk, particularly in rather open situations, such as hedgerows, or in coppiced woods, or as colonists in
chalk grassland.
A high proportion of the 'charcoal' was charred bone, although it was usually possible to sort this out
before identification, quite a few bits were deceptive.
Most of the identifications are 99% certain, however the Acer, Sorbus and Buxus did create a small
problem and therefore only reasonable confidence can be expressed in their identification, but they were
all very small fragments and they did cause some difficulty.

403
8: Industrial residues
An analysis of metal-working débris from BAL-2 F123
Jenny Stevens [1993]
F123 was part of the rubble foundation of a west to east aligned wall, which had collapsed to the north at
some point during or after the fourth century AD. Unfortunately, the building material had been robbed,
either during dereliction or after the wall had collapsed. The metal-working débris came from thirteen
different layers, most of which contained a mixture of the five different types of metal-working débris
recognised. Other finds from the feature included pottery, bone, tile, mortar, chalk and flint. This mixture
therefore would seem to indicate that a stone structure of some sort once stood on this site, possibly with
a tiled roof.

Methodology
The metal-working residue from BAL-2 F123 appears to have been collected in its entirety; this was made
possible by the small size of the assemblage. The slag had been placed in bags by context, with bags
assigned a Small Find number. This meant that a Small Find number often referred to more than one
piece or type of slag.
A catalogue of exactly what existed was created (Table 197). Not all of the slag had been given a Small
Find number (the reason for this is not clear), suggesting that the feature was not recorded uniformly.
Next, the contents of each bag were checked to build up an overall impression of the constituents of the
assemblage.
Layer Section Small Find number
L3 B‟B‟ <2013>
L3 C‟C‟ <2034>
L4 E of B‟B‟ <2070>
L5 A‟A‟ <2074>
L6 A‟A‟ <2079>
L8 A‟A <2152>
L9 C‟D -
L9 C‟/D <2267>
L9 B‟C <2267>
L9 CC/C‟C‟ <2299>
L10 B‟C <2222>
L10 A‟B <2305>
L10 B‟C -
L11/9 C‟/D -
L13 C‟C‟ <2131>
L16 CC/C‟C‟ -
L16 CC/C‟C‟ -
L16 C‟D <2167>
L16 C‟D <2160>
L17 E of C‟C‟ <2136>
L20 - <2563>
L24 Z‟A <2582>
Table 197: Catalogue of residues from F123
This revealed that five distinct types of material had been collected, categorised as furnace slag, furnace
lining, furnace bottom, ironstone and metal fragments (described below). Each bag was then separated
into the five categories. Those contexts that contained only small quantities (one or two pieces of slag)
were not divided up for fear that small pieces might have been lost.
The contents of each bag were then counted and weighed, with each type treated separately (Table 198).
The information was sorted to show classes of slag by individual contexts to see if any pattern could be
detected. Graphs were also produced. A selected group of material (Small Finds <2160> and <2167>)
was chosen for photography. One X-Ray was also taken of the metal fragments to determine if any
artefacts were hidden by corrosion. Apart from what appears to be the remains of a nail, no recognisable
objects were revealed. To examine the core of the material, a piece of each of the types of metal-working
residue recognised was cut in half using a diamond-edged saw. The slag was then compared with known
metal-working residues in an attempt to characterise the form of metal-working that had taken place.
Bag Layer Section SF no Number Type Weight
no of pieces (g)
1 L20 - <2563> 1 Furnace slag 9.1
404
 2 L8 - <2152> 1 Furnace lining 10.8
3 L24 Z‟A‟ <2582> 1 Furnace slag 7.8
4 L3 B‟B‟ <2013> 1 Furnace slag 8.9
5 L5 A‟A‟ <2074> 1 Furnace lining 1.4
6 L9 C‟D‟ <2267> 4 Furnace slag 5.1
7 L9 CC/C‟C‟ - 1 Furnace lining 4.6
7 L9 CC/C‟C‟ - 1 Furnace slag 12.8
8 L9 B‟C <2299> 1 Furnace slag 3.3
9 L6 A‟A‟ <2079> 1 Furnace slag 15.5
10 L11/9 C‟/D <2184> 1 Furnace slag 16.4
11 L3 C‟C‟ <2034> 3 Furnace slag 34.9
11 L3 C‟C‟ <2034> fragments Furnace slag 33.9
12 L13 C‟C‟ <2131> 1 Furnace slag 99.8
12 L13 C‟C‟ <2131> 3 Furnace lining 30.8
12 L13 C‟C‟ <2131> 1 Metal fragment 1.8
13 L16 C‟D‟ <2160> 1 Furnace bottom 200.0
14 L10 B‟C <2222> 26 Furnace slag 250.0
15 L10 A‟B <2305> 4 Furnace slag 66.4
16 L10 A‟B <2305> 1 Furnace slag 4.5
16 L10 A‟B <2305> 1 Ironstone 10.2
16 L10 A‟B <2305> 1 Metal fragment 27.6
17 L16 C‟D <2167> 8 Furnace slag 153.0
18 L16 CC/C‟C‟ - 6 Furnace slag 55.4
19 L9 C‟D - 2 Furnace slag 81.0
20 L16 CC/C‟C‟ - 13 Furnace slag 184.5
21 L16 CC/C‟C‟ - 3 Furnace slag 45.6
22 L4 B‟B‟ <2070> 2 Furnace lining 21.0
22 L4 B‟B‟ <2070> 10 Furnace slag 103.5
23 L10 B‟C‟ <2222> 11 Metal fragments 57.4
24 L10 B‟C‟ - 1 Furnace slag 7.8
25 L17 C‟C‟ <2136> 1 Metal fragment 9.3
25 L17 C‟C‟ <2136> 1 Ironstone 34.2
25 L17 C‟C‟ <2136> 8 Furnace slag 151.4
26 L16 C‟D <2167> 20 Furnace lining 350.0
27 L16 CC/C‟C‟ - 14 Furnace slag 373.0
27 L16 CC/C‟C‟ - 2 Furnace bottom 231.9
28 L10 B‟C‟ <2222> 20 Furnace lining 275.0
29 L10 A‟B <2305> 9 Furnace slag 275.0
29 L10 A‟B <2305> 1 Furnace bottom 77.6
30 L16 C‟D <2167> 44 Furnace slag 500.0
30 L16 C‟D <2167> 1 Furnace bottom 89.6
30 L16 C‟D <2167> 1 Ironstone 45.8
31 L10 B‟C <2222> 27 Furnace slag 650.0
31 L10 B‟C <2222> 3 Furnace bottom 190.0
32 L16 - - 1 Furnace bottom 109.0
32 L16 - - 5 Furnace lining 31.0
32 L16 - - 7 Furnace slag 31.4
Table 198: Residue type and weight

Types of metal-working residue

Furnace lining
Unfortunately, the furnace lining element of the metal-working residue was very friable and as a result of
this, had survived in relatively small pieces of varying shapes. The average depth of furnace lining was
approximately 5-10 mm. One side was buff coloured and often glassy in appearance; the other was
rougher (almost brick like) and consisted of either reddish, purple or blue/black coating, which scraped off
quite easily. The interior was dark grey to black and vesicular.
This different coloured coating was most likely fired clay, which was used, as the name suggests, to line
the furnace (or hearth). The difference in colour is almost definitely the result of whether or not the clay
was open to the air at the time of firing. The glassy appearance is also probably due to high temperatures
which caused the clay to melt and thus vitrify, forming a rough type of glass.
As a result of this destruction, the actual size of a furnace/hearth is difficult to determine other than by
weight. The combined weight of furnace lining was 846.4 g (Figure 93). However, as it came from seven
separated contexts, it may not all derive from the same furnace/hearth.

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 Figure 93: weight of materials

Furnace slag
This naturally comes in a variety of sizes,
shapes and weights and can often display
Furnace slag similar features to both furnace bottom and
Furnace lining furnace lining. Some of the furnace slag
was relatively heavy and had a dense
Metal fragments fabric, which was often glassy on the
Furnace bottoms surface. Other normally smaller pieces
Ironstone
were lighter in weight and often resembled
the fabric of furnace lining rather than
furnace bottoms. These pieces were
normally a mixture of smooth and glassy in
appearance or very rough and porous, and
can be friable.
The furnace slag often contained residues
of iron or corrosion. Another element often evident consisted of pieces of stone, which presumably
entered the furnace by accident and fused onto the slag in the intense heat. An especially interesting
inclusion was the small deposits of wood, which are probably the remains of the fuel used. The furnace
slag showed little if any evidence of being magnetic, indicating that there was little iron content.
The furnace slag was the most numerous type of residue from F123 and was also the heaviest, weighing
3127.6 g. Like the furnace lining, it was also found in a number of contexts (10 in total), so there seems to
be no pattern to its distribution. It may have to be assumed that the furnace slag may have come either
from a number of different furnaces/hearths or that it built up over an extended period.

Furnace bottoms
There appear to have been at least six recognisable furnace bottoms and these may be the most
diagnostic pieces of the assemblage. They tended to be concave in shape, which would therefore
indicate a furnace/hearth type with a concave bottom.
The most complete example was SF <2160>, which was approximately 70 × 60 mm and 20 mm thick at
its thickest part. It weighed 231.9 g, making it the largest of the furnace bottoms. The dimensions seem to
be a relatively average size for the furnace bottoms and so may give some indication of the size of
furnace/hearths that existed on the site.
The furnace bottoms tended to consist of comparatively dense material, which in places had become
glass-like. On the underside, there was sometimes a thin layer of fired clay similar to that found on the
furnace lining, which had obviously rubbed off the bottom of the furnace. Otherwise, the underside was
uneven and occasionally glassy or fibrous in appearance. The cores of the furnace bottoms were rather
dense in make-up, with only limited evidence for aeration. As with the furnace slag and the furnace lining,
it showed no tendency towards being magnetic, indicating an absence of iron. The top was normally
smoother, particularly in the case of SF <2160>, although this was not always the case.
As found in the iron slag, SF <2160> also contained small amounts of wood. The wood fragments were
present on the underside of the furnace bottom and were probably a result of the semi-molten slag
dripping onto the fuel source. A noticeable inclusion in the furnace bottoms was the remains of small
lumps of metal corrosion. These were orange in colour, which would appear to indicate that they are iron
residue. The appearance of pieces of iron in both the furnace slag and the furnace bottom ties in with the
existence of the metal fragments, suggesting that pieces of iron may have been thrown into the
furnaces/hearths. This seems to show that iron objects may have been being melted down in the
furnace/hearth either purposely or by accident and may explain the existence of the metal fragments in
conjunction with the slag.

Ironstone
Only three pieces of ironstone were present in the assemblage, yet its presence may prove to be
important. Ironstone is a form of iron ore and has been found at other sites such as Corbridge, and thus
has been taken as an indication of iron smelting.
If iron smelting was taking place, it seems strange that so little of it was found, although it could be argued
that the workers used up all the ore before abandoning the furnaces/hearths. At Corbridge, the presence
of ironstone was taken at the time to be direct evidence for smelting (Tylecote 1962, 240). Yet, like
Baldock, the deposit in which it was found was not a well stratified one.

406
Metal fragments
Only four metal fragments were present in the F123 assemblage. These were X-rayed, but no
recognisable artefacts were evident apart from what may have been a nail. It was not even clear if the
metal fragments were genuinely associated with the metal-working residue and they may be totally
unconnected. It is only the presence of small fragments of metal adhering to various pieces of slag that
suggests they may be connected.

Discussion
Hertfordshire is one of the few English counties which is not known to possess deposits of iron ore,
although small deposits may exist that have not yet been found or have been overlooked in the modern
demand for large quantities of ore (Tylecote 1962, 175). This might immediately suggest that it is unlikely
that iron smelting could have been taking place at Baldock as there was no readily available source of
ore. However, the presence of ironstone, albeit in small amounts, indicates a possibility that ore of one
sort or another was being obtained.
The possibility that ore or semi-processed metal was being brought in, possibly by trade from other parts
of the country, is strengthened by the recognition of bronze working at Baldock. Copper ore, which makes
up the main component of bronze, is less widespread than iron ore, occurring only in the north and west
of Britain, but the discovery of brooch blanks and several crucibles at BAL-23 (Stead & Rigby 1986, Site
A) shows that copper was being obtained in some form. The presence of ironstone alone is not enough
evidence for smelting, though, and a comparison of the slag with that from known iron-working processes
is necessary.
The greatest difficulty in viewing the Baldock residues as evidence for smelting is the absence of tap slag.
This particular type of slag was the product of shaft and bowl furnaces as used in the Roman period. Both
types had the provision for tapping off the semi-molten slag during the heating process, leaving the bloom
in the furnace. This stands in contrast to the pre-Roman method of smelting iron.
So far, there is little Iron Age evidence for the use of furnaces that would have allowed slag to be tapped
off. Instead, a form of bowl furnace was used that did not have such provision. Because the molten slag
had no means of escape, it would run to the bottom of the furnace and form a lump of cinder known as a
furnace bottom, such as those found at Purberry Shot, Surrey, dating to 200 BC – AD 150, and
measuring 70-100 mm diameter and 25 mm thick (Tylecote 1962, 198), a very similar size to the Baldock
furnace bottoms. From the available evidence of Iron Age sites known at the time, Tylecote (1962, 201)
suggested that the industry was fairly small-scale. This was shown in the average size of slag heaps,
around 9 kg. Bowl furnaces were used, which produced furnace bottoms rather than tapped slag. This
correlated well with the evidence from F123, especially considering the small quantities of material found
compared with what is usually expected from Roman smelting.
However, the type of slag involved does not seem to fit with the date of the feature, which is incorporated
into the stone foundations of a building of Roman date, which the associated pottery suggests was
constructed in the mid second century AD. If the slag is of similar or only slightly early date, this might
prevent us from viewing the residues as deriving from pre-Roman smelting.
In this case, it is possible that the slag was a by-product of smithing. This is the stage following smelting,
in which the bloom is reheated and beaten to remove the remaining slag. Initially, this slag could look like
that from smelting processes (Tylecote 1962, 232), so the possibility must be raised that the Baldock slag
is the result of smithing. It would also explain more clearly the presence of metal fragments, which may
have been failed blacksmithing objects. Many smithing furnaces also had clay linings in the same way
that smelting furnaces did, so the presence of furnace lining cannot be used as indicating one process or
the other.
With these possibilities, it is necessary to consider the nature of the site from which the residues derived.
Baldock was a „small town‟ with its roots in the Iron Age, but most work on Romano-British iron working
has concentrated on the huge military industries, such as those based in the Weald, the Forest of Dean
and military sites such as Corbridge. Less is known about iron working on a smaller, more localised and
domestic scale.
It is possible that some sites such as Baldock continued to use traditional methods of iron working well
into the Roman period. The vernacular architecture of the town is evidence for the continuity of at least
building traditions, as roundhouses were still being built well into the second century AD. Because the
town was a relatively minor settlement, it may well have been producing iron purely for use only in the
town itself or to trade over a restricted area.
The nature of F123 compounds problems of interpretation, as it was not a sealed context, containing what
is effectively packing material for the wall foundations. This suggests that it need not necessarily contain
material contemporary (or even nearly contemporary) with the stone building. The foundations appear to
have been cut through a very Late Iron Age or Conquest period deposit (L7 contained a La Tène II style
407
brooch, which has been dated to around AD 50). The foundations also consist of a number of layers of
clay, mortar and loam, which contained pottery and bone, items more associated with midden and
rubbish deposits. It is therefore possible that these inclusions were material that had built up over an
extended period, perhaps even from the Late Iron Age.
Some of the Baldock slag may therefore derive from an early style of iron smelting, although this is far
from certain. The presence of ironstone and hearth bottoms (especially SF <2160>) may be evidence for
this. On the other hand, the slag needs to be compared with other samples from the town, as this may
offer further clues to the processes taking place within the settlement. Chemical analysis of the slag
would also provide evidence for the nature of the activity that produced it.
Moreover, despite the potential for smelting, the possibility that smithing was talking place on the site
cannot be discounted. Indeed, the presence of the metal fragments suggests that this could well be the
case. On a site such as Baldock, a degree of self-sufficiency can be postulated, with the production of
small quantities of iron that could then be worked into everyday items such as nails. It is even possible
that the same furnace or hearth types were being used for both processes, which might explain the
apparent mixture of metalworking débris found on this site.
Unfortunately, the fragmented nature of the slag makes an assessment of the size of the
furnaces/hearths impossible; nor is it possible to estimate the scale of the industry in the town. As
indicated above, Tylecote (1962, 201) estimated the weight of an average Iron Age slag heap as 9 kg, yet
the combined weight of material from F123 is just over 5 kg, including ironstone and metal fragments.
This demonstrates the diffuse and probably incomplete nature of the assemblage, which may even
include residual material.
The only conclusions without further study are that some form of ironworking was taking place at Baldock,
either in the Late Iron Age or in the early years of the Roman occupation. It is not possible to be certain
whether smelting, smithing or both processes were taking place. The activity seems to have been
relatively small in scale and traditional in techniques, compared with the major Roman iron-working
industries.

Iron slag from Roman Baldock

Noel Boothroyd & Sasha Smith [1994, revised 2006]
The metalworking residue studied here was recovered during excavations in 1981 and 1982, the former
at Mercia Road (BAL-4) and the latter at Hartsfield School Playing Field (BAL-13). The second was
contained in a feature that cut an earlier feature containing a coin hoard dated to the late third century
AD. It would appear that this was an area of industrial activity as the waste pit was situated adjacent to a
series of cobbled yards, with a furnace and evidence of heat staining in close proximity, In addition, three
brooch blanks, several crucibles and a small kiln were found in the same area (Stead 1975, 128).
Metalworking evidence has been found elsewhere in the town, with ironworking deposits on the floor of
Building One (Stead & Rigby 1986, 34; Burnham & Wacher 1990, 285).
A total of 11,671 g of iron-working slag was examined. Twenty seven lumps, weighing 4,876 g altogether,
were identified as hearth bottoms by their plano-convex or concave-convex sections, marked vesicularity,
moderate inclusions of charcoal and stone, and fayalitic composition (Bayley et al. 2001). Lengths of the
hearth bottoms ranged from 40 mm to 115 mm (average 77 mm) and thicknesses ranged from 19 mm to
55 mm (average 30 mm), similar in size to hearth bottoms previously excavated at Baldock (Bayley
1986). The associated vitrified clay hearth-lining was red from oxidising conditions, suggesting an open
hearth had been used, as would be expected for smithing.
As Bayley commented on the slag assemblage from the 1968-72 excavations, these slags were probably
“by-products of iron-smithing operations. This sort of metal-working is to be expected in any settlement of
reasonable size,” (Bayley 1986, 387).
Context Hearth bottom: Hearth bottom: Amorphous Charcoal Burnt clay
number weight slag: weight presence
F 187 (E) L2 5 1960 1370
Sq. 46 Pit 9 1230 850 90
Sq. 46 Pit L1 6 516 757
Sq. 46 Pit L2 4 750 3490
Sq. 46 Pit L3 3 420 310 yes 5
Sq. 46 Pit L4 18
Total 27 4876 6795 95

Table 199: Quantification of iron-working slag; weights in grammes (charcoal was identified by Dr
Graham Morgan as Blackthorn (Prunus sp.) and oak (Quercus sp.))

408
Figure 94: Pit containing metalworking débris, BAL-13 Sq 46

409
9: Discussion
The place of Baldock in Iron Age and Roman Britain
It is now accepted that there is no such thing as a typical Romano-British „small town‟; in their overview,
Barry Burnham and John Wacher (1990, 281f) list Baldock in their category of „undefended settlements‟,
but this clearly does not do justice to the wide variety of types within that grouping. Whilst it is recognised
that most undefended settlements were little more than ribbon developments with occasional side streets
and back lanes, Baldock falls into a group with a developed street pattern, even if it falls short of the
classical grid ideal (Burleigh 1995a, 179). Like several other places, including Hibaldstow and Ilchester,
one of the characteristics that sets Baldock apart from other „small towns‟ is the importance of enclosures
or compounds, each evidently defining individual properties; another is the range of organised cemeteries
(Esmonde Cleary 1985, 75). The small number of recognisably public buildings so far identified may not
be a genuine feature of the Romano-British townscape, as the core of the town has not been as
extensively explored as some other parts and the range of structures recorded by Ian Stead during
building work at The Tene in 1970 (Stead & Rigby 1986, 9) shows that this area has huge potential.
The street pattern, insofar as it can be understood, forms a rough grid in the north-eastern part of the
town, with roads running more-or-less parallel north-east to south-west and north-west to south-east
across Walls Field and Clothall Common about 50 m apart. To the south-west of the main road from
Braughing, the alignment of the north-east to south-west roads changes to a more north to south
alignment, but no east to west roads have been conclusively identified in this area. The existence of two
separate alignments may indicate two separate phases of growth, the better understood north-east sector
deriving ultimately from alignments established in the Late Iron Age oppidum, while those to the south-
west may indicate a period of planned development in the early Roman period.
At least two temples have been identified, Stead‟s Building V (Stead & Rigby 1986, 36f) and the Romano-
Celtic temple identified by Gil Burleigh from an aerial photograph taken during the drought of 1976
(Cambridge University BZE27). The roundhouse at the north-eastern end of the cursiform monument at
Mercia Close (BAL-2) was contemporary with the burials deposited around it; although burials are not
normally associated with Late Iron Age or Romano-British shrines and temples, a contemporary adult
inhumation (F834) was found close to Building V during the investigation of BAL-8 in 1983, which may
strengthen the case for identifying the Mercia Road roundhouse and its associated cremation burials as a
shrine. It is also possible that the two-phase roundhouse found at Hartsfield School (BAL-12) in 1982 was
a shrine and that some of the other buildings identified on Bakers Close (BAL-50) were religious in
nature. It is interesting to note that the Building V temple was a roundhouse, built late in the second
century and thus one of the last of the type to be constructed in Roman Baldock; this may indicate that
those responsible for it were concerned to look back to the past, using an ancient tradition, rather than
conforming to Classical or Romano-British types. The Bakers Close temple, by contrast, is a typical
Romano-Celtic type, evidently set in enclosures with stone walls. Nearby enclosures also had stone
walls, quite unlike the domestic enclosures known from excavations to the north-east, which raises the
possibility that there was more than one temple or that the known temple formed part of a more extensive
religious complex.
Two parallel robbed-out walls some 14 m in length and about 2 m apart, dating from the third (or possibly
early fourth) century, were identified in 1992 at the rear of The Engine public house (BAL-54). They were
interpreted by their excavator as part of a possible mansio, as the scale of the building implied by these
walls is considerably larger than any domestic structures so far known in the town. The location, close to
the junction of the Icknield Way with the Braughing to Sandy road, is appropriate for such a building.
Although not strictly public buildings, mansiones were an essential part of the imperial administration and
it is not surprising that Baldock would have had one. The extensive metalled area excavated by Stead at
The Tene (BAL-40) is more difficult to understand, as no associated structural remains were identified in
the small-scale work carried out there. Nevertheless, its location in the core of the town is suggestive of a
market place; at the very least, it was a large and presumably public open space.
There is thus the impression that much remains to be discovered about the character of the town,
particularly with regard to its official status, and that most of the investigations to date have focused on
peripheral areas, which may be giving a misleading picture. Questions that remain to be addressed
include the evidently different nature of occupation in the centre of the town, including the presence of
substantial structures of fourth century date (Stead & Rigby 1986, 40f), the date and nature of the
religious complex(es) at Bakers Close, the nature of the sub-Roman occupation in the vicinity of the
California cemetery and its relationship to the contemporary settlement at Blackhorse Farm, and the
alignment of streets to the south-west of the Sandy to Braughing road. The western side of the town
remains a virtual blank insofar as archaeological discoveries there have been isolated and impossible to
place into the context of the town plan, as this is the area covered by the High Medieval town. The

410
apparently isolated burials west of the High Street, in the Mansfield Road area and Orchard Road may
eventually turn out to be parts of yet more cemeteries.
In view of these considerations, the twenty-one formal burial grounds investigated since 1925 may be
distorting what is known of the town by focusing attention towards ritual aspects rather than, say,
industrial or commercial features. Nevertheless, the sheer numbers of cemeteries make Baldock quite
distinct from most other small towns and, indeed, from most Romano-British towns of whatever character.
Whether this is a phenomenon unique to Baldock or more widespread but not recognised elsewhere is a
question still to be answered. Many of the cemeteries investigated are small: the Late Iron Age square
enclosures tend to contain few burials (although it must be remembered that they may have contained
mounds into which secondary burials were inserted that have now been ploughed away) and some of the
cemeteries north of the town – Sale Drive Doline, Yeomanry Drive South and so on – were used for only
a dozen or so burials, which were perhaps deposited over a short time. Nevertheless, others were
extensive. Royston Road is far and away the largest, but Walls Field contained perhaps four hundred
burials and The Tene was clearly very large. In some cases, the circumstances of discovery make an
assessment of the size of the cemeteries impossible to gauge; this is a problem that particularly affects
Clothall Road, South Road and Icknield Way East.
Superficially, there is little difference between the cemeteries, which fall into three basic types: pre-
conquest square enclosures, mixed-rite burials grounds that were sometimes enclosed and late to sub-
Roman inhumation cemeteries that were sometimes well ordered. Given that many were in use at the
same time, how did individuals come to be buried in a particular cemetery? It is possible that the right to
be buried in a particular location was determined by membership of a kinship group (Salway 1981, 698),
a professional group, a burial club (Salway 1981, 696), a religious sect, place of residence within the town
or some other criterion that cannot now be determined.
Among the real problems in assessing the character of the settlement are the apparent contradictions of
the archaeological data set: structural evidence, the character of grave assemblages, a dearth of later
brooches and the lack of the obvious features of Romano-British urbanism suggest an essentially
backward or poor place with a distinctly native character, while the quality of many of the small finds, the
numbers of coins, the range of burial rites and evidence for literacy suggest at least pretensions to
Romano-British high cultural norms. The population can never have been large – the dispersed buildings
set in large enclosures (gardens or smallholdings?) indicate a thinly-spread urban population – but the
numbers of at least second-century AD burials appears to contradict this.

Temples and Shrines in Iron Age and Romano-British Baldock and its territorium
Recent excavation and survey in Baldock and the surrounding rural area has identified a number of Iron
Age and Romano-British shrines and temples. The form of these religious and ritual structures varies
considerably.
Within the settlement, five definite, one probable and one possible shrine/temple site are now known. Of
the definite, three originate in the Iron Age and cease by or during the early Roman period, one
commences around the time of the Roman conquest and one is a classic Romano-Celtic temple,
although there are signs of Iron Age ritual activity in its vicinity.
On Upper Walls Common, a timber building five metres in diameter, associated with three well-furnished
late first century BC cremation burials was located at the north-eastern end of an open-ended ditched
enclosure, 150 m long by 20 m wide. They have been interpreted as a mortuary house or shrine
accessed through a processional way from the interior of the settlement and giving accessed to a zone
reserved for burial.
One hundred and twenty-five metres to the north, in 1970-71 Ian Stead excavated a large Romano-British
trapezoidal ditched enclosure, approximately 64 m by 40 m. It contained a probably second-century
timber building, eight metres in diameter, and several large pits, including a well by the enclosure
entrance on the south-east side, filled with what are probably the remains of ritual feasting and numerous
votive objects. The latter included model axes, a spear and an antler; an iron rattle; a small fragment of
bronze apparently from a large statue; and a remarkable collection of 44 iron spearheads, 33 of them in
one feature. The enclosure ditch and the features in which the ritual remains were found may be dated to
the third to fourth centuries AD. Stead took this as evidence for a temple in the vicinity. In 1983, Gil
Burleigh re-excavated part of the enclosure and the well at its entrance. He concluded that the enclosure
and its features were for religious purposes and that the circular timber building was probably a simple
shrine. From an earlier phase, about AD 60, Stead had found a pit holding the butchered remains of a
flock of sheep. He suggested that “perhaps there had been a feast related to a fair or a religious
gathering… or it could be an indication of troop-movements in some way linked with the Boudiccan
troubles” (Stead & Rigby 1986, 85-6). It is more likely that this was evidence for religious activity on the
site from at least that period, if not earlier (Burleigh 1984; Frere 1984; Burleigh 1995b). The shrine may
have been dedicated to Mars, who is depicted on intaglios from Baldock, and/or a hunting deity.

411
Adjacent to the south-west corner of the first century BC Large Burial Enclosure at the California end of
Upper Walls Common, was a natural solution feature, about 18 m diameter and up to 2 m deep, in the
chalk bedrock. It had been modified in the Iron Age for a number of ritual activities. Near its base were
two Late Iron Age inhumations and evidence for the deposition of fragmentary human bone as early as
the fifth century BC. Above the inhumations was a multi-phase chalk-floored structure, about 4 by 3 m,
and hearth. A sequence of associated deposits contained much charcoal, burnt bone and pottery, melted
bronze and glass fragments, human bone, brooches, amphora sherds, nails, fragments of quern, a clay
loom weight, spindle whorls, a pottery disk, daub, and a fragment of painted plaster. These features were
broadly contemporary with the use of the large burial enclosure, although several phases of activity were
observed, and they may represent the evidence for ritual involving both high-status as well as „domestic‟
activities associated with the enclosure. It has been suggested, in connection with a major late Iron Age
ceremonial centre further east along the Icknield Way at Thetford, that weaving was a high status activity,
while spinning was a domestic activity (Gregory 1992). At Thetford, weaving was represented by finds but
not spinning; at Baldock both activities are in evidence. The structure with the inhumations could be
interpreted as a mortuary house or shrine where bodies were exposed before cremation and burial. The
sequence of hearths in the structure may have been where offerings were ritually burnt. From the finds,
feasting seems to be a part of the rituals too. The brooches indicate that activity continued from the later
first century BC through to the mid-first century AD. Early in the Romano-British period, the entire hollow
was sealed by a very carefully laid flint gravel surface which followed the contours of the hollow.
Interestingly, at the lowest point at the centre of the now-metalled hollow a flat area was left of about the
same size as the floor of the now-sealed shrine. Apparent rubbish deposits that accumulated over the
gravel surface subsequently may be also a consequence of ritual feasting.
Although not representing one event associated with one burial, but several phases of activity, there are
possible similarities here with the mortuary house in a large pit associated with the princely burial at Folly
Lane, Verulamium (Niblett 1992; 1999). It is possible that at least some of the elements of the ritual and
structures involved with both the Folly Lane cremation burial and some high–status cremation burials at
Camulodunum (Crummy 1993) have their origins in precedents which are perhaps partly represented by
these discoveries at Baldock (Burleigh 1982, 3-18; Rankov 1982, 369; Selkirk & Selkirk 1983, 70-4; Frere
1984, 304; Burleigh 1995a, 105).
About eighty metres south-west of the hollow, on Walls Field, a two-phased Late Iron Age large circular
timber building, ? m diameter, was excavated in 1982. It was associated with an inhumation burial and
numerous small metal finds, particularly items of personal dress and many Iron Age coins. These appear
to be votives and the building another shrine dating from the late first century BC. It lay adjacent to the
Iron Age pit alignment but on the settlement rather than the cemeteries side of that boundary.
In 1982, Gil Burleigh identified the masonry foundations of a Romano-Celtic temple on Baker‟s Close
from an aerial photograph taken by the University of Cambridge in the drought of 1976. The temple is m
square. Its presence was confirmed by a resistivity survey in 1985 and its foundations were again
observed and recorded on the ground in the droughts of 1990 and 1995 (Rankov 1983, 000; Frere 1986,
401; Frere 1991, 000; Burleigh & Stevenson 2000, 15; 50-52). It lies adjacent to the road passing through
the centre of the settlement from Welwyn and Verulamium. So clear were the foundations at ground level
in 1995 that it was possible to observe and record the base of an external altar on the east side of the
temple situated in a metalled yard between the steps up to the entrance and the Roman road.
Also on Baker‟s Close and fifty metres south-west of the Romano-Celtic temple lie the masonry footings
of a large, 40 by 35 m, trapezoidal enclosure, with internal sub-divisions, containing several structures of
a number of phases. An interpretation is that probably this represents another major temple. The space
between it and the Romano-Celtic temple is largely occupied by an extensive buried metalled surface, at
least 60 by 45 m, apparently a courtyard (Burleigh & Stevenson 200, 51-2).
To the south-east in The Tene (Stead‟s Site K), an extensive area of late Roman flint metalling, 21.5 by at
least 30 m, was found in 1970 but not properly investigated due to imposed restrictions (Stead & Rigby
1986, 32). It is tempting to suggest that this may be a yard associated with another religious building.
Indeed, much of the Baker‟s Close/The Tene area possibly contains structures related to religious
practices, including accommodation for priests and pilgrims (there is a U-shaped masonry house abutting
the Roman road crossing Baker‟s Close). It is probable too that underlying the Romano-British features
will be Late Iron Age remains, possibly including precursors to the later temple(s). Certainly pre-Roman
features have been recorded to the north, east and west on the adjacent Brewery Field, The Twitchell,
The Tene and High Street. For example, in 1996 in The Twitchell, a ritual pit was excavated that
contained seven near complete pottery vessels dating to about AD 20-40 (Burleigh et al. 1998; 1999).
Perhaps in this area of Baldock we may be looking at a temple or religious complex, as in other Roman
towns, but on a comparatively minor scale, such as Petinesca, near Bienne, and the Altbachtal in Trier
(Lewis 1965, 131). It may be no coincidence that the only probable Roman Christian cemetery known at
Baldock is located in The Tene.

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Beyond the Baldock settlement and within its postulated territorium (Burleigh 1995a), a number of
temples and shrines are known or suspected. They are all situated at the proposed limits of the
settlement‟s territory. All except one have evidence for origins in the pre-Roman Iron Age.
Approximately 00 kilometres (2 – 2.5 miles) to the north of Baldock, it is proposed that the spring-line on
the north edge of the chalk scarp, around Ashwell/Hinxworth, marks the limit of the Romano-British town‟s
territorium and certainly of the Late Iron Age oppidum. The area has a number of sites with definite or
possible religious elements. Their location is on the northern edge of the Icknield Belt routeway.
At the Early Iron Age defended enclosure of Arbury Banks artefacts have been found indicating significant
occupation both in the Late Iron Age and through the Romano-British period (Burleigh 1995a). Inside the
defences, 1960s aerial photographs by the University of Cambridge revealed the crop-marks of a large
circular structure contained by a square ditched enclosure. It is possible that this is a Late Iron Age or
Romano-British temple.
Around the spring-head in Ashwell village, the main source of the river Rhee which flows north to become
the Cam, a significant quantity of Romano-British finds may indicate a shrine site (Burleigh, Colley &
Went 1990; Burleigh & Stevenson 2000, 14).
Below the chalk scarp, to the north of the village and near the west bank of the river Rhee, at Ashwell
End, a hoard of Romano-British temple treasure was found in 2002 (Jackson 2004a, 38-43; Jackson
2004b, 10-11). Fieldwork has revealed a Late Iron Age and Romano-British settlement extending mainly
along the west bank of the river. At the hoard site, excavation has exposed an open area utilised in the
Romano-British period for rituals involving feasting, the deposition of votives and the commemoration of
the dead (Burleigh 2005; Burleigh & Jackson 2005; Burleigh 2006a; Burleigh 2006b). About 35 m to the
north of this feature, geophysical survey located a 35 m square ditched enclosure of more than one
phase that contained a timber building, approximately 30 m square. This may be the temple from which
came the hoard of gold and silver jewellery and decorated votive plaques, some with images of Minerva
and dedications to the previously unknown Romano-Celtic goddess, Senuna.
Excavation of the ritual open area has uncovered a curious sequence of events. A probably natural
hollow in the ground, now surviving up to one metre in depth, had been used for a variety of activities.
Initially, at around the second quarter of the first century AD, topsoil on the south side of the hollow was
stripped to the natural chalky-clay and a fine flint gravel surface laid. In the centre of the hollow, topsoil
was also stripped and a clay hearth built on the surface of the natural sub-soil. This hearth was
associated with much artefactual and ecofactual material including a great quantity of very fragmentary
calcined bone. There were also fragments of burnt bone pins. Several Bronze Age artefacts were
arranged in an arc around the NW side of this hearth. On its E side, a small pit held a structured deposit
of animal bone and pottery, including sherds of an imported fine ware beaker. A few metres further east,
a second hearth, post Roman conquest in date, was associated with quantities of ovicaprid bones and a
midden containing a substantial deposit of oyster shells.
Apparently as a result of ritual feasting, an organic soil formed across the whole hollow and above the
hearths and gravel surface. This soil is rich in artefacts and ecofacts including pottery and glass sherds,
nails, animal bones, oyster shells, calcined bone and many apparent votives, deliberately deposited.
These latter include large numbers of coins, mostly Iron Age, personal dress items, such as brooches and
pins, and some pipe-clay figurine fragments, including a Venus and a Dea Nutrix. Periodically, the organic
soil deposits were sealed by the laying of a chalk pebble surface. Once this was done, the ritual activities
continued, organic soil accumulated until another chalk pebble surface was laid, and so on. Altogether
three extensive chalk pebble surfaces were laid to seal accumulated deposits of soil, artefacts, ecofacts
and votives. After soil and materials formed over the last chalk pebble surface, on the west side of the
area a flint gravel surface was laid. This was immediately beneath the modern plough-soil. The entire
sequence seems to run from the first century BC to the third century AD. The temple hoard was deposited
in the fourth century AD.
Four other Romano-British structured votive deposits have been recorded within the soils filling the
hollow. One contained the dismembered skeletons of several pigs and a pipe-clay figurine of Apollo.
Another held three Iron Age coins and an iron spearhead. A third included, amongst other things, calcined
bone fragments, iron mail armour and a pipe-clay head from a male figurine. The fourth comprised a
hoard of Bronze Age tools and weapons.
Near the centre of the hollow, the chalk rubble floor of a building, 2.10 by 1.40 m, associated with
collapsed Roman roof tile and wall rubble is interpreted as a roofed shrine.
There are clear similarities between this feature at Ashwell End and the natural hollow adjacent to the
Large Burial Enclosure in the Baldock settlement. Both involve ritual activities centred on a hollow; both
involve the treatment and commemoration of the dead; both involve ritual feasting associated with
hearths; both have small chalk floored shrines; both seal earlier ritual deposits with carefully laid metalled
surfaces. In detail of course there are also clear differences between these two broadly contemporary
413
features, but that is to be expected if the rituals and purpose of each site were not identical. However,
they do seem to belong to a similar native Late Iron Age/Romano-British cultural and religious tradition. At
Baldock the specific rituals seem to have developed from much earlier Iron Age antecedents and come to
an end in the early Roman period.
At Ashwell End the feature and its rituals seem to originate at the very close of the Iron Age and continue
throughout most of the Roman period. Here, the emphasis on the curation and eventual ritual deposition
of antiquities, Iron Age coins and Bronze Age artefacts, is curious, and maybe a tradition specifically
associated with the Romano-Celtic goddess, Senuna. Since she was clearly equated with the Roman
Minerva, it seems sensible to assume that Senuna had similar attributes to Minerva. Minerva was
associated with crafts, healing, warfare, water and wisdom. Many of the finds from the Ashwell End
feature could be taken to reflect these attributes.
It may be no coincidence that the Ashwell End shrine and its rituals, and their association with Senuna,
are situated on a spring-line and by a river. A document from the Roman period refers to a river
somewhere in southern Britain with the name Sen. It is tempting to ascribe this to the river Rhee, which
later in its course becomes the Cam, because of its association with the goddess, Senuna.
On the spring-line at the foot of the chalk scarp one kilometre west of the Ashwell End Romano-British
settlement, on the west bank of a stream that has a confluence with the Rhee at the north end of the
Ashwell End settlement, two features lie in close proximity that are visible as crop and soil-marks on
aerial photographs. One is the severely plough-damaged masonry remains of a possible courtyard villa.
Nearby is a curious arrangement of square, narrow-ditched enclosures, m overall, each one set within the
next, so that each in turn is smaller than the enclosing one, like a nest of boxes inside each other.
Strangely, this has been identified on the official record as a Roman fortlet. Its location on low-lying
ground is odd for a defensive work. It resembles more the Late Iron Age ceremonial enclosure excavated
at Fison Way, Thetford (Gregory 1991). Surface finds from the area of the feature consist almost entirely
of Roman coins with a few Iron Age examples. Apart from much Romano-British pottery, there are very
few other finds except a handful of R-B personal dress items and a well-preserved Late Bronze Age
spearhead of the same type as numerous examples found in the Ashwell End ritual hollow.
Rather than being a Roman fortlet, it seems much more likely that this site is a religious and ceremonial
one, closely connected to the Ashwell End temple and shrine.
In 2004 a very unusual Roman bronze figurine was found in the same field as the features just described.
It was identified by Gil Burleigh with the help of Ralph Jackson. It depicts a standing female deity in
Greco-Roman dress. On her head she wears a Greek-style helmet, which is pushed back to reveal her
face and hair. On the top of the helmet, the fixing for a crest is evident. Her face is comparatively very
worn, as if from fingering. On her torso is a cuirass of scale armour, with traces of an aegis in the form of
a gorgon‟s head on the breastplate. Underneath the cuirass, she wears a long folded and draped dress
which entirely covers her legs. Her left hand and crooked arm support a cornucopia, or horn of plenty,
while her right arm is bent upwards at 90 degrees from the elbow. A hole in the hand suggests that the
figure once held a spear in a throwing motion.
This figurine seems to represent an amalgamation of the Greek twinned deities, Athena-Tyche, and the
very unusually (uniquely) Roman twinned deities, Minerva-Fortuna. In view of the character of the
figurine, the findspot and its link with the Ashwell End ritual site, it may be suggested that this figurine is
another manifestation of the rediscovered goddess, Senuna. In this case not simply Senuna-Minerva but
Senuna-Minerva-Fortuna (see Portable Antiquities Scheme Annual Report 2004/05).
South of Baldock, at Weston (00 kilometres; 2 miles), the limit of the Romano-British town‟s territory may
be marked by another temple site. It lies on the route of a known Roman road heading in the direction of
Braughing, close by a spring-line. Casual finds include many Roman and some Iron Age coins, Roman
dress items, a fourth century gold finger-ring, a fragment of a gold bangle and an Iron Age gold stater.
The material provides a date range from the first century BC to the fourth century AD. A field survey
plotted large quantities of Romano-British pottery, tesserae, roof and floor tiles. When planned the
resulting distributions and concentrations indicated the location of a major range of buildings. The types of
finds, including probable votives, suggests the site of a rural temple rather than a villa (Burleigh & Went
1993).
Seven km east of Baldock, near Barkway, in 1743 a Roman temple treasure hoard was found during
small-scale quarrying. The hoard consisted of decorated and inscribed silver votive plaques, a bronze
figurine of Mars and the bronze handle of a patera. The leaf-shaped votive plaques, which are similar but
in better condition to those from the Ashwell End temple hoard, bear dedications to and images of Mars-
Toutatis (a Celtic deity with similar attributes to Mars), Mars Alator (the Avenger), and the smith-god,
Vulcan. It is probable that this hoard came from a temple located in the vicinity. The site is on a chalk
ridge just to the east of Ermine Street, in a position that could mark the eastern limit of the town of
Baldock‟s territory (Smith 1922).

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5 km west of Baldock, it has been proposed that the Iron Age hill-fort at Wilbury, Letchworth, marked the
western boundary of the pre-Roman oppidum (Burleigh 1995a; Bryant & Burleigh 1995). Like Arbury
Banks to the north of Baldock, Wilbury has produced plenty of evidence for Romano-British occupation
within the defensive enclosure (Applebaum 1949). The function of this occupation is unclear; it could be
simply a farmstead. However, since Iron Age hill-forts were not infrequently the location of later Romano-
British temples or shrines, it is possible to speculate that perhaps there was a religious dimension to the
occupation of Wilbury in that period.
1.5 km further west lies the source of the river Oughton which eventually flows into the Bedfordshire Ouse
to the north. At the spring-head and from an area of several hectares to its south, many, probably
thousands, of Roman coins have been found by metal detectorists over the last thirty years. The coins
are predominantly small denomination third/fourth century AD types although there are a number of
earlier examples. As well as some metal personal dress items, there have been few other Roman
artefacts found, aside from a general scatter of abraded potsherds.
In 1991 a detectorist uncovered two small bronze figurines actually from the spring source itself. One is a
bust of Minerva wearing a crested helmet; the other is a male head, possibly a Satyr. The finds suggest
that there was a shrine or temple here in the Roman period. A handful of Iron Age coins and a heavily
twisted bronze torc indicate that it may have had a pre-Roman antecedent. An aerial photograph reveals
the feint outline of a circular structure, m diameter, on the south bank of the spring-head which may be a
temple building. The location, at a similar distance from Baldock as the Barkway temple hoard, may mark
the western limit of the town‟s territorium. Interestingly, it is not far from a multiple-ditched dyke at Punch‟s
Cross, Pirton, that bisects the line of the Icknield Way, which is running on the north side of the river. The
dyke may define the boundary of the Late Iron Age oppidum (Bryant & Burleigh 1995, 93), at least in one
phase.
Another site with religious connections of major significance is situated a further 3.5 kilometres to the
west. At Pegsdon, in the parish of Shillington, Beds., spectacular finds have been made in recent years
on the site of an apparently otherwise ordinary Romano-British rural settlement. The settlement lies on
the Icknield routeway, at the foot of the chalk scarp of the Chiltern Hills, on chalky-clay colluvium over a
solid geology of Lower Chalk. It extends between Kettledean Farm in the north and Pegsdon Common
Farm to the south, centred at TL 1250 3133. It is on the spring-line and historically a stream, now ditched,
rose on the uphill side of the settlement, just below the 65 m contour line, and flowed north-west, then
west, through the settlement which grew up on its banks from at least the late pre-Roman Iron Age. The
spring source issues from the mouth of a deep, short, about 600m in length, dry valley running north-west
down the scarp rising to the south-east. The scarp rises to about 130 m OD while the settlement is
situated on relatively flat ground between the 65 m and 60 m contours. A second small stream, also now
ditched, running north-south, again bisects the settlement. It emerges from the ground some 600 m to the
north of the settlement.
On top of the scarp, approximately 200 m north of the dry valley and 800 m east of the settlement, is sited
a Neolithic short-long burial mound, Knocking Knoll. Close to the head of the dry valley and 1km south-
east of the settlement, on the scarp, lies a Bronze Age round barrow, Tingley Tumulus. At the mouth of
the dry valley, on its north side, is a very prominent, rounded spur of natural hard chalk, Knocking Hoe.
Looking from the settlement up and along the scarp, the chalk landscape is quite spectacular.
Today, after nearly five thousand years, Knocking Knoll stands proudly on the skyline at the 120 m
contour and must have been rather dramatic when it was first constructed in the early third millennium
BC, showing as a large mound of gleaming white chalk in the sunshine. By the Late Iron Age/Romano-
British periods, after enduring the best part of three thousand years of weathering and erosion, and
becoming grassed over, it would have been still an impressive feature in the landscape. Even more
visually dramatic are the Knocking Hoe spur, which rises to 107 m, and the dry valley winding beneath it,
downhill towards the settlement on the lower land. Knocking Hoe itself is particularly prominent and looks
like a gigantic round burial mound although it is entirely natural in origin.
Until the 1950s the land was used for grazing, having been common pasture for the hamlet of Pegsdon
since the Medieval period. Pegsdon lies some 4 km south of the centre of Shillington village. Chance
finds of archaeological material, including Roman pottery and puddingstone quern fragments, have been
made on the site since the 1950s when the land was first ploughed up in modern times. Annual ploughing
over the past fifty years has severely truncated underlying archaeological features. Aerial photographs
taken in summer 1964 by the University of Cambridge show a complex of sub-rectangular and circular
ditched enclosures and other linear ditches on the site. Fieldwalking by members of the Manshead
Archaeological Society of Dunstable in the 1970s first identified the site as a Romano-British settlement
with Late Iron Age origins from the collection of potsherds and other artefacts. Metal detecting since the
early 1990s has produced a substantial number of Roman and Iron Age coins and artefacts (see below).
In 2002 Albion Archaeology undertook a detailed field survey and study of nine hectares of the site on
behalf of Bedfordshire County Council and English Heritage (Thorpe & Wells 2003).

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In October 1998, two metal detectorists discovered a hoard of 127 Roman gold aurei on the settlement
site. The majority (111) of the coins were still in situ in a small pit cut into the chalky clay beneath the
plough-soil. The coins date from the emperor Tiberius (AD 36-37) through to Vespasian and Titus (AD 78-
79). Because of slight wear on some of the latest coins, a closing date for the hoard in the early AD 80s
has been suggested. The composition of the hoard would appear to be unique in Britain and examples
from elsewhere in the empire are rare. In the near vicinity of this gold coin hoard, a number of separate
deposits were made of Roman silver denarii, amounting to 18 coins in total. They range in composition
from Republican to an issue of Hadrian, mid-first century BC to AD 128 (Curteis & Burleigh 2002).
Metal detecting has found later Roman coins over much of the settlement area but early finds are largely
confined to the immediate or near vicinity of the coin hoards and to an area approximately 150 m to the
east. Late Iron Age metalwork includes three bronze coins, bow brooches and a rare lyre shaped strap-
link. Early Roman metalwork includes first and second century AD coins, a variety of brooches, a
cosmetic mortar, dress pins, a nail cleaner and a knife hilt decorated with a bear‟s head.
The study of the 1964 aerial photographs reveals a multi-phased settlement extending over an area of
approximately one square kilometre. Two possible round barrows with surrounding ditches are visible.
Also, there are two possibly short-long barrows, one apparently overlying the other. Rather than these
being two Neolithic barrows, given their relatively low-lying position, it is possible that they are a Late Iron
Age or Roman period barrow of two phases. The chalk rubble mound, very clearly seen on the 1964
photographs, is visible still at ground level as a chalky low rise in the field, surrounded by the darker soil
of the ditches.
A massive ditched sub-rectangular enclosure, cutting into the ditch of one of the possible round barrows,
measures c 70 m across and has been proposed as a defended Iron Age enclosure. A palimpsest of
large, linear, landscape boundaries, such as trackways, field, stock, or settlement enclosure ditches
covers most of the settlement area, but is very much concentrated on the west bank of the north-south
stream. Within many of these enclosures are ring and penannular ditches or gullies, possibly for round
houses. A few pits are apparent too (Thorpe & Wells 2003, 8-13).
The aerial photographs very clearly depict a multi-phased settlement of the Iron Age and Romano-British
periods. This dating is confirmed by the various surface artefact collections and the metal detector finds.
On 12 November 2000, the same two metal detectorists who had found the gold and silver coin hoards in
1998, Mr S Pyper and Mr S Leete, unearthed a decorated bronze Iron Age mirror, together with a first
century BC silver brooch and fragments of a Late Iron Age pedestal urn and flat-based jars. Within a few
days, the finders reported their discovery to G R Burleigh, the then Keeper of Field Archaeology for the
North Hertfordshire Museums Service, who in turn informed the Bedfordshire Coroner and the British
Museum (Hill 2002, 15-16). On 18 November 2000, GRB visited the site with the finders and recorded the
exact location of the find-spot. At that time it was not possible to archaeologically re-excavate the find-
spot although GRB had realised immediately that the finds probably came from a disturbed grave (North
Herts Museums Press Release dated 28 November 2000). An excavation was completed by GRB, with
the assistance of the finders, on 24 September 2001.
The excavators removed by hand the overlying plough-soil to a depth of 0.30 m from a 2.00 m square
area to reveal underlying natural chalk bedrock. Cut into the natural chalk was a very severely plough-
truncated sub-rectangular pit. Its surviving maximum depth was only 0.18 m and its gently sloping sides
formed a shallow bowl shape. To recover the complete plan of the pit an extension had to be made to the
2.0 m square area on its north side, measuring 0.45 m by 1.20 m. Although the bulk of the soil filling the
pit was back-fill re-deposited by the finders in November 2000, at that time they had not entirely cleared
out the original soil filling. On the north side of the pit a small patch of the original soil fill was in situ. From
this was recovered four Late Iron Age sherds from the same vessel and one fragment of calcined bone,
presumed to be human.
The excavation demonstrated that the mirror, brooch and associated pottery did indeed come from a
grave that had contained a cremation burial. It is not now possible to say whether the cremated remains
would have been in one of the pottery vessels or in a separate organic container or simply deposited on
the floor of the grave. The finders reported to GRB that the mirror was lying on the chalk base of the
grave pit with the silver brooch and potsherds in the soil above. It is clear from the shallowness of the pit
and the condition and range of potsherds recovered that the grave had been badly truncated by
ploughing. Also, that many of the sherds the finders retrieved must have come from the plough-soil, while
some may have contaminated the disturbed grave fill by being introduced as a result of the ploughing. All
the original pottery vessels in the grave, of which there were two or three (see below), had been shattered
into small sherds. The brooch was originally one of a pair, as shown by its attached linking chain, but it is
not known if the pair was deposited in the grave at the time of burial or whether one of the brooches had
been lost in antiquity before the burial. Intensive searching of the plough-soil by the detectorists, both in
the immediate vicinity of the grave and over a much wider area of the field, has failed so far to find the
other brooch.

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The mirror burial does not seem to be an isolated instance of funerary practice at the settlement. The
grave lay close to the large, possibly two-phased Iron Age, burial mound, on its south-west side. The
finders also detected a significant spread of Roman coins and metalwork extending in a belt northwards
from the long mound through Complexes D and E, as indicated on the Albion plot of cropmarks on the
1964 aerial photographs. The same belt yielded a concentration of large sherds of Samian ware and
other Roman pottery. These finds could suggest the presence of an underlying Romano-British cemetery.
The plotted cropmarks indicate a trackway running between enclosures in this area and a cemetery may
be extending alongside it.
As has been seen, the Late Iron Age and Romano-British site at Pegsdon Common displays many
phases of settlement and activity. One of those phases, apparently extending from the first century BC to
the second century AD, included a major religious element. The deposition of a rare Roman first century
AD gold coin hoard continues the Late Iron Age tradition of depositing gold coins on ritual sites, either in a
hoard as at Alton, Hants (Abdy 2002, 16) and Wanborough, Surrey (Cheesman 1994, 31-4), or singly as
at the Romano-British temple of Harlow, Essex (France & Gobel 1985) and the shrine at Ashwell End,
Herts (Burleigh 2005; 2006). The deposition of a series of silver coin hoards around the gold coin hoard is
very unusual and likewise is suggestive of ritual activity associated with a cult site (Abdy 2002, 19; Curteis
& Burleigh 2002, 72). At an Iron Age ritual site in Leicestershire at least a dozen separate hoards
contained coins of all denominations (Hobbs 2003, 65-8). Of course, the deposition of single Iron Age
coins of all denominations is apparent also at sanctuary sites, for example, Ashwell End and Harlow. The
single Iron Age coins found close to the Pegsdon gold coin hoard, as with many of the other single
brooches, pins and other personal dress items, are probably votives associated with the site of a shrine.
This compares closely with the excavated evidence for the deposition of similar votive objects at the
shrine of Senuna at Ashwell End. At both sites these ritual customs continued into the Roman period.
It is logical to conclude that the coin hoards and other votive objects were deposited in or close to a
temple or shrine. On the aerial photographs there are several ring and penannular, as well as a large
rectangular, enclosures in Complex F, any one of which might be, or have contained, a religious
structure. To the south is the massive ditched sub-rectangular enclosure in Complex B that could
conceivably be an Iron Age/Romano-British cult sanctuary. Without large-scale excavation to investigate
these possibilities, it is impossible to say.
The topography of this cult site suggests that the landscape played an important role both in its location
and, possibly, its rituals. The site lies on the banks of two streams, one of which rises near the mouth of a
dry valley running down the scarp face of the Chiltern Hills. On one side of the valley is a very dramatic
natural spur, Knocking Hoe, and close by on the same side is the Neolithic barrow, Knocking Knoll. At the
head of the valley is situated the Bronze Age round barrow, Tingley Tumulus. Other metal detectorists
have reported concentrations of Late Iron Age and Roman coins and artefacts, as well as pottery,
immediately around these two burial mounds. In the dry valley itself, disturbance of the soil by rabbits has
unearthed casual finds of Romano-British artefacts, including at least one brooch. It is tempting to
suggest that the prehistoric burial mounds and the natural feature, Knocking Hoe, which itself resembles
a giant round barrow, may have been involved in whatever rites and rituals were associated with the cult
sanctuary sited below at the foot of the scarp. It may also be suggested that the dry valley and the stream
flowing from its mouth may have been a link between the ancient mounds on the top of the scarp and the
shrine or temple in the settlement. They may have been utilised as a processional way, as may other dry
valleys in similar landscapes with similar monuments. It has recently been suggested (S. Bryant, pers.
comm.) that a, very much longer, possible processional way ran from Wheathampstead via Beech Bottom
dyke and a dry valley to the Roman temple at Folly Lane, Verulamium. There may be connections here
with the artificially created proposed processional way linking the Late Iron Age settlement at Baldock
with a shrine at its other end (see above).
The religious site at Pegsdon Common is about 6 miles (00 kilometres) from Baldock and probably
outside its territory. It is 4 miles (00 kilometres) from the Romano-British small town at Dunstable, which
also lies on the Icknield Way, and may be on the north-east limit of its territory.

The cemeteries
Location
As would be expected in a Romano-British „small town‟, the majority of burials were found in area outside
the settlement in zones that had been set aside in accordance with Roman law for the specific purpose of
receiving the remains of the dead (Lex Duodecim Tabularum, X.1: hominem mortuum in urbe ne sepelito
neue urito – neither bury nor cremate a dead man in the city). It is therefore entirely legitimate to regard
these zones as cemeteries. In a number of cases, early cemetery zones were subsequently abandoned
for domestic or other uses as the settlement expanded. In at least one case – the late Roman cemetery at
California – an area that had been converted to domestic use in this way reverted to use as a cemetery in
the third century.

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Most of the twenty-one cemeteries recognised so far lie to the north-east, east and south of the main area
of settlement, at least as it is presently understood. This is largely a result of later twentieth-century
development of this side of the ancient town for housing, especially on the Clothall Common housing
estate (the former Upper Walls Common). Other burials have been located to the north, though, and there
are reports of burials from the Mansfield Road area, west of the medieval High Street, that would also
have lain to the west of the Roman town. It is reasonable to conclude that the town was surrounded by a
ring of cemeteries, which expanded and contracted as the town did so. Nevertheless, there is a notable
concentration of cemeteries on the northern periphery of the settlement, from Icknield Way East (the only
burial ground so far located on the northern side of the Icknield Way) to Stane Street, not all of which
were in use at the same time but whose location suggests an interest in this area. It is possible that the
numerous dolines in this part of the town were seen as connected with the dead, a connection already
evident in the Middle Iron Age burials made in the California doline. As suggested above, it is tempting to
see them as a natural equivalent of the mundus or pond barrow as a means of becoming closer to the
underworld.
As well as the burials deposited in organised cemeteries, there were others scattered throughout the
settlement. Although the burial of young infants in settlement areas was permitted under Roman law as
they were not regarded as persons, the circumstances under which adults might receive burial in
settlement areas are less well understood. It has sometimes been suggested that such burials are the
result of foul play or other circumstances that required the rapid burial, if not actual concealment, of the
corpse. Simon Esmonde-Cleary (2000, 129) has pointed to the frequency of what he calls „backland
burials‟ in Romano-British small towns, suggesting that they blur the distinction between the living and the
dead and emphasise their relationship.
Most of the cemeteries discovered so far can be related closely to the road system, frequently occupying
plots beside roads leaving and entering the settlement. Often, they are also located at the junctions
formed by two or more roads, a situation well seen at Stane Street, South Road, Royston Road, Walls
Field and California. Others lay alongside major roads, as at Icknield Way East, Yeomanry Drive North,
Clothall Road, Icknield Way Roadside and The Tene. Only at Wallington Road and Yeomanry Drive
South is there no obvious connection to the road system and in the case of the former, this may be more
a function of the circumstances of its excavation under salvage conditions than of the reason for its siting.

Layout
There is little obvious planning in any of the cemeteries and each has its own character. It is evident that
there was no standard model for the layout of an Iron Age or Romano-British cemetery and that each
followed a logic (or lack of logic) that it is generally impossible to reconstruct. To make the situation more
complex, many of the cemeteries were in use for several centuries or more and it is possible that they
were redesigned to suit changing tastes or beliefs. However, the difficulties in dating individual burials
with any precision makes the compilation of phase plans extremely difficult in many instances, so that
changes in layout are difficult, if not impossible, to recognise. In only a few cases is it possible to be
certain that there were changes in layout, most notably at Wallington Road, where clear linear zones
seem to mark the presence of paths at the surface for which no other evidence exists and the continuing
use of a restricted area for burials even after the defining ditch had long since silted up completely.

Enclosures
Generally, the most obvious feature of the cemetery layout was the boundary ditch, where it existed. The
Late Iron Age square enclosures on the low ridge north-east of the settlement clearly define the limits of
the burial grounds they contain, although some of the first century AD burials at the Icknield Way East
Enclosure lay outside the cemetery to the east and south-east. It was suggested above that some, if not
all, of them served as the quarry ditches for mounds that initially covered a central burial and that
attracted secondary burials in their surfaces. These seem to have been the principal burial grounds of the
second half of the first century BC, although it is also likely that some unenclosed and less formal
cemeteries originated towards the end of the century, including Wallington Road and Yeomanry Drive
North.
Access to enclosed cemeteries was by causeways left unexcavated across the ditches. In the case of the
Late Iron Age square enclosures, these were always in the centre of the south-east facing side, but there
was no standard practice with other enclosed cemeteries. There was no causeway across the ditch to the
south-west of the Royston Road cemetery because the northern and south-eastern boundaries were not
defined by ditches (although there way well have been hedges leaving no archaeologically visible trace);
the butt ends of ditches seen in the salvage conditions at Wallington Road mark the likely entrances to
the enclosure, while at Mercia Road, the cursiform enclosure was open at both ends. The entrance to the
Sale Drive West cemetery seems to have been through a gap in the ditch to the north-west, suggesting
that access was from the Icknield Way, but the severe truncation of the ditch makes it impossible to be
certain that there other entrances did not exist to the south or east. The presence of the enclosure ditch at
California predated the establishment of the cemetery and it seems to have gone out of use before the
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cemetery was established, although burials were restricted to the area it defined; however, there was a
causeway through the sub-Roman roadside ditch to the south-west, roughly midway along the length of
the cemetery on that side, so it is possible that hedges or some other feature continued to define this
parcel of land.
At the current stage of analysis, no internal patterning has been defined within the cemeteries. At
Yeomanry Drive North, two small rectangular enclosures, each containing four cremation burials, were
identified on the western edge of the cemetery; they were not enclosures of the type discussed
elsewhere, but represent subdivisions within the otherwise open cemetery. There are hints of gullies at
the late Roman cemetery at Icknield Way East that may similarly have defined burial plots containing
single or grouped inhumations. At Royston Road, a series of large, shallow pits lay to the north-east of
the cemetery and were clearly in use while burials were being deposited in it. In some cases, deposits of
cremated remains and burnt and/or broken pottery were made that may derive from the pyre or from
disturbed cremations encountered during grave digging. In some cases, almost complete but shattered
urns still associated with cremated bone, and sometimes fragments of accessory vessels, were found
carefully redeposited. In most cases, more fragmentary material had been redeposited in heaps within
general layers of backfilled material, themselves containing considerable quantities of very abraded and
scattered cremated material. They may be a distinct type of burial deposit, placed not in a grave pit but
laid carefully on the surface.

Structures

Mausolea
No Mausolea as such have been conclusively identified at Baldock. However, Late Iron Age structures in
the cursiform enclosure at Mercia Road and in the California doline are plausibly connected with mortuary
ritual and may represent mortuary houses or shrines connected with the veneration of the dead or their
preparation for burial. There were traces of timber structures around some of the inhumation graves at
Royston Road, but the extreme truncation of the burials there makes it impossible to gauge how
widespread the practice of erecting these structures was; the presence of mortar and tile in the „lamp pit‟
at The Orchard may indicate that such structures could be more substantial. Hints that some grave pits
remained open for at least a short time after deposition of the remains at both Mercia Road and Icknield
Way East suggest that similar structures may have existed in other cemeteries.

Pyres and pyre débris pits

Within the Royston Road cemetery there were slight traces of what were thought to be the bases of at
least two pyre areas, one to the south-west of the cemetery, the other to the north-west. These comprised
areas of burnt soil, burnt natural chalk surfaces and hollows within the chalk, charcoal, cremated bones,
scattered nails, burnt and unburnt potsherds and other burnt debris. These deposits generally only
survived to a depth of a few centimetres because of later ploughing. The larger area measured 15 m × 5
m and the smaller about 2 m × 1.5 m. In addition, on the north-eastern boundary of the cemetery there
was a number of pits which were used to deposit cremated material, some of it perhaps from pyres but
also much of it comprising material disturbed from burials, particularly cremations (see above). There
were also a few examples of in situ cremations (and inhumations) deliberately inserted into these pits.
Only one other certain pyre has been identified, about 35 m to the north-east of the Wallington Road
cemetery. It measured about 3 × 1.5 m, similar in size to the smaller example at Royston Road. It seems
to have been used on more than one occasion and the heat from it had created a hollow up to 0.45 m
deep in the underlying natural chalk.

Burial practice
Iron Age burial practice
Aylesford-Swarling cremation burial has long been considered the typical burial of south-eastern Britain
during the century before the invasion (Collis 1974, 4; Taylor 2001, 68); in this tradition, cremated bone
was deposited in pits with a variety of pottery vessels and other objects. Sometimes the burial was in the
centre of a square enclosure, thought sometimes to have been a quarry for a low central mound (Burleigh
1982, 12; Stead & Rigby 1989, 86). The more elaborate graves contained items such as planked tripod
buckets with bronze fittings, probably used for mixing wine during feasts, imported bronze vessels and
amphorae. The richest of these are referred to as „Welwyn-type‟ burials, after the first well-publicised
discovery in 1906 (Smith 1912, 1). The choice of which rite to employ must have been based on a
number of complex factors, not simply religious belief or social convention. Cremation, for instance, is
much more expensive than inhumation because an open pyre of Iron Age type needs to be fed with fuel
and stoked for up to eight hours to reduce a body to calcined bone. On the other hand, it requires less
outlay in terms of ground space to dispose of the cremated remains. Moreover, there may have been a
resistance to exotic or novel and initially minority rites by some sections of the population while others
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eagerly took up the new practice (in terms of social network analysis, these are the distinctions between
laggards and early adopters).
Iron Age burial grounds in the oppidum fall into two distinct classes, those within an enclosure up to about
33 m square, and unenclosed cemeteries. The gently rising ridge of land to the north-east of the main
settlement area at Baldock was the location of a series of burial enclosures, forming a linear arrangement
to the north-east of the Iron Age pit alignment. These enclosures would have been visible from all over
the settlement and from the marginal land between the settlement and its agricultural fields. They varied
considerably in size, but all were square with a single causewayed entrance centrally placed on the
south-eastern side. In some cases, the upcast of the ditch seems to have been used to create a square
mound covering the central burial and that later burials were cut into the mound; although none of the
mounds has survived, it is to be noted that whereas the central burial generally survives well in a deep pit,
satellite burials tend to be shallower and are often highly truncated by post-Roman ploughing and tend to
be closer to the enclosure ditch than to the central burial. All the burials associated with these enclosures
were cremations, generally contained in or accompanied by Gallo-Belgic pedestalled vessels. Other
burials were deposited close to but outside the enclosures, which were not contiguous, unlike the
contemporary cemetery at King Harry Lane, Verulamium (Stead & Rigby 1989). Four have been identified
in close proximity, two at California (BAL-1) and two at Downlands on Stead‟s Area A (BAL-23), with an
outlier on Icknield Way East (BAL-45). Between California and Icknield Way East, a nineteenth-century
housing development prevents archaeological investigation for the present, but it is quite possible that
more burial enclosures await discovery here. The so-called „Chieftain‟s‟ burial from the Tene, which was
located away from the main area of burials of this period, does not appear to have been enclosed. The
lack of a ditch could be the result of the incomplete nature of the excavation in this area. There are
certainly hints that the central burial was covered by a mound. Moreover, it is up to half a century older
than the oldest of these sites, suggesting that the pattern was only established in the middle of the first
century BC.
At the south-eastern limit of the area dominated by enclosures was a feature consisting of a pair of
parallel ditches, about 20 m apart, running south-west to north-east for about 190 metres from the
settlement area to the top of the ridge. At the top end of this enclosure was a circular building and,
outside it, three badly disturbed cremations in Gallo-Belgic urns. This feature cut the infilled pit alignment
at right angles and seems to have originated at the end of the first century BC.
Iron Age inhumations have also been found at Baldock. Two were found in the solution hollow at
California (BAL-1) and seem to have been associated with a rectangular building that may have
functioned as a mortuary house; there are hints that the graves may have been used on more than one
occasion, whilst residual human bone in the underlying deposits indicates that activity began as early as
the fifth century BC. Unenclosed burial grounds have also been identified, associated with inhumations,
which began to be deposited in the second half of the first century BC. The earliest phase of the cemetery
at Wallington Road (BAL-11) contained scattered inhumations; by the middle of the first century AD,
though, all burials there were cremations. Stane Street (BAL-15), the largest of the Iron Age inhumation
cemeteries at Baldock, was located in the V angle produced by the junction between two roads; it
continued in use as an inhumation cemetery until the end of the first century AD.
On the opposite side of the road from the Stane Street cemetery, an unenclosed cremation cemetery lay
a short distance to the south-west, at Yeomanry Drive North (BAL-15). In this case, the burials were all
located in a wide, shallow doline. Here, the earliest burials seem to be slightly later than in the cemeteries
already discussed, with all belonging to the first century AD. Other first century AD cemeteries, at South
Road and Clothall Road, are only known in part, so it is unclear whether or not they were enclosed.

Romano-British burial practice

Romano-British burial practice continued the Late Iron Age traditions, with cremations deposited in
cinerary urns the most common form of disposal of the dead until the early third century (Philpott 1991,
8). Post-conquest innovations in the rite include the use of glass or lead containers for the cremated
remains, the inclusion of coins, glass phials and lamps, and bronze-decorated caskets (Philpott 1991,
217). Rob Philpott has seen these as possible evidence for immigrants to the new province, as they are
most commonly found in the newly-established Roman centres, both military sites and newly planted
towns. One innovation he attributes to the adoption of Roman material forms is the use of samian pottery
as a grave gift.
By the last quarter of the first century AD, all cemeteries then in use seem to have been enclosed,
although the situation in Walls Field is unclear. The Royston Road cemetery (BAL-15) was established
during the late first century AD, its south-western limit defined by a ditch. The Sale Drive West (BAL-15)
cemetery occupied another doline, but in this case, its upper edge was defined at least in places by a
ditch. There are suggestions that the Walls Field cemetery was enclosed, although the incomplete
excavation of the site does not make this entirely certain, and there was no indication of the date of the
boundary ditch (Applebaum 1932, 254). At Wallington Road (BAL-11), the Iron Age cemetery continued
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to be used into the Roman period, with burials becoming exclusively cremations by the middle of the
cemetery; around AD 70, when the new cemeteries were established at Royston Road, Sale Drive W est
and Walls Field, it was enclosed by an apparently oval ditch.
The late Roman cemeteries follow a different pattern. The California inhumation cemetery (BAL-1),
occupied a rectangular ditched enclosure that had been established in the second century AD as a
domestic property; whether the ditch was still being maintained at this time is unclear, although the cutting
of graves through its fills shows that it was certainly not maintained whilst the cemetery was in use. On
the other hand, there is no indication of defined enclosures to the late inhumation cemeteries at The Tene
(BAL-30, BAL-31 and BAL-48) or at Icknield Way East (BAL-45), although the limited nature of
investigations in these areas could have missed any boundary features.
There thus seems to be a shift from a dual tradition in the Iron Age (formal burial plots that were defined
by square enclosures and which did not, for the most part, continue to be used after the first century BC,
together with more informal cemeteries) towards a better defined system in the Roman period. It is
tempting to link the increased formality with a more regulated society after the conquest, but the enclosed
cemeteries seem to be a development that occurred a generation or so later. Enclosure remained the
norm into the third century, but for burial grounds established after c 200, there dies not seem to have
been any pressing need for a ditched enclosure. Where enclosures are found, as at California (BAL-1),
they seem to be left over from earlier land use.
Although early Roman inhumations are usually thought of as uncommon and as a predominantly
regionally biased survival of local Iron Age traditions (Taylor 2001, 94), it is now clear that they were more
widespread than once thought. Although characterised as a largely rural phenomenon (Philpott 1991,
222), first-century inhumations are found in such non-rural places as Chester, where they are explained
as the importation of exotic traditions by soldiers. There are greater variations in this rite than with
cremations, as the body can be positioned in many different ways, with or without a coffin and so on.
The burial evidence from Baldock is similar to that from elsewhere in the region. Large cemeteries of
similar date have been excavated at Verulamium (Stead & Rigby 1989; Niblett & Thompson 2005, 138f),
Braughing (Skeleton Green) (Partridge 1981), Welwyn, Dunstable and so on. They provide parallels for
the range of rites seen in the town‟s cemeteries, but it is noteworthy that only in Baldock is virtually the full
range of Romano-British burial rites seen. The region has one of the best recorded collections of
cemeteries from Roman Britain (Philpott 1991, 3) and Baldock stands out – even at a national level – for
the number and variety of its cemeteries. Of over 7000 Romano-British burials known in Hertfordshire
(Niblett 1995, 107), some 1800 (around a quarter of the total) are from Baldock.
An unusually high proportion of unaccompanied cremations has been excavated at Baldock in
comparison with other sites, either locally or more widely in the province of Britannia. At Royston Road,
around 40% of the cremations deposited between AD c 75 and c 280 were not in pottery vessels. In some
cases they were in wood-lined pits, while in others, the globular form of the bone deposit suggests the
use of organic containers, such as leather or textile bags or of wooden or basketry vessels.
Inhumations occur at all periods from the mid first century BC through into the sub-Roman period: there
was never a time when they were not being deposited. However, the fewest inhumations were made
between the mid first century AD and the late second century, when cremation was the dominant rite.
There is no trace of a coffin in the majority of inhumations, although the presence of bodies with limbs laid
close together, especially arms close to or on the chest, suggests the use of shrouds. Some inhumations
seem to have been treated almost casually, with the limbs flailing about wildly in the grave. A significant
number of inhumations were prone or laid on one side; from the late second century on, some were
decapitated (McKinley 1993). Although there is not always osteological evidence to show how this was
performed, the archaeological context makes it clear that the head had been removed before burial. At
least one of the inhumation cemeteries, The Tene, seems to have been well ordered, with few intercutting
burials and all aligned uniformly with head to the west (against the usual pattern of head to the north-east
or east seen in other cemeteries); it is tempting to suggest that this burial ground, which was in use from
the late third to fifth centuries, was the cemetery used by the town‟s Christian population if we employ the
criteria suggested by Charles Thomas (1981, 228ff). The California cemetery, on the other hand, belongs
to Rahtz‟s (1977, 55) Type A: sub-Roman secular.
Cremations can be divided into two basic types: urned and unurned, although this hides a huge
variability. In most cemeteries, the majority were apparently urned and consisted of one or more vessels
placed in a pit, one of which contained the ashes of the deceased. Most did not have any other objects
with them, although some contained items of personal adornment. Occasionally, the vessels were placed
in either a wood-lined pit or in a box. In one cemetery, Royston Road, unurned cremations outnumbered
urned cremations by a factor of about 3:2 (Burleigh 1993, 43). Some cremations appear to have been
performed in situ; these have been referred to as bustum types (McKinley 2000, 39), although Jake
Weekes (2005, 23) has given good reasons for regarding the Latin term used by Festus (de Verborum
Significatu xxix) as applying to any cremation pit. Several were very incomplete, with connective tissue

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(especially around the spine) surviving the cremation process; Royston Road burial 4219(4110) is the
most extreme example, with large parts of the body still articulated and much of the bone not even
scorched by the pyre (Burleigh 1993, 46). Although Jacqui McKinley has seen this as evidence for a lack
of attention by the pyre attendant or for a covering that prevented the proper combustion of the corpse, it
is also possible that it was the result of deliberate action, including the avoidance of the corpse by the
pyre attendant for superstitious reasons.

Cremation technology
Two pyre bases are known, at Wallington Road and Royston Road, whilst a pyre débris pit associated
with the Iron Age bucket burial in the California Large Enclosure was located close to it.
When an adult human body is cremated in a modern efficient crematorium it produces on average about
1600-3000 g of bone for collection. Of the 59 most completely preserved cremation burials from
Wallington Road the average weight was approximately 750 g. Some of these well preserved burials
contained very little bone, such as B137 with 108 g. In these cases there was clearly no attempt to collect
anything like a representative sample of the body. Bearing in mind the relative inefficiency of cremation
on a pyre, where a greater weight of bone might be expected to survive the process, it appears that in
many cases only a token amount of bone was collected for burial. What happened to the remainder is
unclear.
At the Royston Road cemetery, from the un-urned cremations the average weight of bone recovered was
452 g and the maximum amount was 1599 g (but it should be remembered that later ploughing had
disturbed many burials). From the urned cremations the average weight of bone was 619 g and the
maximum amount was 1419 g.
The evidence of cremated bone collected from the pyre sites suggests that they were cleared of the vast
majority of bone not collected for formal burial. Where this cleared bone was deposited is not apparent;
nothing like enough weight of bone has been found from the pits containing redeposited material to
account for the hundreds of cremations made during the existence of the cemetery.
There are a few examples from the Royston Road cemetery which demonstrate how inefficient the
cremation process on a pyre could be (and other examples were recorded from the Guilden Morden
cemetery in Cambridgeshire): Burial 4110 was an attempted cremation but much of the body, especially
the head and torso, was not consumed by the pyre, and it was buried as four articulated parts, with much
of the bone showing minimal scorching. The extremities of the body had been successfully cremated and
these were represented by poorly cremated bone in the fill of the burial pit.

Exotic rites
The re-use of graves
A phenomenon that seems not to have been extensively commented on on other sites is the re-use of
graves for secondary and even tertiary burials. Whilst there was a degree of intercutting in some of the
early inhumation cemeteries, such as Stane Street, in the late Roman cemetery at California, there are
examples of burials in coffins where the almost complete but disarticulated skeleton of an earlier
occupant have been arranged around its outside (Burleigh 1993, 48). In some instances, it may be
suspected that family relationships were involved in the decision to exhume then reinter a precious
occupant, but in many cases, there is no obvious explanation.

Identity
Archaeological theorists have recently become interested in questions of identity, following the influence
of developments in sociology and anthropology since the 1960s. Identity is often regarded as a property
of group membership (Byron 2002, 292) and much of the current debate is between interactionists, who
view identity as negotiated and interpreted, and structuralists, for whom identity is shaped by social
norms. These issues form part of a wider debate about postmodernity and the contingent nature of much
self-identification and in archaeology are related to the uses of material culture in the negotiation of
identity. Especially important in these debates are concepts of personhood and the contrast between the
individual and the dividual person. Although contemporary western society treats the person as an
individual, inhabiting a particular body with a set of definable physical and psychic attributes, this is not a
universal norm. Chris Fowler (2004, 23ff) discusses a number of anthropological examples of dividual
personhood and examines the concept of fractal personhood, which can operate in societies that treat
communities and artefacts as „persons‟. The „ritual killing‟ of pottery in some Romano-British burials, for
instance, suggests that at least some forms of material culture could be regarded as possessing
personhood.
One of the challenges for archaeology is to identify material culture correlates for those areas of
behaviour thought to be involved in the establishment of identity. Whilst recurring material culture „styles‟
were once thought to represent individual „peoples‟ (to Childe (1964, 25) they were „bands, hordes,
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troops, clans, tribes, or what you will‟), it has long been recognised that there is no simple equation
between the two (Shennan 1989, 10). The question has become one of recognising what levels of identity
are reflected in the adoption and use of material culture styles. The unusually large assemblage of burials
from Baldock therefore provides an ideal data set with which constructions of identity can be explored,
assuming that identities are somehow encoded into burial ritual, an assumption that needs to be justified.
The principal analytical tool in assessing the meaning of material culture has been to establish suites of
attributes showing variation through time and space, which have generally been given the label „style‟
(Hebdige 1979, 2; Hodder 1991, 20). Early archaeological uses of the term were vague and undefined, as
James Sackett (1977, 369) pointed out. He attempted to formulate a general model and defined style as
„(a) concern[ing] a highly specific and characteristic manner of doing something, and (b) that this manner
is always peculiar to a specific time and place‟. He saw it as the „passive voice‟ of artefact design as
opposed to function and concluded that styles define ethic groups: „pottery decoration constitutes a kind
of ethnic iconography‟ (Sackett 1977, 377, his emphasis). Sackett‟s views now appear hopelessly naïve
and his emphasis on function (specifically „proper function‟, as defined by Beth Orton (2000, 46)) as the
primary determinant of form is clearly wrong. Under the influence of structuralism and post-structuralism,
archaeologists have come to recognise that style is part of the communicative aspect of material culture.
The choices behind the use of differing styles in burial assemblages ought thus to be communicating
information about the deceased; for instance, why is burial B55 (a child buried with a bottle and a cup)
from the Wallington Road cemetery the only one in that cemetery to contain glass vessels? In particular,
why were certain burials accompanied by items that can only be regarded as antiques, such as the
second-century Dea Nutrix accompanying a fourth-century infant inhumation at Icknield Way East
(Burleigh et al. 2006)? Hella Eckardt (2004, 46) has pointed to the role of memory and forgetting in
dealing with the past; the incorporation of old objects into a grave links the dead with a more distant past,
a time of ancestors, which would be especially appropriate in the tomb of a child, who had not acquired
the complex and nuanced biography of family heirlooms.

Sex and gender

It is usual to find that identifiably male burials outnumber identifiably female burials in Romano-British
cemeteries (Davison 2000, 232; Wells 2001, 332); this is though to have a number of causes, including
modern identification bias and the preferential burial of men. However, at Baldock, identifiably female
burials outnumber male until the mid-fourth century by around 10%; after this, males are dominant. The
reasons for this are not at all obvious, but it is sufficiently different from the usual pattern to cause
comment. At present, it is not clear if it is a product of identification bias or if it reflects a genuinely ancient
phenomenon. If it is real, the question must be asked: where are the rest of the males?

Although gender has been found to be a structuring principle in Late Roman burial rites (Keegan 2002,
105f), it does not appear to have been a major element in the rites performed in Late Iron Age and
Romano-British Baldock. Whilst choices were certainly being made by the living about the type of rite,
presence of material culture, position of body and accompanying objects, the reasons for these choices
are currently opaque. The suggestion made here is that these choices involved the social networks in
which the deceased had participated whilst alive, through which they derived elements of their personal
identities. These networks formed the bases for what we today regard as subcultures.

Assessment
This report has presented summaries of the post-excavation work carried out, largely during the 1980s
and 1990s, on material excavated between 1978 and 1994 under the direction of Gil Burleigh. However, a
significant proportion of the data was not subjected to analysis, for cost reasons. In the Assessment of the
data that follows, an indication of the total material is given together with an approximation of the
proportion already examined.

Factual data
A vast quantity of data was generated by the project, which is summarised in Table 200, below. All the
material and documentation is curated by North Hertfordshire District Council Museums service and is
available for inspection by appointment. A significant proportion of the material has not yet been analysed
or quantified in any greater detail than presented here, nor has any class of material been analysed as a
single assemblage. Most of the data and finds relate to cemetery sites, but perhaps 20% derives from
non-funerary contexts.

Quantities of material
Owing to the lack of time to undertake detailed quantification, the data presented in Table 200 refers to
„boxes‟ and „lever arch files‟. The boxes are not of uniform or standard size and many are re-used
packaging boxes; some contain one large object from a single context (a pot, a skull etc.), while others
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contain numerous small bags from different contexts. The lever arch files contain A4 pro-forma sheets,
averaging 150 sheets per file, the wallet files of A4 permatrace drawings contain up to 200 drawings each
and the hanging files of slides contain up to 24 slides each. Not counted in this material are the Westell or
Stead archives, or any of the other material deriving from Baldock, including commercially funded projects
since 1994 or private archives, such as the Widger Collection, dating from the 1920s and 1930s. Some
94 collections of human bone were retained for archiving by the University of Bradford.
Material Quantity
Pottery 840 boxes
Mortaria 3 boxes
Ceramic building material 90 boxes
Animal bone 334 boxes
Human bone 397 boxes
Metalwork 135 boxes
Worked stone 152 boxes
Environmental samples 173 bags
Organic objects 18 boxes
Shell 29 boxes
Industrial residues 24 boxes
Glass 10 boxes
Miscellaneous 24 boxes
Context records 87 lever arch files
Finds records 133 lever arch files
Other paper records 116 lever arch files
Field drawings (A4) 233 wallet files
Field drawings (A3-A0) 500
Publication drawings 1000
Photographs (contact sheets) 5 lever arch files
Slides 412 hanging files
Table 200: quantities of materials (finds by box, records by file), excluding Stead‟s archive

Provenance of the material

Virtually all of the material quantified here was recovered during excavation, although some of it was
found under salvage conditions. A few metallic small finds were recovered by metal detector and a small
quantity of material and records derives from watching briefs. Most therefore comes from well stratified
contexts. Sieving was not performed systematically except on cremation burials, where the entire deposit
was wet sieved under controlled conditions.

Range and variety of materials

Most of the finds date from the Late Iron Age and Roman periods, although some sites produced small
quantities of Neolithic, Bronze Age, earlier Iron Age material and sub-Roman material. Medieval and later
finds are rare owing to the lack of occupation on most of the investigated sites after the sixth century AD.
A full range of materials is represented, the majority consisting of ceramics 9including building materials),
followed closely by bone (roughly split equally between human remains and animal bone). A large
number of metallic and other small finds were assigned catalogue numbers during the project, totalling
around 12,000 separate objects (a number of unworked flints were subsequently discarded, making
precise estimation impossible at this stage).

Condition of the material

Most of the material is not environmentally sensitive and is stored on roller racking in packaging designed
to reduce the risk of physical damage. The majority of the metalwork was conserved to archive standard
soon after excavation and is stored in environmentally controlled conditions, which should ensure its long-
term survival.

Documentary sources
Other than the „Baldock curse‟ (RIB 221), there are no contemporary documents that deal unequivocally
with the Iron Age or Romano-British settlement.

Statement of potential
Owing to the length of the project, no single Project Design was produced, although a number of
documents were prepared for each season‟s work, which it is not thought worthwhile to summarise here.
Instead, the potential of the data can be compared against the regional Research Agenda (Bryant 2000;
Going & Plouviez 2000; Wade 2000; indeed, the Baldock post-excavation programme is singled out as an
ongoing research initiative meeting two English Heritage research criteria (Brown & Glazebrook eds

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2000, 67). It is clear that the potential of the data set to contribute significantly to archaeological
understanding of the period from c 100 BC to AD 600 is enormous.
The chronology of the Late Iron Age may be enhanced in a number of ways by the Baldock data. Firstly,
the closely associated groups of material found in the high status burials found predominantly in square
enclosures may permit closer dating of typological change and innovation. Secondly, the stratified
sequence from the California doline is of immense importance, with its early radiocarbon date, a series of
artefact rich deposits and a clearly dated closure in the form of a cobbled surface. Excavation of this
feature was never completed and the possible survival of baulks containing the entire sequence means
that palaeoenvironmental sampling could still take place and be tied in to the dated stratigraphic
sequence. At the opposite end of the Roman period, the significant Late Roman to sub-Roman
cemeteries at Icknield Way East, California and the Tene have produced a large quantity of well
preserved human bone that could be dated using radiocarbon; in particular, the existence of
stratigraphically related and intercutting graves at California would permit detailed statistical analysis of
dates derived in this way.
The chronology of the settlement during the Iron Age should be assessed in relation to published and
unpublished data from the enclosures at Wilbury (Letchworth Garden City) and Arbury Banks (Ashwell),
both of which were incorporated into the earthwork systems of the developing oppidum. It will be
important to determine whether or not there was a period of overlap in the occupations of these two
classes of site and, if so, if there is evidence for interaction.
The agricultural regime of the settlement and its hinterland can be understood in part through the large
assemblage of animal bone from the site. Unlike the artefactual data, which becomes less common
during the later Roman period, there are significant assemblages of animal bones from late Roman
contexts, especially wells. Although the burials reported here were excavated before the systematic
sampling of grave fills for botanical remains became established, dietary evidence may be recovered from
isotope analysis of the human remains.
The adoption of Aylesford/Swarling and, later, of Roman burial practices is well attested at Baldock, but
there are significant differences between burial grounds. Whilst some early cremation cemeteries contain
typical Aylesford/Swarling burials (such as Icknield Way East Enclosure and the California Enclosures),
others do not (such as Yeomanry Drive North and Stane Street). Similarly, burials betraying a high level
of Roman influence at Clothall Road and, to a lesser extent, South Road and Walls Field can be
contrasted with sites such as Royston Road and Sale Drive West that appear to continue the divergent
traditions of the Late Iron Age. Detailed comparisons of burial rites, palaeodemographic data and grave
assemblages, both at an individual level and between cemeteries, could throw light on these phenomena.
At a more generalised level, an understanding of the detailed chronology of the shift from mixed rite
burials to universal inhumation in the late Roman period could throw up differences between cemeteries
that may highlight social differentiation in the town.
Other evidence for ritual in the town has been discussed in passing above and deserves further study.
The discovery of features resembling cremation burials but without cremated human bone at The Orchard
introduces a type of ritual activity that may be linked with apparently „empty‟ graves at Stane Street,
California, California Doline and Icknield Way East. Further research on similar deposits at Baldock and a
search for comparisons elsewhere is an important element in understanding these enigmatic deposits.
The presence of dogs and other fauna as apparent closing deposits in wells needs to be examined
further, in comparison with the apparent use of Celtic coins as closing deposits in Late Roman features.
The nature of ritual (especially funerary ritual) in the Late Iron Age and Roman periods could be
enhanced through detailed study of these and similar deposits.
Artefact production is suggested in the town, but not demonstrated conclusively. A number of pottery
types have been assessed as being of local origin, but whether this means in Baldock itself or in the
immediate hinterland is unclear. A supposed Roman pottery kiln at Hitchin Hill, about 8 km to the south-
west, is too poorly recorded to be of much use in understanding locally made types as it may not even be
Roman. A draft pottery form series, devised by Valerie Rigby but never published, should be revisited
with a view to updating it; this would aid understanding of local typological sequences as well as helping
to refine chronologies and understand the changing levels of importation from major external
manufacturers. Metalworking was clearly taking place in the town, as shown by the presence of
metalworking kilns and industrial residues, but it is not yet clear whether any known artefact forms were
typical products of the local smiths.
An area in which the Baldock data has enormous potential, not singled out in detail in the regional
Research Agenda is in the study of human populations. Most of the work undertaken on the skeletal and
cremated remains was done more than fifteen years ago, before methods of recording and analysis had
reached their present levels of standardisation. Furthermore, analytical techniques are now available that
either did not exist at the time of the Baldock Project or were prohibitively expensive; these include the
analysis of DNA, strontium isotopes and AMS dating. The potential to study patterns of inward migration

425
to the town, genetic relationships, date very late burials with an accuracy previously unimagined and so
on opens up the data set to numerous further avenues of exploration. Phenomena such as the
unexpectedly late survival of the settlement (or, at least, of one or more of its burial grounds) could be
understood better if a detailed chronology were available and if the relationship of the late Roman
population to that of five hundred years before could be established.

Storage and curation

As indicated above, the entire archive is stored and curated by North Hertfordshire District Council
Museums Service. Although it is for the most part stored in boxes of non-standard size, their replacement
with standard acid-free boxes is a medium term priority for the service and there is a likelihood that a new
purpose-built store will be provided within five years of the date of writing. None of the material collected
by the project, with the exception of unworked flint, is likely to be discarded in the foreseeable future.

426
Appendices
1: The North Hertfordshire Museums Pottery Fabric Series
Helen M Ashworth [1989]
For comparison purposes, reference is made to the fabric numbers used by Valerie Rigby (RF) in her
report on pottery from the 1968-72 excavations (Stead & Rigby 1986, 000).

Fabric 1 Black grog-tempered wares (= RF 1)

Sandy textured ware, with translucent and opaque quartz inclusions, grog and organic matter. Bonfire-
fired to dark grey, brown or black. Handmade vessels only. Exterior normally burnished.
Locally made.
Early to late first century BC, although continues into early first century AD.

Fabric 2 Grog-tempered wares (= RF 2)

Sandy-textured, heavily tempered with grog; also some organic inclusions. Grey or brown core – though
colour can vary from buff to black – with grey or brown surfaces. Bonfire-fired, but often with short period
of oxidation. Handmade and wheel-thrown vessels.
Fine wares and combed cooking-pots.
Locally made: probably some from the Hadham area.
Mid first century BC to mid first century AD.
2A - „grain jar‟.
2B - „finer ware‟, also with shell inclusions.

Fabric 3 Mixed grog and shelly wares (= RF 3)

Sandy textured matrix, tempered with coarse quartz sand, some grog, organic, flint or shell inclusions,
some pebble-sized. Usually oxidised to orange or orange-brown surfaces with blue or grey core. Usually
handmade and bonfire-fired. Colours range from red to grey.
Mostly cooking pots.
Late Pre-Roman Iron Age.

Fabric 4 Shelly wares (= RF 4)

Sandy-textured matrix heavily tempered with shell, up to 5mm in length. In use from the first century AD
to the fourth century. Early vessels were bonfire-fired, surfaces oxidised when fuel spent; orange-red in
first century AD; yellowish-buff or light orange in second century; later pots variegated pink/grey. Shell
temper suggests source in Lias clays of Lower Jurassic. Handmade and wheel thrown.
Basic cooking pots, storage jars, dishes and bowls.
Early versions had several sources. From the mid-second century on they became increasingly
standardised, perhaps a single large-scale regional production.
First century to fourth century AD.

Fabric 5 Yellow-buff fine sandy wares (= RF 5)

Fine sandy, micaceous wares with incidental grog and organic grits and natural clay pellets. Often with
dark grey or blue core and oxidised orange-buff surfaces. Can be totally reduced.
Used for wheel thrown copies of imported fine table wares, e.g. girth and butt beakers and platters.
Similarities with Fabric 11 suggest the Much Hadham area as the source.
Mid first century to early second century AD.

Fabric 6 Fine white sandy wares (= RF 11)

Fairly iron-free clay matrix, tempered with fine quartz sand. Occasional grog grits and clay pellets. Wheel
thrown, usually white, sometimes with smoky grey or mauve haze over exterior, or with pink tones. The
grog inclusions streak the surfaces with a burnished finish.
Used for butt beakers - Camulodunum Form 113.
Northern Gaul?
Early to mid first century AD.

Fabric 7 Fine white pipeclay wares (= RF 21)

Fine-grained iron-free white clay with occasional grog grits or iron pellets, well levigated. Also less pure,
creamier-coloured version.
Used for large flagons, Camulodunum forms 140, 161 and 163.
Northern Gaul.
427
Early to mid first century AD.

Fabric 8 Gritty-textured grog-tempered wares (= RF 8)

Sandy matrix with coarse sand tempering with additional grog temper and occasional translucent brown
quartz grits. Usually fired grey or brown, frequently with a very dark grey core; also some lighter red-
brown versions. Handmade or handmade/wheel finished vessels.
Locally made.
Mid first to early second century AD.

Fabric 9 Smooth and “pimpled” wares (= RF 17)

Fine grained matrix, tempered with varying amounts of coarse coloured sand grits, clay pellets, grog and
organic grits. When worn the surfaces are abrasive. Fired to brown or grey-brown. Wheel thrown.
Locally made.
Late first to early second century AD.

Fabric 10 Black polished ware (= RF 23)

Micaceous, fine-grained sand-tempered grey ware. Highly-polished black slip on exterior.
Gaul.
Late first century AD.

Fabric 11 Fine sand-tempered grey wares (= RF 7)

Even textured fine sand tempered micaceous ware. Usually self-coloured grey or blue-grey, more rarely
grey-black or orange. One version fired to produce dark sooty finish, similar to BB1 ware (Fabric 38). Also
various slips used to produce different colours.
A with thin white slip on exterior only.
B with dark blue micaceous slip over exterior.
C with grey black slip over whole vessel.
Used for wheel-thrown vessels, but not cooking pots.
Probably local, from the Much Hadham area.
The most common Romano-British ware.
In use from the late first to fourth century AD.

Fabric 12 Coarse sand-tempered grey and red wares (= RF 13)

Coarser version of Fabric 11. Fine micaceous sand matrix, heavily tempered with coarse sand grits and
occasionally with grog grits. Sometimes has white slip on the exterior. Usually self-coloured grey or blue-
grey, more rarely orange.
Cooking pots.
Locally made, perhaps from the Much Hadham area.
Late first to fourth century AD.

Fabric 13 Coarse-grained sandy wares (= RF 10)

Sandy textured matrix with coarse sand tempering and brown quartz grits. Occasional iron ore pellets.
Dark grey or black with orange core. Similar to Fabric 8. Probably local.
Mainly wheel thrown vessels.
Late first or early second century AD.

Fabric 14 Soapy smooth gritted wares (= RF 6)

Fine-grained smooth matrix with some coarse angular quartz tempering and varying amounts of
calcareous gritting. Rough, pimply surface when worn. Wheel thrown. Usually pale grey or buff,
occasionally black.
Bowls and jars.
Nene Valley or Highgate?
Late first to late second centuries AD.

Fabric 15 Pale sandy wares (= RF 12)

Iron-free, fine-grained matrix, tempered with black and white sand grains and coarse quartz grits. Surface
has coarse, pimply feel when worn. Dirty cream colour.
Handmade flagons and bowls.
Mid to late first century AD.

428
Fabric 16 Coarse sand-tempered wares (= RF 9)
Matrix heavily tempered with coarse sand. Ware gritty textured with coarse surfaces. Some examples
slip-covered to mask coarse tempering. Colour varies white to dirty brown to red. Wheel thrown.
Flagons, mortaria, bowls and jars.
Verulamium Region; Oxfordshire; and Nene Valley (mostly Verulamium Region).
Mid first century to late second or early third century AD.

Fabric 17 Highly-micaceous red wares (= RF 18)

Fine grained oxidised sandy ware, highly micaceous. Self-coloured and also with thick cream slip
overlying thin red under-slip over exterior.
Flagons.
Imported?
Mid first century AD.

Fabric 18 Soapy smooth wares (= RF 6)

Dense, fine-grained matrix, no coarse inclusions. Light grey or buff with glossy burnished finish. Wheel
thrown.
Decorated bowls and jars.
Nene Valley?
Late first to mid second century AD.

Fabric 19 Fine white pipeclay wares (= RF 21?)

White or cream fairly iron-free fine grained matrix, smooth in texture with occasional grog grit or iron
pellets. Similar to Fabric 7.
Flagons, decorated bowls and beakers.
Mid first to second century AD.

Fabric 20 Cream sandy wares (= RF 20)

Sand-tempered ware, finer than Fabric 16, but similar. Cream or off-white with grey or orange core.
Wheel thrown.
Flagons mainly - also necked jars and carinated bowls.
Probably from the Verulamium Region, also possibly Nene Valley and Oxfordshire potteries.
Early to mid second century AD.

Fabric 21 Sandy gritty grey ware

Sandy textured matrix, heavily tempered with translucent brown quartz grits, up to 3mm in length. Blue
grey colour.
Kitchen wares, mostly „cooking pots‟.
Possibly from the Upper Greensand.
Second century AD.

Fabric 22 Smooth oxidised ware

Fine-grained, iron-rich, smooth matrix. Tempered with mixed white calcareous and black sand grits.
Oxidised to pink or pale orange.
Flagons.
Late first to second century AD.

Fabric 23 Sandy oxidised ware

Fine-textured matrix, heavily tempered with mixed sand. Rough feel when worn. Oxidised, sometimes
with grey core. Wheel made.
Second century AD.

Fabric 24 Sandy gritty ware

Coarse-grained sandy-textured matrix, tempered with quartz grits, grog and occasional chalk pellets.
Brown or grey.
Second century AD.

Fabric 25 Fine-grained sandy gritty ware

Fine-grained grey sandy ware, tempered with chalk and flint grits.
Second century AD.

429
Fabric 26 Fine-grained micaceous sandy ware
Fine-grained micaceous sandy ware. Tempered with black sand, iron pellets and occasional quartz and
calcareous grains. Cream slip over exterior, buff fabric.
Second century AD?

Fabric 27 Smooth cream ware (= RF 24)

Fairly iron-free fine-grained dense matrix with incidental grog or clay pellets. Treated to produce a pale
buff, highly burnished finish. Painted decoration on some vessels.
Lower Nene Valley?
Decorated bowls and jars. Also flagons.
Second century AD.

Fabric 28 Sandy micaceous ware

Iron-rich, hard fine-grained sandy micaceous fabric. Tempered with rounded quartz grains, visible mica
pellets, occasional black organic flecks. Cream coloured.
Flagons ? (one sherd only).
Unknown date.

Fabric 29 Fine shelly wares (= RF 15?)

Coarse-grained micaceous sandy ware with fine shell tempering. Buff surfaces, dark inner core.
Late first or early second century AD.

Fabric 30 Fine-grained coarse sandy ware

Fine-grained dense matrix, tempered with coarse sand, crushed shell and calcareous pellets. Gritty feel
when worn.
One sherd only.

Fabric 31 Very coarse sandy ware

Densely-gritted fabric. Fine, hard matrix heavily tempered with small, sub-angular quartz grains, up to
0.15 mm across. Sand-paper feel. Coarser than Fabric 16. Interior surface pink, dark grey core and
external surface.
Source unknown.
Sherds only.
Date unknown.

Fabric 32 Smooth black ware

Iron-rich fine smooth matrix, virtually no grain visible, with small opaque quartz grains. Black surfaces,
grey core.
Second century AD?

Fabric 33 Fine-grained sandy ware

Fine-grained sandy texture with occasional grog and quartz grits.
Probably imported from Gaul.

Fabric 34 Coarse sandy brown ware

Coarse-grained sandy matrix, heavily tempered with chalk or limestone lumps up to c 3 mm in length.
Occasional black organic and translucent quartz grits. Brown surface, grey core.
Traded piece.

Fabric 35 Sandy mixed-tempered ware

Sandy textured ware, with mixed tempering of white shell, grog and translucent quartz grits.

Fabric 36 Fine-grained gritty brown ware

Fine grained ware, heavily tempered with translucent brown quartz grits. Brown with grey/brown core.
Coarse tempering gives gritty feel. Can also be oxidised.

Fabric 37 Sandy-textured painted wares (= RF 16)

Coarse-grained, iron-rich sandy-textured ware, with thin matt brown slip and painted. Oxidised.
Source unknown.
Late first century onwards.

430
Fabric 38 Black-burnished ware, type 1 (= RF 19)
Typical BB1 ware from Dorset.

Fabric 39 Black-burnished ware, type 2

Fine-grained micaceous, powdery textured ware. Ochre core and dark grey surfaces, similar to Black
Burnished Ware type 2. Also sandy-textured ware, fired to a BB2 type finish. Both confined to the Black
Burnished Ware type 2 range of forms.
Locally made, or Colchester.
Mid second to fourth century AD.

Fabric 40 Fine-grained black ware

Fine-grained evenly textured sandy ware, no coarse inclusions. Fired to a brown core with black surfaces.
Locally made. Colchester?
Early second to third century AD.

Fabric 41 Sandy-textured burnished ware

Sandy textured ware with additional grog grits. Burnished grey finish, like BB2 (Fabric 39).
Mid second to fifth century AD.

Fabric 42 Sandy-textured „Romano-Saxon‟ ware

Sandy-textured matrix, heavily tempered with small quartz grits and incidental clay pellets. Brown or buff.
Decoration of incised diagonal lines, similar in style to „Romano-Saxon‟.
Late Roman or Sub-Roman.

Fabric 43 Grog-tempered cream wares (= RF 25)

Dense, fine-grained matrix, heavily tempered with grog and fine shell and often covered by a slip. Cream
or orange coloured ware, with grey or orange core.
Possibly from the Upper Nene Valley.
Mid second to fourth century AD.

Fabric 44 Fine-textured matt-slipped ware

Fine textured matrix with natural clay pellets. Thick matt slip on exterior.

Fabric 45 Lower Nene Valley parchment wares

Parchment Wares from the Lower Nene Valley. Black ironstone trituration grits. For definition and
discussion see Howe et al. (1981).
Third to fourth centuries AD.

Fabric 46 Oxfordshire parchment wares

Parchment Wares from Oxfordshire potteries (Young 1977).
Late second to fifth century AD.

Fabric 47 Oxfordshire oxidised ware

Oxfordshire oxidised ware, Fabrics 1 and 2 (Young 1977).
47A Oxfordshire oxidised ware fabric 1.
Late second to fourth centuries AD.
47B Oxfordshire oxidised ware fabric 2.

Fabric 48 Colchester „Romano-Saxon‟ wares (= RF 22)

Fine-grained matrix, heavily tempered with coarse sand which feels rough when worn. „Roman-Saxon‟
ware.
Perhaps from the Colchester region.
Fourth century AD.

Fabric 49 Much Hadham „Romano-Saxon‟ wares

Oxidised, fine-grained micaceous fabric, similar to Fabric 11.
Much Hadham.
Fourth and fifth centuries AD.
A Self-coloured polished finish.
B Darker-firing slip with highly-polished finish.

431
Fabric 50 Quartz-tempered sub-Roman ware
Coarse sandy-textured ware, heavily tempered with quartz grits up to 1 mm in length, resulting in a rough
feel. Grey throughout. Wiped interior. Hand-made?
One sherd only.
Sub-Roman?

Fabric 51 Mixed-tempered burnished ware

Coarse sandy micaceous ware with mixed tempering of quartz, grog, crushed shell and chalk grits.
Bonfire-fired to black or red. Exterior surface burnished. Hand-made.
Sub-Roman?

Fabric 52 Vegetable-tempered burnished ware

Sandy-textured ware, tempered with quartz and organic material. Oxidised. Exterior has burnished band.
Hand-made and possibly wheel finished.
Sub-Roman?

Fabric 53 Vegetable-tempered ware

Coarse grained matrix, tempered with quartz and organic material. Exterior light brown, interior and core
grey. Equivalent to Bedford Fabric A1.
Sixth century AD.

Fabric 54 Micaceous sub-Roman ware

Micaceous fine-grained matrix with mixed tempering of grog, crushed shell and organic material. Similar
to Fabric 11. Grey. Probably hand-made.
One sherd only.
Sub-Roman?

Fabric 55 Yellow gritty ware (= RF 29)

Dense fine fabric, tempered with coarse sand. Soft and easily abraded. Oxidised to yellowish buff with
grey core. Grits protrude when worn.

Fabric 56 Mixed-tempered sub-Roman ware

Coarse sandy matrix, heavily tempered with quartz grits, calcareous material and flint chips. Dirty grey
colour. Hand-made and very poor.
Sixth century AD?

Fabric 57 Green-glazed ware

Fine-grained sandy ware. Oxidised, with grey core. Thin, crackled green glaze over vessel, white lip
under glaze on exterior.

Fabric 58 Brown-glazed ware

Fine-grained, iron-rich, sandy-textured ware. Oxidised. Thick brown glaze over entire vessel, tending to
greenish shade in patches.
Used for Samian copies.
South-East England and East Anglia.
Second century AD (?)

Fabric 59 Brown-glazed white-slipped ware

Iron-rich fine-grained micaceous ware with coarse, coloured sand tempering. Fabric oxidised. Brown
glaze, with white slip decoration under glaze. Also a version covered in highly micaceous cream slip over
entire vessel.

Fabric 60 St Rémy ware

Fine-grained, sandy matrix, tempered with small (crushed?) quartz grains. Hard fired. Grey core, brown
surfaces. Black slip on exterior and en barbotine decoration.
Imported, perhaps from Trier (Greene in Arthur & Marsh 1978).

Fabric 61 Oxfordshire fine white ware

See Young (1977, 93).

432
Fabric 62 Mica-coated ware
Sandy micaceous ware with mixed tempering of white sand and coloured quartz grits. Oxidised. Mica-
dusted on exterior.
Imported. Similar to Samian?

Fabric 63 Mica-coated sandy-textured ware (= RF 28)

Sandy textured ware, tempered with translucent brown quartz grits. Oxidised with a grey core. Mica
coating on rim and exterior only.
Beakers, dishes and bowls.
South-eastern Britain?
First to third centuries AD.

Fabric 64 Coarse mica-coated sandy-textured ware

Sandy textured ware, similar to Fabric 63. Rough and uneven finish on exterior. Mica coating on rim and
exterior.
Late first to second century AD.

Fabric 65 Mica-coated even-textured sandy ware (= RF 27)

Micaceous sandy ware, similar to Fabric 11 with clay pellets up to 3 mm in length and occasional rock
fragments. Mica coating confined to rim and upper shoulder.
Central Gaul.

Fabric 66 Mica-coated fine-grained ware

Iron-rich, fine-grained ware, thick mica coating covers entire vessel.
First to early third century AD.

Fabric 67 Mancetter-Hartshill parchment wares

Mixed red and black grog trituration grits. Finer and with a distinct spiral pattern after AD c 240.
Mortaria.
Mancetter-Hartshill.
Mid second to third century AD.

Fabric 68 Colchester parchment wares

Mortaria.
Colchester.
Mid to late second century AD.

Fabric 69 Slipped oxidised mortaria

Evenly-textured ware, heavily tempered with coloured sand and white calcareous grits. When worn grits
give sand-papery feel. Oxidised to buff. Thin white slip to mask some of tempering.
Mortaria.
Source unknown.

Fabric 70 Ironstone-gritted mortaria

Sandy textured ware, brown and often covered with a cream slip. Black ironstone trituration grits.
Mid second to third century AD.

Fabric 71 Grey-and-white gritted mortaria

Sandy-textured ware. White and grey trituration grits.
Locally made?
Late second to early third century AD?

Fabric 72 Sand-tempered mortaria

Sandy ware, heavily tempered with coarse sand, similar to Fabric 16.
Verulamium region?

Fabric 73 Iron-rich mortaria

Iron-rich, coarse sandy ware. Cream, with grey core. Similar to Fabric 20.
Verulamium region?

433
Fabric 74 Sandy even-textured mortaria
Sandy ware, evenly textured. Cream. Grey and white trituration grits.
Probably south-eastern Britain or Northern Gaul.
Mid first to early second century AD.

Fabric 75 Coarse black mortaria

Sandy ware, heavily tempered with quartz grits. Feels coarse and gritty. Black. Handmade and bonfire
fired.

Fabric CC1
Iron-free fine-grained powdery ware; metallic slip in varying shades of brown. Fine sand rough-casting
inside, below the slip; rough-cast or en barbotine decoration outside.
Central Gaul.
First century AD.

Fabric CC2
Iron-free fine-grained dense ware, usually white in colour; thick good-quality metallic green or brown slip.
Central Gaul or Rhineland.
Second to third century AD.

Fabric CC3
Varies from fairly iron-free cream to iron-rich orange or grey wares; slip varies from orange to dark brown.
The commonest colour-coated fabric in the third and fourth centuries at Baldock.
Lower Nene Valley potteries.
Late second to fifth century AD.

Fabric CC4
Iron-rich fine-grained sandy matrix; metallic slip in varying shades of brown or bluish grey.
Possibly East Gaulish.
Late second to fourth century AD.

Fabric CC5
Iron-rich fine-grained sandy matrix; variable slip in colour and quality.
Colchester.
Second to fourth century AD.

Fabric CC6
Iron-rich fine-grained smooth dense matrix, resembling Central Gaulish samian in colour and texture;
thick metallic brownish-black slip.
Central Gaul, probably Lezoux.
Second to third century AD.

Fabric CC7
Iron-free sandy matrix; metallic slip on exterior only.
Rhineland.
Third century AD.

Fabric CC8 Oxfordshire red-slipped ware

Iron-rich, fine-grained matrix; brown slip, varying in tone. Oxidised.
Oxfordshire.
Third to fifth century AD.

Fabric CC9 Oxfordshire red-slipped ware

Iron-rich highly micaceous fine-grained matrix; oxidised, usually with a buff or khaki core; micaceous red
slip.
Oxfordshire.
Third to fifth century AD.

Fabric CC10 Oxfordshire red-slipped ware

Iron-rich, fine-grained matrix; frequently has blue-grey core; red slip.
Oxfordshire.

434
Third to early fifth century AD.

Fabric CC11 Oxfordshire white-slipped ware

Iron-rich, fine-grained matrix with a thin white slip, oxidised; but frequently with grey core.
Oxfordshire.
Third to fourth century AD.

Fabric CC12
Iron-rich sandy-textured matrix; oxidised, frequently with grey core; brownish red slip, sometimes slightly
metallic. Probably an imitation of Oxfordshire red-slipped wares (CC8-CC10), in a similar range of forms.
Similar to Fabric 49.
Much Hadham area?
Third to fifth century AD.

Fabric CC13
Iron-rich sandy-textured matrix; oxidised, frequently with grey core; white slip. Probably an imitation of
Oxfordshire white-slipped ware (CC11).
Locally made.
Third to fourth century AD.

Fabric CC14
Iron-rich micaceous matrix, very similar to Fabric 11; dark red haematite slip.
Central Gaul?
Third to fourth century AD?

2: Storage and curation of the archive

Most of the finds and records from fieldwork at Baldock are in the care of North Hertfordshire District
Council Museums Service and are kept in the archaeological stores (currently at the Museums Resource
Centre, Burymead Road, HITCHIN, Herts SG5 1RT). The archive can be consulted by prior appointment
with the Archaeology Officer at the above address. A few objects are displayed at Letchworth Museum
and Art Gallery (Broadway, LETCHWORTH GARDEN CITY, Herts SG6 3PF).
Currently, the finds are stored in boxes of varying sizes, sorted by site and context, on roller racking. In
the medium term, it is hoped that they can be re-boxed and sorted by material, dependent on funding and
the likelihood that new storage facilities will be developed by 2010.

Introduction to the catalogue

The catalogue contained on the DVD-ROM is divided into four parts: Catalogues, Documents, Images
and Data. The data is accessed by means of a browser and is designed to work across operating
systems and to meet WWW Consortium standards (as outlined on the Consortium website at
http://www.w3.org/). To open the front page of disk, place it in a computer DVD drive, start an appropriate
graphical browser and open file X:/index.html (where X: is the identifying letter of the DVD drive in use).
This will display a screen resembling Figure 000. All the remaining data on the disk can then be accessed
by clicking on the links in the left hand panel.
Figure 95: The “front page” of the DVD-ROM
Some of the files on the DVD-ROM are html,
compiled by Keith Fitzpatrick-Matthews from the
original word processor files written in a variety of
word processor packages (including LocoScript,
WordStar and Microsoft Word); they are
accompanied by jpg illustrations at a resolution of
96 dpi, suitable for the standard computer screen
but not for printing. Other files are Adobe pdf files
and require Adobe Acrobat to read; these retain
the layout and pagination of the originals; a
number of these files were provided by The
Heritage Network and detail commercial projects
undertaken by the organisation; for the most part,
they do not relate to the Baldock Project carried
out by Gil Burleigh.

435
The DVD-ROM as a research tool
Publication of some of the elements of the data generated by the Baldock Project on DVD-ROM has been
rendered necessary by the sheer quantity of data. For economies of space (and, consequently, of cost), a
decision was made early in the current publication design not to include detailed descriptions of individual
graves in this volume. This would have resulted in a book three to four times as long as the current report.
Instead, it was envisaged that data would be presented in a format that would allow querying by a
Geographical Information System. Because of incompatibilities between program specific file types, the
data have been placed in standard formats that can be read by different GIS programs, by database
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As indicated, the data are divided into four categories: Catalogues, Documents, Images and Data. The
catalogues contain detailed word processed descriptions of burials in individual cemeteries. They are
available as pdf files and can be read by Adobe Acrobat. Documents consists of reports compiled
originally for purposes other than this report, including interim reports, „grey literature‟ and unpublished
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$.

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