DESIGN OPTIMIZATION AND PERFORMANCE

EVALUATION OF GRID CONNECTED SOLAR

PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS

Bilal Shabbir
(MUST/FA16-MPE-006/AJK)

Session 2016-2018

Department of Electrical Engineering

Faculty of Engineering

Mirpur University of Science and Technology (MUST), Mirpur

AJK Pakistan

1
DESIGN OPTIMIZATION AND PERFORMANCE
EVALUATION OF GRID CONNECTED SOLAR
PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS

By

Bilal Shabbir

(MUST/FA16-MPE-006/AJK)

A thesis is submitted in partial fulfillment of

the requirement for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

In

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Session 2016-2018

Department of Electrical Engineering

Faculty of Engineering

Mirpur University of Science and Technology (MUST), Mirpur

(AJK) Pakistan
 CERTIFICATION

I hereby undertake that this research is an original one and no part of this thesis
falls under plagiarism. If found otherwise, at any stage, I will be responsible for the
consequences.

Student’s Name: Bilal Shabbir Signature: __________

Registration No.: MUST/FA16-MPE-006/AJK Date:______________

Certified that the contents and form of thesis entitled “Design Optimization and
Performance Evaluation of Grid Connected Solar Photovoltaic Systems”
submitted by “Bilal Shabbir” have been found satisfactory for the requirement of
the degree.

Supervisor: ____________________________

Co-Supervisor: _________________________

External Examiner: _____________________

Chairperson: _____________________

Dean: ___________________________

Director Advance Studies & Research Board: ___________________

 Dedication
(Heading font 14, TNR, Bold with first letter capital)

Text
(TNR)
CONTENT PN

CHAPTER 01
INTRODUCTION
1.1 SOLAR CELL OPERATING PRINCIPLE
1.2 VOC, ISC AND MPP
1.3 GENERAL REVIEW OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
1.4 PAKISAN’S ENERGY POTENTIAL
1.5 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT
1.6 RENEWABLE ENERGY TREND IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES
1.7 CONCLUSION

CHAPTER 02
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 ON-GRID SOLAR PV SYSTEMS IN PAKISTAN
2.2 ON-GRID AND OFF GRID SOLAR PV SYSTEMS
2.3 SOLAR RADIATION INTENSITY IN PAKISTAN
2.4 TILT ANGLE THEORIES
2.5 BEAM DIFFUSE AND REFLECTED RADIATION
2.6 MEASUREMENT OF DURATION OF SUNSHINE
2.7 OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUE FOR ON-GRID PV SYSTEM
2.7.1 NUMERICAL METHOD
2.7.2 COMPUTER AIDED METHOD
2.7.3 PARTICLE SWARM OPTIMISATION
2.8 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING (MPPT)
2.9 TECHNIQUES TO FIND MAXIMUM POWER POINT
2.9.1 INCREMENTAL CONDUCTANCE
2.9.2 PERTURB AND OBSERVE
2.9.3 FUZZY LOGIC CONTROL
2.10 PV SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
2.10.1 CENTRAL INVERTER
2.10.2 STRING INVERTER
2.11 NET METERING
2.11.1 NET METERING VARIATIONS
2.12 INSTALLATION LOCATIONS OF PV
2.13 CONCLUSION

CHAPTER 03
SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
3.1 LOAD PROFILE
3.2 GRID CONNECTION
3.3 INVERTER
3.4 PV MODULE
3.5 PV STRING SIZE CALCULATION
3.5.1 MINIMUM STRING SIZE
3.5.2 MAXIMUM STRING SIZE
3.6 CONCLUSION

CHAPTER 04
DISCUSSION AND RESULTS
4.1 SPACING BETWEEN ROWS
4.2 SOLAR RADIATION ON THE PLAN OF THE ARRAY
4.2.1 ISOTROPIC DIFFUSE MODEL
4.2.2 HDKR MODEL
4.3 SYSTEM COST ANALYSIS
4.4 METHOD FOR COST ANALYSIS
4.4.1 NET PRESENT COST
4.4.2 TOTAL ANNUALISED COST
4.4.3 CAPTIAL RECOVERY FACTOR (CRF)
4.4.4 COST OF ENERGY
4.5 SIMULATION SOFTWARE
4.6 OPTIMIZATION RESULTS
4.7 SYSTEM BALANCES
4.8 LOSSES
4.9 ENERGY USE
4.10 NORMALIZE PERFORMANCE COEFFICIENTS
4.11 Iso-SHADING CURVE
4.12 TECHNICAL INVESTIGATION
4.13 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
4.14 ENVIORNMENTAL ANALYSIS
4.15 EMISSION OF GREENHOUSE GASSES DURING
MANUFACTURING OF SOLAR PANELS AND WIND TURBINES
4.16 RESIDENTIAL SOLAR SYSTEM PAYBACK PERIOD

CHAPTER 05
FUTURE PROSPECTS
5.1 POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS
5.2 INCENTIVE AND FRAMEWORK
5.2.1 FINANCIAL INCENTIVE SCHEME & REGULA FRAMEWORK
5.2.2 REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR PV GRID INTEGRATION
5.3 MARKET TRANSFORMATION
5.3.1 GLOBALLY ACCEPTED STANDARDS AND CODES
5.3.2 PROMOTE NEW INVESTMENT AND BUSINESS MODELS
5.3.3 SKILLED PV WORKFORCE
5.4 DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNOLOGY AND R&D
5.4.1 ASSURED LONG-TERM R&D FUNDING
5.4.2 DEVELOP SMART GRIDS & ENERGY STORAGE TECH
0
 REFERENCES

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. Page No.
No table of figures entries found.
LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Page No.

3.1 Spectroscopic data of Ca used in the Boltzmann plot for leaf 25
 COPY RIGHTS ( 16 BOLD,TR)

(ADD THIS PAGE, IF YOU HAVE ORGINAL RESEARCH

DATA WHICH HAVE NOT BEEN YET PUBLISHED)

THE DATA AND RESULTS REPORTED IN THE TEHSIS HAS NOT BEEN
PUBLSIHED OR SHARED YET AND PROTECTED BY COPY RIGHTS
OWNED BY UNIVERSITY AND PROHABITED TO USE FOR ANY
PRUPOSE WITHOUT PERMISSION.
 Acknowledgments

Foremost, I would like to express sincere gratitude to my advisor Dr. Muhammad

Ilyas Minhas for the continuous support during my research. His guidance helped
me a lot during the time of research and writing of this thesis. I would also like to
thank my family for supporting me throughout my career.
 NOMENCLATURE

β Tilt Angle
Kᴛ Hourly Clearness index
ρ ground reflectance
f Modulating Factor
beamradiation on a tilted surface
Rв Geometric Factor = beamradiation onthe horizontal surface

γ Surface Azimuth
γs Solar Azimuth
Gc Total Radiation Received on a Horizontal Surface
Tʙ Atmospheric Transmittance for Beam Radiation
Tᴅ Ratio of Diffuse Radiation to the Extraterrestrial
(Beam)
Radiation on the Horizontal Plane
A Altitude of Observer in Kilometers
I Hourly Total Radiation on a Horizontal Surface
H Daily Total Radiation on a Horizontal Surfaces
Ho Daily Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation
Iʙ Diffuse Solar Radiation
Iᴅ Beam Solar Radiation
Io Hourly Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation
Iʜ Hourly Global Radiation
Ĥo Monthly Average Daily Extraterrestrial Radiation
Ĥ Monthly Average Daily Radiation
Iᴛ Total Solar Radiation on a Tilled Surface

ABSTRACT

This research inspects the viability of installing a 25-kW grid connected solar
photovoltaic system for supplying the energy need of households in the
Islamabad the capital city of Pakistan. Solar radiation model is examined by
anisotropic or Hay, Davies, Klucher, Reindl model, optimum tilt angle of the
solar PV array has been calculated for summer and winter adjustment. And then
system performance will be evaluated in terms of designing criteria, losses,
economics and environmental aspects (GHG emission) through simulation
software PVsyst.
Tilt angle significantly effects the power output of solar PV system. For winter
the optimum tilt angle comes out to be 60 degree, similarly for summer it’s 12
degree. To avoid self-shading 4.32 meters of array spacing is computed. Several
power losses and Performance ratio is also calculated. Simulation result shows
that by using 72 modules of Trina solar 340 kWp (18 in series & 4 strings) with
the combination of 4 MPPT 30 kW ABB inverter 37.5 MWh/year of energy is
generated. Performance ratio comes out to be 76.5%. Array and system losses
are estimated around 1.21 kWh/kWp/day and 0.09kWh/kWp/day. Estimated
energy cost is USD 0.10/kWh. The proposed system will also be avoiding
189.716 tons of CO2 along with other flue gasses to enter in the atmosphere. .
Payback period is calculated to be 10 years.
 Chapter 01
INTRODUCTION

Power plants consuming fossil fuels for their operation are the main cause of the
emission of carbon contents which is disturbing the environment of the earth.
Carbon dioxide emitted by these plants is responsible for trapping excess heat in
the atmosphere. This is resulting in the increase in the average temperature of earth,
which is responsible for climate change. While on the other hand, there is a
continuous increase in the energy consumption which results in the depletion of
fossil fuel reserves. Thus, there are two main causes of paradigm shift towards
Green Energy. The only way to coup these problems is to generate electricity via
Renewable Energy Resources [1]. The fast depleting conventional sources of
energy and continuously increasing demand of alternative sources of energy
encourages towards the development of Solar Photovoltaic systems. The efficiency
and performance of solar Photovoltaic systems particularly depends on the
operating conditions on solar irradiance, partial shading, temperature, partial
shading, aging [2]

1.1 SOLAR CELL OPERATING PRINCIPLE

Solar cells are the basic components of PV panels. Most are made from silicon
even though other materials are also used. Solar cells take advantage of the
photoelectric effect: the ability of some [3]
A photovoltaic (PV) cell, also known as solar cell, is a semiconductor device that
generates electricity when exposed to light. When light strikes a PV cell, photons
displace the electrons from the atoms of the cell. Free electrons move through the
cell creating and filling holes in the cell. This electron and hole movement is the
cause of electricity generation. The physical process by which a PV cell converts
light into electricity is known as the photovoltaic effect [4]
A solar cell is basically a p-n junction which is made from two different layers of
silicon doped with a small quantity of impurity atoms: in the case of the n-layer,
atoms with one more valence electron, called donors, and in the case of the p-layer,
with one less valence electron, known as acceptors. When the two layers are joined
together, near the interface the free electrons of the n-layer are diffused in the p-
side, leaving behind an area positively charged by the donors. Similarly, the free
holes in the p-layer are diffused in the n-side, leaving behind a region negatively
charged by the acceptors. This creates an electrical field between the two sides that
is a potential barrier to further flow. The equilibrium is reached in the junction
when the electrons and holes cannot surpass that potential barrier and consequently
they cannot move. This electric field pulls the electrons and holes in opposite
directions, so the current can flow in one way only: electrons can move from the p-
side to the n-side and the
holes in the opposite direction [3]. A diagram of the p-n junction showing the effect
of the mentioned electric field is illustrated in Figure 1.1
PHOTONS

N-LAYER

P-LAYER

Figure 1.1 solar cell

Table 1.1 A COMPARISON OF PV MATERIAL

Crystalline Thin films

Material
Single Si Poly Si GaAs a-Si CdTe CuInS2

Absorption Low Low Medium High High High

Efficiency
Conversion 15-20% 10-14 % 25-30% 5-9% 7% 18%
Efficiency
Cost Low Low High Medium Medium High
1.2 VOC, ISC AND MPP
Two important points of the current-voltage characteristic must be pointed out:
the open circuit voltage VOC and the short circuit current ISC. At both points the
power generated is zero. The short circuit current ISC is the current at V = 0 and is
approximately equal to the light generated current I˪ [3].

AkT I˪ (1.1)
Voc=
q
ln
I₀(+1 )
Isc=I ˪ (1.2)

The maximum power is generated by the solar cell at a point of the current-voltage
characteristic where the product VI is maximum. This point is known as the MPP
and is unique, as can be seen in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2 Important points in the characteristic curves of a solar panel [3]

1.3 GENERAL REVIEW OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS

Energy consumption is an index of industrial economy and prosperity of the
people in a country because energy is an important factor for almost all human
activities and developments. Due to increasing global population and materialistic
lifestyles of the people, the energy resources are depleting rapidly. Furthermore,
the increasing consumption of energy across the globe has adverse effect and
implication on the environment and ecosystem of the earth. The usage of fossil
fuels for energy generation is the major causes of environmental degradation. The
increasing consumption and demand for energy shows that energy will be one of
the major future problems of the world.
Globally electricity systems are changing. World electricity demand is increasing,
environmental condition and climate change has become alarming. So, the focus
now is on the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by shifting towards
decarbonized electricity system by the utilization of
vast amount of renewable energy resources mainly delivered by solar photovoltaic
(SPV). Solar PV renewable technology has the potential to meet the power demand
by producing clean affordable and reliable electricity. Worldwide governments are
encouraging on a large to small scale for the development of Solar PV system.
There are dozens of companies globally who are manufacturing PV panels/modules
with different efficiencies and limitations with varying installation costs depending
upon the project. Every year, worlds electricity consumption is growing, and
numerous technologies are used to meet that demand. Solar PV an emerging
technology is growing swiftly and is becoming key player within the mainstream
power system. Every year several developed countries like China, Japan, Germany,
USA and UK are installing impressive amount of Solar PV plants which
demonstrates its importance.
Solar energy can be directly converted into electric power through PV panels, and
the tilt angel of PV panel significantly affects the power output. Therefore, many
researches in the past decades focused on the algorithm optimization of tilt angle to
maximize PV generation. Generally, the optimal tilt angle varies with several
conditions such as the utilization period, geographic latitude, climate, surroundings
and other atmospheric factors [5]

1.4 PAKISAN’S ENERGY POTENTIAL

The renewable energy future prospects are encouraging in Pakistan with a total
renewable energy potential of about 167.7 GW which is more than enough to meet
the total electricity demand of the country. The diversification of existing energy
resources and exploration of new sources is an important aspect to be considered in
order to have a sustainable power development and its implementation in the
country. This vast clean and reliable potential of renewable source of energy needs
be utilized to overcome the energy shortage which has not been exploited properly
due to lack of policies and infrastructure [6]. Pakistan has potential of producing
92% of its electricity requirements from solar energy, at a rate that’s amongst the
highest in the world. Solar PV plants can produce 58.1% of electricity production.
Pakistan’s co-ordinates lie in seasonal climatic regions especially in monsoon
climatic region. This climatic region has cloudy months June, July and august that
affects the solar irradiations to reach to earth surface. Pakistan’s co-ordinates
having more than 300 clear days in a year. Pakistan has a potential of 2.334 million
MW of electricity per year through photovoltaic and solar thermal system [7]
Solar Photovoltaic Systems operate in grid connected and stand-alone modes. Grid
connection is important as solar irradiance varies throughout the day and power is
not continues in order to meet different loads. If power produced from SPV
systems is more than required load surplus power through net metering system will
be sold out to grid. Across all the coordinates of Pakistan solar energy is in plenty
amount which is rightly seen as decisive sources to tap. Also, there is no negative
impact of solar energy on climate change and the atmospheric contamination. Over
the years several states run organization in our country introduced numerous
projects of solar energy at different utilization modes but still couldn’t achieve
notable contribution.

1.5 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

The purpose of my research is to design an optimal 25 kw grid connected solar
photovoltaic system, then simulates its viability for the residential customers
having in Islamabad the capital city of Pakistan and evaluate it in aspects of
designing criteria, environment, economics and losses that could occur in order to
meet the energy requirement. The decisive variables involved in optimization
process are; optimal number of PV modules/inverters and their types, optimal tilt
angle/arrangement of the PV modules within the available installation area and
their optimal distribution among the DC/AC converters (inverters). In this paper
simulation of grid connected solar photovoltaic system is done using software
PVsyst. PVsyst can simulate stand alone, grid connected photovoltaic systems and
has the near to accurate tendency to evaluate system performance based on
different designing criteria. Because meteorological department only records the
solar radiation on a horizontal surface and the pattern of weather has difference in
winter summer and rainy season respectively normally that is why it is necessary to
calculate the solar radiation on a surface inclined with some tilt and for that
purpose to accomplish the task Solar radiation model is examined by analyzing
isotropic diffuse and anisotropic or Hay, Davies, Klucher, Reindl model, optimum
tilt angle of the solar PV array has been calculated for summer and winter
adjustment.

Figure 1.3 Site Location with coordinates 33.6977641,73.0489305

Load dispatch strategy will be such that it ensures the energy supplied on cheaper
rates. By using the grid facility on monthly net metering basis, high demand of
energy can easily be catered when the generation of the designed plant will not be
enough. Therefore, in this research work i will model an on-grid solar photovoltaic
system to cater the load demand. On-grid solar photovoltaic system block diagram
is shown in figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4 On-grid solar photovoltaic System Block Diagram

For the seasonal tilt adjustment procedure summer and winter tilt is needed along
with azimuth angle.
Total radiation on a tilted surface has following components:
 Beam radiation
 Diffuse radiation components from the sky
 Reflected radiation from the ground reached on the tilted surface

1.6 RENEWABLE ENERGY TREND IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

Worldwide in 2015, total renewable energy installed was more than half of the
all new installed electricity capacity and in 2016, based on REN21’s report in
Figure 1.1 [8]. Almost 20% of human’s global consumption of energy was
contributed by renewable and this share increases in 2017 too.

Figure 1.4 Renewable Energy Share in Final Energy Consumption

Similarly, country wise generation of electricity via renewable energy is presented

in Figure 1.2
 ‘
Figure 1.5 Renewable power capacities in world

The renewable energy ongoing growth along with its geographical expansion is
because of the continuous decline in the renewable energy technologies cost, solar
and wind in particular. Solar PV and On Shore wind power plants are now the
competitors of new fossil fuel plants due to decline in its component prices and
increased efficiency. Cost of off-shore wind plants also decreased significantly.
Weighted average LCOE was USD 0.05 /kWh globally from new hydroelectric
projects in 2017. Similarly, it was USD 0.06/kWh for onshore wind and for
geothermal and bioenergy plants, it was 0.07/kWh. Similarly, in 2017 new
commissioned projects globally weighted LCOE of solar energy has fallen to 73%,
to USD 0.10/kWh [9]

Figure 1.6 Solar PV Cell Price Trend

It is observed that, for decades, the prices of solar modules have decreased
significantly. The decline in prices has been due to the factors such as (a)
innovations in material technology, (b) increases in the amount of production, (c)
improvements in the efficiency by innovative technology, (d) increasing lifespan of
PV system and (e) favorable policies for solar technology (Greenpeace
International, 2011). From figure 1.6 shown it can be noticed that the price of PV
cells has drastically reduced from £15.18/W (23 USD/W) in 1980 to £0.79/W (1.2
USD/W) in 2014, and in June 2015, it has reached to £0.20/W (0.30 USD/W),
which is more than 75 times, in almost 35 years.
A complete PV system combines PV modules with set of additional application
dependent system components like mounting structure, inverter, charge controller,
electrical components, etc. which are known as BOS to form a complete PV
system. Similarly, like PV modules and BOS components are also decreasing and
its trend can be seen from an example of USA market. There are several reasons to
take USA as an example such as government investment, market diversity, climate
diversity and high labor cost. Figure 1.7 shows the BOS system cost from 2010 to
2013 for 10 MW fixed tilt blended c-Si projects. It is seen that BOS cost is almost
reduced by 20 times since 1980 and is approximately declined by £0.18/W (0.29
USD/W) from 2010 to 2013.

Figure 1.7 BOS Price Trend

According to Greentech Media (GTM) Research report Solar PV BOS Market:

Technologies, Cost and leading companies, 2013–2016, in 2011, the ratio of BOS
to module was 68:32 and in the year 2012, it reached sharply to 50:50 which
clearly indicated that not only the price of modules is decreasing but BOS cost is
also rapidly decreasing. This significant fall in both module price and BOS price
has gained much attention of investors and, as a result, there are several new
projects building all over the world [10]

1.7 CONCLUSION
In a nutshell, On-Grid Connected Photovoltaic System is a cheap and clean
source of renewable resource and it is of such nature that generation of electricity
through this source will not only decrease the load shedding dilemma of Pakistan
but also helps the economy and industry of Pakistan to rise up. As the
environmental impacts of On-Grid Connected Photovoltaic System are also far
better than environmental impacts of electricity produce by fossil fuel plants, so
this system will also save environment by avoiding harmful gasses entering into
the atmosphere.
 Chapter 02
LITERATURE REVIEW

According to Global Climate Risk Index 2018 release by public policy group
Germanwatch, Pakistan is among 10 countries affected most by climate change.
With the growing industrialization and population, Pakistan may quadruple its
emission in the next decade. Hence it is very important for the government to focus
on resources of renewable energy for the future energy resource planning in the
country [11].
Electricity peak demand of Pakistan in 2016 was about 33 GW and the generation
were almost 24 GW which is 30% less than the total demand. Afterward generation
capacity of the country is set to increase to 59 GW between 2018-2022. Mostly
new electricity generation plants would base on coal, natural gas and hydroelectric
energy. Contribution of wind and solar will be 5% and 3% respectively. Electricity
peak demand is expected to increase to 113 GW by 2030 because of growing
industrialization and population according to government’s calculation. Because of
international agreements like COP21, it’s not allowed for any country to keep
generating power from sources of fossil fuel following the year 2022 to meet its
energy requirements. Fossil fuel generation sources not only are detrimental for the
environment but also increases the fuel import bill to excessive amounts as many
fuel types like coal, oil and natural gas are to be imported [12].
 Figure 2.1 Pakistan’s Estimated Different sources of Renewable Energy potential for
electricity production, 2010–2050 [7]

2.1 ON-GRID SOLAR PV SYSTEMS IN PAKISTAN

To date, the number of distributed solar power plants based on net metering in
Pakistan are limited.
Pakistan’s first on grid solar power plant inaugurated on 29th May 2012 in
Islamabad granted by Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) for Pakistan
Engineering Council (PEC) and Planning Commission of Pakistan (P block) with
combined generating capacity is 356.16 KW. This was the first on grade project in
Pakistan. This project allows the recipients to sell the extra electricity by net-
metering to the distribution company of Islamabad division Islamabad Electricity
Supply Company (IESCO) [13]. Beaconhouse at Canal Side Campus, Lahore
installed the first high quality integrated solar energy system with a 10 KW power
generation capacity capable of grid tie-in. It was a pilot project for BSS designed
by U.S. consultants, based upon feasibility by the U.S. Trade and Development
Agency (USTDA) [12].

2.2 ON-GRID AND OFF GRID SOLAR PV SYSTEMS

 Solar Photovoltaic Systems can be connected in an on-grid or in an off-grid
fashion. Declining cost of solar modules along with their increasing performances
and their ability to provide power to far flung areas due to zero transmission cost
makes off-grid system a better choice but when it comes to the reliability of a
system with continuous power supply at cheaper rates then on-grid hybrid systems
are the best choice as battery storages or backup diesel generators in off-grid
facility are expensive choice for continuous power supply. Both type of designs has
their own merits and demerits over each other. Table 2.1 and 2.2 shows the
advantages and disadvantages of both type of plants [14].

Table 2.1 Advantages of on-grid and off-grid Solar PV Systems

Sr# Advantages of On-grid HRES Advantages of Off-grid HRES

1 No backup generator or battery bank
is required.
2 The utility grid is a virtual battery.
3 High reliable system.
4 Saves money via net metering
5 No need to conserve energy as
surplus energy is transferred to the
grid.
Cheaper electricity for remote areas as
no extension of power lines is required
Can be designed to become self
sufficient
Independent from utility terms and
policy.
Easier to expand off-grid system.
No complexity involved in off-grid
systems.

Table 2.2 Disadvantages of on-grid and off-grid Solar PV Systems

Sr# Disadvantages of on-grid HRES Disadvantages of off-grid HRES

1 With battery less system, there is no
backup power but mostly it is not a
major drawback.
2 For remote areas HRES, cost of
transmission lines will be incurred as
grids are mostly near load centers.
3 The system will have to follow the
terms and policies of utility.
4 Difficult to expand an on-grid utility.
Storage devices need replacement after
specific periods.
Backup generator is required during
maintenance period or during faults
which has its own GHG emissions
Surplus energy is wasted when battery
bank is already charged.
Efficiency of batteries is not 100%
which causes the loss of energy.
2.3 SOLAR RADIATION INTENSITY IN PAKISTAN
A study was conducted to explore those areas which are most suitable for solar
energy potential using fifty-eight meteorological stations covering the whole
country. The lowest solar radiation intensity 76.49 W/m² observed at Cherat during
December and highest 339.25 W/m² at Gilgit. The average monthly solar radiation
intensity remains 136.05 to 287.36 W/m2 in the country [8, 15]
Best locations to install utility-scale solar power plants to fulfill 30% of energy
needs of Pakistan by 2030, its technical feasibility, complete life cycle and
economic aspects by deriving Profitability Index of existing solar PV power plant
have been discussed by comparing the solar potential of various selected region of
Punjab and estimating the peak electricity demand of the utility distribution
companies. Pakistan’s co-ordinates having more than 300 clear days in a year [12].
Figure 2.2 below shows Pakistan’s annual map of direct Normal solar radiation (it
is the amount of solar radiation received per unit area by a surface that is always
held normal to the rays coming straight from the sun at its current position). Global
Horizontal Irradiation (includes both direct normal and diffuse horizontal
irradiance is the amount of shortwave radiation by the surface horizontal to the
ground) [8].
 Figure 2.2 Pakistan Annual direct normal solar radiation [14]
2.4 TILT ANGLE THEORIES
The conclusion was given that the tilt angle can be calculated as (latitude ±
15ᵒ. The authors conducted a series of experiments and proposed a new formula
which is (latitude ± 8ᵒ) to derive the value of the tilt angle. For specific locations,
according to coastal radiation data, PV panels should be installed with the tilt angle
of 2.8ᵒ greater than the latitude [16]. For grid-connected installations where PV
modules are attached to a permanent structure, it is recommended to tilt the PV
modules at an angle equal to the latitude of the installation site to optimize their
power generation throughout the year [17]. Empirical formulas related to the local
latitudes were employed in early studies to evaluate the optimum tilt angles at
different sites [16]. Irradiance decomposition models were evaluated from
Horizontal Global Irradiance for estimating Plane Global Irradiance for a South
African region along with comparisons among six transposition models [18].

2.5 BEAM DIFFUSE AND REFLEC TED RADIATION

Hourly solar global radiation on tilted surface can be measured from solar global
radiation on horizontal surface using different models. These models are used to
measure hourly solar global radiation components on horizontal surface (for diffuse
and beam radiation) and titled surfaces (for diffuse, ground-reflected and beam
radiation). Latitude of location strongly affects estimation models, finding the
utmost precise model for any specific region is essential. By comparing estimated
and measured values by different statistical indicators, precise model can be
calculated [19]. A part of the incident energy from the solar radiation is reduced by
scattering or absorption by air molecules. The radiation that is not reflected or
scattered and reaches the surface directly is called direct or beam radiation. The
scattered radiation reaching the ground is called diffuse radiation. The albedo is the
fraction of radiation reaching the ground that is reflected back to the atmosphere
from which a part is absorbed by the receiver [20].

2.6 MEASUREMENT OF DURATION OF SUNSHINE

The hours of bright sunshine, that is, the time in which the solar disc is visible,
is useful in approximating long-term averages of solar radiation. Two instruments
have been or are widely used.
The Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder uses a solid glass sphere of approximately
10 cm diameter as a lens that produces an image of the sun on the opposite surface
of the sphere. A strip of standard treated paper is mounted around the appropriate
part of the sphere, and the solar image burns a mark on the paper whenever the
beam radiation is above a critical level. The lengths of the burned portions of the
paper provide an index of the duration of ‘‘bright sunshine.’’
A photoelectric sunshine recorder is used by the U.S. Weather Service. It
incorporates two selenium photovoltaic cells, one of which is shaded from beam
radiation and one exposed to it. In the absence of beam radiation, the two detectors
indicate (nearly) the same radiation level. When beam radiation is incident on the
unshaded cell, the output of that cell is higher than that of the shaded cell. The
duration of a critical radiation difference detected by the two cells is a measure of
the duration of bright sunshine [20].

2.7 OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUE FOR ON-GRID PV SYSTEM

In his method detail simulation is done within each time step period but
calculations become too complex because a lot of variables are involved which are
to be examined.
2.7.1 NUMERICAL METHOD
For rooftop building, by maximum array output energy and decreasing
electricity that is sold to grid, optimum array size is determined. Effectiveness
ration has to be considered for the evaluation of ratio of produced energy utilized
by building. Effectiveness ration is the ratio of energy used for produced energy to
load supply over total PV array output. Using electricity sold graph size of array is
determined. As my project is based on a commercial rooftop building having flat
plate collectors and modules with optimum tilt angle, the simulation is done on site
calculated data and PVsyst.
Generation profile of electricity for all possible combinations made with tilt angle
of panel, ration of ground covering, different types of PV and azimuth. After
evaluating physical and economical aspects under several conditions optimum
distribution is formed [21].

2.7.2 COMPUTER AIDED METHOD

In this method PV installation sizing strategies are developed keeping in
view different economic issues as payback periods, initial cost and reactive energy
compensation. In modelling PV energy production different losses are considered
like inverter efficiency, shading and tilted angle [21].

2.7.3 PARTICLE SWARM OPTIMISATION

PSO is one of the metaheuristic approaches using robust stochastic
optimization technique based on the movement and intelligence of swarms. The
technique applies concept of social interaction to problem solving. PSO is easily
programmed. Besides, the knowledge of good solution is retained and all particles
able to share information between them.
By using PSO method, the time of simulation is shorter, and iterations obtained are
less. Besides. Particle swamp optimization is used to solve multi-objectives
problem for purposed system. This technique is able to maximize both economic
and environmental benefits in the system [21].
2.8 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING (MPPT)
Solar panels have a nonlinear voltage-current characteristic, with different
maximum power point which depends on the environmental factors, such as
temperature and irradiation. In order to continuously yield maximum power from
the solar panels, they have to operate at their maximum power point despite
changes in the environment. It is important to employ some method for maximum
power point tracking. The efficiency of a PV plant is affected mainly by the
efficiency of the PV panel, the efficiency of the inverter and the efficiency of the
maximum power point tracking algorithm. Improving the efficiency of the PV
panel and the inverter is not easy as it depends on the technology available, better
components required which
can increase considerably installation cost. Improving the tracking of MPP instead
with new control algorithms is easier and is not expensive. The three most suitable
algorithms for medium and large size photovoltaic applications are incremental
conductance, perturb & observe and fuzzy logic control [22]

2.9 TECHNIQUES TO FIND MAXIMUM POWER POINT

2.9.1 INCREMENTAL CONDUCTANCE
This algorithm is based on the fact that the slope of the curve power vs.
voltage (current) of the PV module is zero at the MPP, positive (negative) on the
left of it and negative (positive) on the right as shown in the figure 2.4

Figure 2.4 PV Panel Characteristics curve [22].

 ΔV / ΔP=0( ΔI / ΔP=0) AT THE MPP
 ΔV / ΔP=0( ΔI / ΔP< 0) ON THE LEFT
 ΔV / ΔP=0( ΔI / ΔP> 0) ON THE RIGHT

2.9.2 PERTURB AND OBSERVE

The Perturb and observe algorithm is also called “hill-climbing”. Hill-
climbing involves a perturbation on the duty cycle of the power converter and
Perturb and observe a perturbation in the operating voltage of the DC link between
the PV array and the power converter. In the case of the Hill-climbing, perturbing
the duty cycle of the power converter implies modifying the voltage of the DC link
between the PV array and the power converter, so both names refer to the same
technique. In this method, the sign of the last perturbation and the sign of the last
increment in the power are used to decide what the next perturbation should be. As
can be seen in Figure shown below, incrementing the voltage increases the power
on the left of the maximum power point decrementing the voltage increases the
power whereas on the right [3].

Figure 2.6 PV panel characteristics curve

Start

Measure Vt , It

Calculate Power Pt
 Pt > P(t−1)

NO YES

Vt >V (t−1) Vt >V (t−1)

NO YES NO YES

Dt=D ( t−1 ) + Δt Dt=D ( t−1 )− Δt Dt=D ( t−1 )− Δt Dt=D ( t−1 ) + Δt

Figure 2.5 Flowchart of P7O Algorithm [23]

If the power increases, the perturbation be kept in the same direction and if there is
decrement in power, then the next perturbation ought to be in the opposite
direction. Until the MPP is reached this process is repeated. Then the operating
point oscillates around the maximum power point [3].

inputs=V (t ) , I ( t )

NO YES
ΔV =V ( t )−V ( t− Δt )

ΔI =I ( t )−I ( t− Δt )
NO NO

ΔV =0
YES NO YES NO

Decrease Increase Decrease Increase

ΔI / ΔV =−I /V ΔI =0
Vref Vref Vref Vref

ΔI / ΔV >−I / V ΔI > 0
 ΔV =V ( t )−V ( t− Δt )

ΔI =I ( t )−I ( t− Δt )
Figure 2.6 Flowchart of Incremental Conductance Algorithm [23]

Return
2.9.3 FUZZY LOGIC CONTROL
The fuzzy logic consists of three stages: fuzzification, inference system and
defuzzification. Fuzzification comprises the process of transforming numerical
crisp inputs into linguistic variables based on the degree of membership to certain
sets. Membership functions, like the ones in figure shown below are used to
associate a grade to each linguistic term. The number of membership functions
used depends on the accuracy of the controller, but it usually varies between 5 and
7.
In the figure below seven fuzzy levels are used: Negative Big, Negative Medium,
Negative Small, Zero, Positive Small, Positive Medium and PB (Positive Big). The
values a, b and c are based on the range values of the numerical variable [3].

NB NM NS ZE PS PM PB

Figure 2.8 Membership Functions

The inputs of the fuzzy controller are usually an error E, and the change in the
error, ΔE. The error can be chosen by the designer, but usually it is chosen as
ΔP / ΔV because it is zero at the MPP. ThenEand ΔE are defined as follows

P ( k )−P(k −1)
E=
V ( k )−V (k −1)

ΔE=E ( k )−E( k−1)

The output of the fuzzy logic converter is usually a change in the duty ratio of the
power converter ΔD, or a change in the reference voltage of the DC-link, ΔV .
The rule base, also known as rule base lookup table or fuzzy rule algorithm,
associates the fuzzy output to the fuzzy inputs based on the power converter used
and on the knowledge of the user. Table below shows the rules for a three-phase
inverter, where the inputs are E and ΔE and the output is a change in the DC-link
voltage, ΔV [3].
Table 2.3 Rule Base

The last stage of the fuzzy logic control is the defuzzification. In this stage the
output is converted from a linguistic variable to a numerical crisp one again using
membership functions as those in Figure 2.6 . There are different methods to
transform the linguistic variables into crisp values. It can be said that the most
popular is the center of gravity method. However, the analysis of these methods is
beyond the scope of this thesis.
The advantages of these controllers, besides dealing with imprecise inputs, not
needing an accurate mathematical model and handling nonlinearity, are fast
convergence and minimal oscillations around the maximum power point.
Furthermore, they have been shown to perform well under step changes in the
irradiation [3].

2.10 PV SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

PV modules generate DC current and voltage. However, to feed the
electricity to the grid, AC current and voltage are needed. Inverters are the
equipment used to convert DC to AC. In addition, they can be in charge of keeping
the operating point of the PV array at the maximum power point.
There are different inverter configurations depending on how the PV modules are
connected to the inverter.

2.10.1 CENTRAL INVERTER

It is the simpler configuration: PV strings, consisting of series connected
PV panels, are connected in parallel to obtain the desired output power. The
resulting PV array is connected to a single inverter. In this configuration all PV
strings operate at the same voltage, which may not be the maximum power point
voltage for all of them. The problem of this configuration is the possible
mismatches among the different PV modules. If they are receiving different
irradiation i.e., shading and other problems, the true maximum power point is
difficult to find and consequently there are power losses and the PV modules are
underutilized [3].

Figure 2.9 Central Configuration

2.10.2 STRING INVERTER
This configuration is being used in my study and simulation. In this
configuration, every string of PV panels connected in series is connected to a
different inverter as shown in Figure 2.10. This can improve the maximum power
point tracking in case of mismatches or shading, because each string can operate at
a different MPP, whereas in the central inverter there is only one operating point
which may not be the MPP for each string, thus leading to power losses. On the
other hand, the number of components of the system increases as well as the
installation cost, as an inverter is used for each string [3].

Figure 2.10 String configuration

2.11 NET METERING

Net metering is the policy of electricity which enables customer to offset
their electricity use with self-generated electricity from renewable energy sources
for power systems. The working of net metering utilizes a meter that spins and
records the flow of energy bidirectionally. When customer draws power from the
grid, meter forward spins mean utilizing more energy than it is producing, meter
backward spins when power is supplied to the grid mean less energy than is
producing. In the end of a specific month customer is charged only for net used
electricity. Only for grid connected systems net metering is viable and what makes
it so worthy is surplus energy supplied to the utility, at retail price can be sold back.
If electricity generated is more than consumed, producers gets benefit for the
positive balance like renewable energy credits which then is credited in the
customer’s account in the next billing cycle. If at the end of the year surplus
remains, then customer depending on the utility policy may
 paid for the total REC collected at avoidance cost rate or retail cost rate, or
 the total REC collected can be transferred and could be used as a
compensation for a possible negative balance in the following years, or
 the total REC collected are granted back to the utility [23].

2.11.1 NET METERING VARIATIONS

 Time of use metering
 Market rate metering

Time of use metering employs a reversible smart meter that is programmed to

determine electricity usage at any specific time of the day. It allows utility charges
to be evaluated on the basis of when electricity was utilized i.e., day or night &
seasonal rates. Typically, generation electricity cost is high during day-time peak
usage period and low during night-time when usage is low.
In market rate net metering systems energy use of the user is priced dynamically
according to some wholesale electric prices function. Meters of the users are
remotely programmed to compute the value and are remotely read. Net metering
applies such variable pricing to excess power produced by qualifying systems.
If the consumer shifts demand load to a lower price time, net metering enables
small systems to result in zero annual net cost to the consumer, while the
electricity generated at peak demand time can be sent to the grid rather than used
locally. No credit is given for annual surplus production [23].

2.12 INSTALLATION LOCATIONS OF PV

Figure 2.10 and table 2.3 below shows IEEE14 system load-margins when
location of PV installation is varied. A unit of PV generation installed at one
specific location or bus and is account for 10% of total load. It is obvious that each
bus affects system load margin in a different way, i.e. installing a unit of PV at bus
number 14 gives high enhancement of 23.30%. Table 2.4 also shows IEEE39 data
set which depicts a few worsened stability cases after installation of PV, i.e. a PV
generation unit installed at bus 20 causes a decrease of 29.22% in load margin. It
can be concluded that installation of PV generations at a bad location can be
degrading and effects seriously to the stability of system voltage [24].
Table 2.4 Load margins of IEEE14 (left) and IEEE39 (right) with PV generation (10% of
total load) installed at different locations
Bus Load Change% Bus Load Change%
Margin MW Margin MW
None 754.32% 0% None 7062.27 0%
4 836.83% +10.94% 1 8942.45 +26,53%
5 816.11% +8.19% 4 9130.30 +29.19%
9 911.94% +20.90% 7 8880.28 +25.65%
11 888.63% +17.81% 9 8755.43 +23.89%
12 875.68% +16.09% 20 5002.14 -29.22%
14 930.07% +23.30% 27 6691.82 -5.31%

Figure 2.10 PV curves of IEEE14 with PV generation (10% of total load) installed at
different locations [36].
2.13 CONCLUSION

A lot of research work has been done by researchers all around the world to
introduce new technologies for the optimization of solar photovoltaic systems.
There are software base approaches along with mathematical modeling and
numerical techniques that analyze the system fully to find out the optimality
conditions.
Most of the MPPT algorithms developed over the past years have been reviewed.
Some of them are very similar and use the same principle but expressed in different
ways, like the last three algorithms listed in the hill-climbing techniques. The most
popular MPPT algorithms according to the number of publications are P&O, In
Cond and Fuzzy Logic. It makes sense because they are the simplest algorithms
capable of finding the real MPP
The monthly average solar radiation intensity in Pakistan remains 136.05 to 287.36
W/m2. Average solar radiation intensity for 10 hour a day ranges from 1500
W/m2/day to 2750 W/m2/day in the country especially in southern Punjab, Sindh
and Baluchistan regions throughout the year. This vast amount of clean and cheap
renewable energy is needed to be utilized to cope up the scenario of load shedding
in some far-flung areas where transmission line distribution system is not practical.
 Chapter 3

SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

PVsyst Software, which is being used for simulation and optimization requires
some of the input data with respect to the site. The complete detail of the system
inputs will be discussed in this chapter.

3.1 LOAD PROFILE

The considered area is basically the capital city Islamabad having a vicinity of
ten houses. The description of devices with their respective load is shown in table
3.1 and season load demand is shown in table 3.2.

Table 3.1
Description of Devices Load kWh
LED Bulbs 30
1.5-ton inv AC 1000
ceiling fan 60
Fridge 90
Iron 1000
led tv/ Laptop/cell 90
Wash Machin 1200
Misc. 100
Geyser 1200
Heater 1200
Domestic Appliances 300

Table 3.2
Summer Load Winter Load Autumn Load Spring Load
kWh/month kWh/month kWh/month kWh/month
Jun-Aug Dec-Feb Sep-Nov Mar-May

2670 2487 1982 2049

3
3.2 GRID CONNECTION
In a grid connection system, grid act as a standby power component, means it
will supply power to the household customers when the demand is higher than the
electricity production from the solar system and it will inject power into the grid
power generation by the solar system is in excess amount than it is required. This
sale and purchase will be done on net metering base. When load demand is high,
energy will be purchased from the grid at the assumed rate of $0.09 /kWh while
excess energy will be sold to the grid and will be compensated in monthly energy
bill.
Grid connection is supposed to be available most of the time and a grid connected
inverter converts the DC output of the PV array to 230V or 400V 50Hz AC for
direct connection to the grid supply without the need for a battery. Figure 3.1
illustrates a typical grid connected PV system. The disadvantage of the system is
the need for the presence of the grid for the inverter to function; if the grid fails
then no energy is generated even at times of high irradiance [25].

Figure 3.1 Grid Connected PV System\

3.3 INVERTER
To convert DC power generated from solar array, inverters are used. Small size
inverters will operate effectively on their nominal level, but this would increase the
stress on its electronic components while on the other hand solar power sometime
exceeds it rated capacity as it is dependent upon solar irradiance. So, inverter size
for this specific system is chosen higher than the rated capacity of solar panel.
Inverter with 30KW capacity and four MPPT divided into four array strings is
used. Its operating voltage is 200-950V and grid voltage is 400V. Cost of 30 KW
inverter with an efficiency of almost 98.24% is taken from Cosmo Solar Company
based in Pakistan which is $3900.

Figure 3.2 Inverter Efficiency curve

The load dispatch strategy will be such that to meet the load demand, it provides
electricity at possible cheapest rates every hour. By using a load dispatch
controller, load demand is satisfied firstly by supplying power generated by solar
photovoltaic plant and if the demand increases than the energy will be purchased
from the grid.

3.4 PV MODULE
Table 3.3 PV module Specifications
Module (Si-mono) Trina Solar 340 Wp
Efficiency/Module area 17.52%
Ist/Voc 9.45A/46.5
 Impp/Vmpp 8.9A/38.2V

72 unit of modules have been used in the system. The price of each unit is $231. 72 unit
modules will be priced $16632. Efficiency curve is shown in figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3 PV Module Efficiency curve

3.5 PV STRING SIZE CALCULATION

When solar photovoltaic system is designed, it’s very important to calculate
the maximum and minimum PV modules that are to be series connected,
which is referred as string. In high temperatures solar photovoltaic modules
produces less voltage and in low temperatures produces more voltage. If
more than required modules are used on the same string then inverter
maximum input voltage could exceed due to which electrical equipment
could be damaged connected to that string and if less than require PV
modules are connected on the same string, when temperature outside is high
then the inverter might shut-off causing the system to underperform during
summer months.
Total number of modules required for the array can be automatically
calculated by the simulation software PVsyst and theoretically it is calculated by
using Mayfiled Design Tool
3.5.1 MINIMUM STRING SIZE
The minimum string size is the minimum number of PV modules, connected
in series, required to keep the inverter running during hot summer months. In
order to calculate the minimum string size first calculate the minimum output
voltage, Module Vmp_min, that each module will produce for the specific
installation site. Then take the inverter minimum voltage and divide by the
calculated module minimum voltage to get the minimum number of modules.
The module minimum voltage is calculated using the high temperature for
the installation site when the modules would produce the lowest expected
voltage. This is because as a PV module gets hotter it is less efficient and
produces less voltage [20].
Tk vmp (3.1)
(
Module Vmp min=Vmp ×[1+ ( Tmax +Tadd−Tstc ) ×
100 )]

Where Module Vmp min = minimum module voltage expected at site high
temperature.

Vmp = rated module max power voltage [V]. Found on the module data
sheet.

Tmax = the ambient high temperature for the installation site [°C].

[(
Module Vmp min=38.2× 1+ (31+35−25 ) ×

¿ Inverter vmin
−0.39
100( ))]=38.04 v
Minimum string
Module vmpmin
(3.2)
¿ 200
Minimum string =5.25
38.04

3.5.2 MAXIMUM STRING SIZE

Maximum string size can be calculated by the following equation according
to [20].

(3.3)
Module Voc max=Voc ×[1+(Tmin−Tstc)× ( Tk100Voc )]
Module Voc max=Voc × ¿
 ¿ Inverter vmax (3.4)
Maximum string
Module Voc max

Maximum string ¿ 950 /48.52=19.5

Chapter 4

DISCUSSION AND RESULTS

4.1 ARRAY SPACING

At any time of the year and sun position array spacing is important to calculate
in order to avoid self-shading. For the calculation of array spacing on winter
Solstice 10 am or 2 pm is used to ensure that there is no self-shading of the PV
array occurs between these hours on the winter solstice (a worst-case scenario for
the solar PV systems orientated towards equator as self-shading is increased due to
low altitude angle of the sun) [26].

Height diff =sin tilt angle× Module width=0.632 (4.1)

module row spacing=height diff /solar elevation¿ 1.94 m (4.2)
min module row spng=mod row spng × coz azimuth corr angle=1.37 m (4.3)
Eq 4.4 gives array spacing or row width for tilt 12 degrees similarly eq 4.5 for
tilt 34 degree
Row width=Min module row spacing+cos tilt ×℘=4.32 m (4.4)
Row width=Min module row spacing+cos tilt ×℘=3.9 m (4.5
)
Tilt angle of the array β is 12 degree for winter solstice. Solar elevation angle 18-
degree, H is tilted module height which is 0.632 meters, Wp is array row width
which is 3.04 meters.

module row spacing cos tilt × module width

module width
solar elev angle Ɵ Height difference

Tilt angle β

Figure 4.1 array spacing and Segment of two rows of a multi-row collector array
 Figure 4.2 Sun position on sky in different time zone with 135.7ᵒ azimuth

Typically, Equation (4.1), (4.2) and (4.3) are together usually utilized in a different
form for the calculation of heights and lengths of shadow in fixed, single & double
axis tracking PV field optimizations [27, 28]

Meteonorm software has a built in feature called horizon tool. You just need to put
the coordinates and elevation of the specific site location and the software takes
into account the surroundings and then it generates report for the peak sun-block
which is shown below in the figure with dotted lines. This diagram is called
horizon for the specific site. PVsyst does simulation by taking into account peak
sun-block file from meteonrom and then includes the shading loss due to it in the
final report.
 Figure 4.3 Sun position with near shading effect

Table 4.1 Sun position on the sky in winter solstice

Hour Elevation Azimuth

08:00 -0.833 117.93
09:00 8.31 125.49
10:00 17.78 135.73
11:00 25.51 147.99
12:00 30.76 162.41
13:00 32.84 178.42
14:00 31.42 194.59
15:00 26.73 209.4
16:00 19.43 222.08
17:00 10.24 232.68
18:00 -0.25 241.63

4.2 SOLAR RADIATION ON THE PLAN OF THE ARRAY

PV power generated from a solar PV panel is extremely affected by total
received solar radiation. Data of Solar radiation gives information on the amount of
solar energy reaches the specific earth site. However, if panel are inclined at
different angles and orientations the value of solar radiation is different. When
solar PV panels are mounted in tilted position, like in rooftop building photovoltaic
application, it’s significant to calculate the total radiation on the tilted PV modules.
Direct solar radiation we know that comes directly from the sun. In the meantime,
without direction diffuse radiation would scattered from sky dome.
However, for a tilted PV panel, solar radiation comprises direct portion, diffuse
portion and reflected portion. To model diffused radiation on a tilt surface,
isotropic and anisotropic models can be used. The isotropic model assumes the
intensity of sky-diffused radiation is uniform over the sky dome. Hence, the diffuse
radiation incident on a tilted PV module depends on the fraction of the sky dome
seen by it. The second model is the anisotropic model, where it assumes the
anisotropy of sky diffused radiation in circumsolar region and isotropic distributed
diffuse component from the rest of sky dome [20].
Total radiation on a tilted surface has following components:
 Beam radiation
 diffuse radiation components from the sky
 reflected radiation from the ground reached on tilted surface
In my research for the calculation of solar radiation on a tilted surface anisotropic
model has been discussed.
HDKR model deals with following
i. Circumsolar diffuse (obtained from forward scattering of solar radiation and
concentrated in the part of the sky around the sun)
ii. Horizon brightening (concentrated near the horizon and is most pronounced
in clear skies)

Diffuse sky Area Beam

Circumsolar
diffuse

Figure 4.5 Distribution of Diffuse radiation on sky dome

4.2.1 HDKR (HAY DAVIES KLUCHER REINDL) MODEL
This model is also called Anisotropic Model. Isotropic diffuse model is a
conventional method for the calculation of solar radiations as it only deals with
isotropic part and underestimates horizon brightening and circumsolar diffuse
component on an inclined surface. Hay and Davies (1980) estimate the fraction of
the diffuse that is circumsolar and consider it to be all from the same direction as
the beam radiation; they do not treat horizon brightening. Hay and Davies (1980)
estimate the fraction of the diffuse that is circumsolar and consider it to be all from
the same direction as the beam radiation; they do not treat horizon brightening [20].
Significant amount of solar radiation is attenuated as it travels through the
atmosphere. This attenuation is due to:
 Absorption of solar radiation by different particles in the atmosphere
 Backward scattering and reflection of solar radiation by air particles, water
vapor, dust
 30% is reflected
 17% is absorbed by the atmosphere.
 53% reaches the earth surface:
1) 31% direct radiation 2) 22% diffuse radiation

Figure 4.6 Isotropic and circumsolar diffuse

The total hourly radiation on the tilted surface according to HDKR model is given
by the following equation.
 Iᴛ=(Iв+ IᴅAi )Rв+ Iᴅ (1− Ai)(1+cos ⁡β)/2 ¿¿ (4.6)

The hourly radiation on a horizontal surface is given by

I =Iв+ Iᴅ (4.7)
12× 3600 360 n (4.8)
Ic=¿
π (
( ᴛb + ᴛd ) Gsc 1+0.033 ×cos
365
¿) )
The extraterrestrial Radiation on a horizontal surface will be given by
12× 3600 360 n (4.9)
Io=¿
π (
Gsc 1+ 0.033× cos
365
¿ )
And
24 ×3600 360 n (4.10)
Ho=¿
π (
Gsc 1+0.033 × cos
365
¿) )
Where
cos ( ϕ−β ) coz δ coz ω+sin ( ϕ−β ) sin δ (4.11)
Rb=
cos ϕ coz δ coz ω+sin ϕ sin δ

Note: for surface with slope β to south

Ho represents daily radiation in J/day.m2

Io represents hourly radiation in J/m2
Gsc is solar constant whose value is 1376 W/m2
ωs is sunset hour angle given by ωs=cos−1 −tan ∅ tan δ

Table 4.4 winter solstice HDKR model optimum tilt angle

β degrees 30 45 60 65
Iᴛ HDKR MJ/m² 8.3
9.2 9.5 9.45
9

The above table indicates that by using four different tilt angles technique for
winter solstice now by HDKR model the tilt angle 60 degrees gives the highest
hourly solar radiation. So, it can be concluded that 60 degrees is the optimum tilt
angle. This tilt angle is then used in simulation. Different hours are taken for the
radiation calculation from 9-10 hours, 10-11 hours, 13-14 hours and 15-16 hours.

Table 4.5 summer solstice HDKR model optimum tilt angle

 Β degrees 12 15 20
Iᴛ HDKR MJ/m²
9 8.9 8.77

The optimum tilt angle by HDKR model for summer solstice comes out to be 12
degrees by the same technique of using different tilt angles for the maximum
hourly solar radiation and is then used in simulation. Different hours are taken for
the radiation calculation from 9-10 hours, 10-11 hours, 15-16 hours and 17-18
hours

4.3 SYSTEM COST ANALYSIS

There are different methods to find out the economic feasibility of energy
efficient projects and distributed generation. The different type of costs that are
involved in a power project i.e. equipment and O&M cost and fuel cost could be
organized in a proper manner to determine the cost benefits

4.4 METHOD FOR COST ANALYSIS

The finding of the economic analysis is the net present cost (NPC) of the
project which will lead to find out per unit cost of energy and annualized cost of
the system. Figure 4.7 shows the flowchart about the basic topology of the whole
process of cost analysis while below is the method to find out different terms
associated with the economic analysis of a power system [21].

4.4.1 NET PRESENT COST

In economic analysis of a power system, optimal system is the one having lowest
net present cost. NPC is the total cost involved in the project throughout the
project’s life. It includes all the cost for installation and operation and maintenance
cost during the whole life of the project minus the present value of all the revenue
that it earns during its life [21]. It can also be calculated using formula as given
below.
Tac (4.12)
Net Present Cost =
CRF (i, Rprj)
Where Tac is total annualized cost. CRF is capital recovery factor, i is percentage
interest rate, and Rprj is project life time in years.

4.4.2 TOTAL ANNUALISED COST

Total annualized cost of the system in this regard will show per year total
installation and operation and maintenance cost of the system. It can also be called
as NPC’s annual value [21]. For a specific project it can be calculated using
formula as given below.
Cann ,tot =CRF (i, Rprj). Cnpc ,tot (4.13)
Where Cnpc , tot is the total net present cost, i is the annual real discount rate , Rprj
is the life time of project and CRF () is the function returning the capital recovery
factor.

4.4.3 CAPTIAL RECOVERY FACTOR (CRF)

Capital recovery factor is a ratio which calculates the present value of
annuity [21]. It is calculated according to the equation written below.
i ( 1+ i )N (4.14)
Capital Recovery Factor CRF ( i, N )= N
( 1+i ) −1
Where, N is the number of years and i is the annual real interest rate.
i.e. CRF will be 0.2439 for i=7 % and N=5 and a loan of 1000 dollars would be
returned in 5 years with an annual payment of 243.90 dollar each year.

4.4.4 COST OF ENERGY (COE)

COE is per unit cost of energy which is calculated using formula as below.
Tac (4.15)
COST OF ENERGY ( COE )=
Eserved
Where Tac and Eserved are the total annualized cost and annual total electrical
load served respectively.

Input Data
Technical Load Economic Equipment
Meteo Data
Data Profile Data characteristics
 Simulation & Optimization

NO Start

NO

i=i +1 i=1
YES

YES Minimize objective function subject to constraints

Objective function: NPC

End
Constraints:
The Power balance
output is calculated constraint
included and tech
NPC, operation
constraints
result of each resource of resources
energy transacted with Grid
and emissions produces

If plan 1 is
i> N On lower NPC basis, sort feasible plan
feasible

uncertain parameters

Wind speed Solar irradiance Component cost Fuel cost

Figure 4.7 Flow chart for cost Analysis

4.5 SIMULATION SOFTWARE
PVsyst software version 6.70 is used for the simulation in my research project. It’s
a package for the study, sizing and data analysis of complete PV systems. It
provides tools that can be used to analyze precisely different configurations of PV
systems, consisting of grid connected, stand alone, pumping and DC grid.
PVsyst allows user to assess simulation results in order to find the best economical
and technical solution & closely compare the performances of different technical
options for any specific photovoltaic project. Tools offers the Meteo database for
specific sites and management of components. It also provides wide choice of
general solar tools like Meteo on tilted planes, solar geometry also means of
importing real data measured [29].

4.6 OPTIMIZATION RESULTS

The simulation results for 25 kWp grid-connected PV system in this research work
comprises number of substantial data i.e., system balances, Meteo data & incident
energy, system and inverter loses, energy used and normalized performance
coefficients. The simulation results can be performed on daily/monthly/annual
basis.

4.7 SYSTEM BALANCES

The simulation explained system balances on annually basis in table 4.6

Table 4.6 Annual System Balances

Horizontal Global Radiation 1719.5 kWh/m2
Diffuse horizontal Radiation 748.55 kWh/m2
Ambient Temperature 22°C
Global incident in coll plane 2005 kWh/m2
Array Virtual Energy at MPP 37.16 MWh
Available Energy at inverter output 37.54 MWh
Energy supplied to the user 15.82 MWh
Energy sold to the Grid KWh/year 21.7 MWh
Investment incl taxes $26717
Annual op cost (annuities 7%, 10 years, O&M) $3804
Energy cost $0.10 /kWh
4.8 LOSSES
Losses in sunlight spectrum, detailed system and inverter losses have been
discussed. In sunlight spectrum losses include IAM and soiling loss factor, near
shading (irradiance loss). The component for system losses comprises PV loss due
to temperature and irradiance level, mismatch loss (modules and strings), light
induced degradation, module quality loss, Ohmic wiring & inverter loss during
operation. Loss diagram is shown in figure 4.8.

Table 4.7 Detailed system losses annually

Near Shading (Irradiance loss) 4.9%
IAM factor on global 2.7%
Soiling loss factor 3%
PV loss due to temperature 8.5%
PV loss due irradiance 0.9%
Light induced degradation 2%
Mismatch loss (modules strings) 1.1%
Ohmic wiring loss 1.2%
Shadings 2.9%
Inverter loss (efficiency) 2%

4.9 ENERGY USE

Energy requirement of the user is 27945 kWh/year. Energy supplied to the user
is 15822 kWh/year. Average monthly load profile is shown in figure 4.9.
Remaining energy injected to the grid is 21718 KWh/yr. This number is the sum of
monthly energy produced by the system that are slightly varies throughout the year.
The reason of this ample amount of energy injected into the grid is that 9 hours to 5
hours is the sunshine hours throughout the day and solar PV modules produce
energy in these hours specifically, as this system is grid connected so there is no
use of battery system. 27945 kWh/year energy is the average annual utilization of
the user and 15822 is used when the PV array is producing energy. We know that
solar PV system doesn’t produce energy at night, so the remaining kWh are
injected into the grid which is then used at night from the grid by the net metering.
User requirement is 77 kWh/day and system is generating 83 kWh/day.
 Figure 4.9 Average monthly load profile

4.10 NORMALIZE PERFORMANCE COEFFICIENTS

Figure 4.8 Normalized production/installed KWp

Normalized production is 24.48 KWp. Reference incident energy in collector plane

is 5.493 KWh/m2.day. Collection loss (PV-array losses) is 1.21kWh/kWp/day,
system loss is 0.09kKWh/kWp/day. Produced useful energy at inverter output is
4.2 kWh/kWp/day with performance ration 0.765. Details in Figure 4.8
4.11 Iso-SHADING CURVE
System shading curve with annual Sun path diagram is shown in Figure
4.10. This diagram allows optimization of PV array position on the roof or other
facade.
Nevertheless, if the PV array shading cannot be avoided, it is preferred that the
shadow on array occurs early morning or late afternoon, while the irradiance is
low. At high irradiance shading increases PV array losses by several times.
Shadows position information & morning/afternoon shading can contribute to
simplification of hardware and software reconfiguration procedures [30].
When operating under partial shading conditions where irradiance is non-uniform
PV array have substantial decrease in power production [31].

Figure 4.9 Annual Sun path diagram with shading curve for PV power plant

4.12 TECHNICAL INVESTIGATION

 Climate data shows that Daily horizontal solar radiation is minimum during
January (2.13 kWh/m2/day) and maximum in June (5.67 kWh/m2/day).
 Figure 4.10 Climate Data for Islamabad

 Total monthly solar radiation with a tilt of 12 degree is 51.11 kWh/m2/day

and total monthly solar radiation with a tilt of 60 degree is 47.42
kWh/m2/day shown in table 4.8.
 From a 25 kWp grid-connected solar PV system installed in Islamabad on a
rooftop building, simulation result shows electricity generation is 37540
kWh/year. It means about 83 kWh of electricity is generated by the solar
PV system which would be available to the user each day. According to the
calculation, electricity requirement of the user is 27945 kWh/year. Energy
supplied to the user is 15822 kWh/year. The total amount of energy injected
to the grid is 21718 kWh/year. Details in table 4.8.
 Performance ratio PR=Y f /Yr basically is the ratio between actual yield
which is inverter output and targeted yield which is PV array output, and, in
the simulation, it is found to be76.5 %. It therefore shows the proportion of
energy actually available to be export to the user after subtraction of energy
loss. For example, due to inverter and module efficiency factor, thermal and
conduction losses, defect in components etc.). Data showed about 26 % of
solar energy can not be converted into usable form. normally the value of
performance ratio ranges from 60 % to 80 % [29].
 During the process of generation lost energy percentage injected into the
grid is shown in the Figure 4.11. It is obvious that the maximum losses
 occur on the array and inverter side which are 16.2 % and 2.1 %
respectively.
 In real installation, it’s important to match between voltage of the PV array
and that of inverter and was achieved in the simulation with the selected
inverter having four MPPT.
 Number of MPPT and number of strings are made equal in the system
simulation i.e., output from four strings are distributed among four MPPT.
 Annuities at a rate of 7% are $3804/year for the period of 10 years.
Some inverters, however, have higher efficiency in certain voltage, therefore the
PV array should adapt to this voltage of maximum efficiency [29].

Table 4.8 Meteo Data and Balances

GloHor DiffHor Daily Daily solar User User Injected
kWh/m2/d kWh/m2/d solar radiation load supplied into
grid
Month radiation tilted 60ᵒ
tilted 12ᵒ kWh/m2/d
kWh/m2/d
Jan 2.76 1.26 2.47 2.99 2570 1111 1270
Feb 2.78 1.59 3.64 4.06 2321 994 964
March 4.68 2.05 4.02 3.80 2117 1213 1564
April 5.51 2.55 4.68 3.83 2049 1368 1991
May 6.79 2.72 5.24 3.82 2117 1446 2454
June 6.53 2.95 5.58 3.84 2670 1657 2030
July 6.11 3.07 4.74 3.41 2759 1664 1829
Aug 5.61 2.91 4.69 3.66 2759 1657 1652
Sep 4.59 2.09 4.59 4.12 1982 1249 2148
Oct 4.80 1.50 4.90 5.41 2048 1195 2376
Nov 3.61 1.02 3.75 4.78 1982 1104 2244
Dec 2.64 1.19 2.81 3.70 2570 1165 1195
Annua 56.41 24.9 51.11 47.42 27945 15822 21718
l

4.13 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

Capital and O&M cost for these respective plant sizes is presented in table 4.9.
Middle East Automation and Controls Services is approached for quotations of
such a system. 72 unit of Trina Solar modules of 340Wp are used. Per unit price of
the module is $231. 30KW ABB Inverter with unit cost of $3900 is used.
Operation and maintenance cost is taken as 0.02$/W. Wiring cost is $2500 and
transportation cost is estimated about $200. Loan duration of the project is 15
years. Net investment is $26717. As life of these modules is taken as 20 years, so
no replacement will be required [31, 32, 33]. Capital cost includes modules cost,
inverter cost, setting and wiring cost. So, the total yearly cost of the system $3804.
When load demand is high, energy will be purchased from the grid at the assumed
rate of USD 0.09/kWh while excess energy will be sold to the grid at the same rate.
For this system energy sale and purchase capacity of grid is taken as maximum.

Table 4.9 Photovoltaic Power Plant Cost

Capacity (KW) 25
Capital Cost ($) 23032
Taxes ($) 15% 3485
O&M Cost $/year 500
Transportation Cost $ 200
Annuity $ 2574
Net Investment $ 26717
Total yearly cost $ 2607

4.14 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS

One of the major advantages of using renewable energy resources to
generate electricity is that they are environment friendly. The negative effect of
fossil fuels power plant is that they produce GHG like Sulphur dioxide, Nitrogen
Oxide and carbon dioxide (CO2) Along with significant amount of ash that ought
to be handled. Table 8 shows reduction of green house from using 25KWp solar
power plant in Islamabad to replace electricity generation by burning fossil fuel.
It is now evident that this solar PV plant avoids annually 189.7 ton of carbon
dioxide along with other flue gasses to enter in the atmosphere and causing
depletion of ozone layer along with polluting our atmosphere.

4.15 EMISSION OF GREENHOUSE GASSES DURING

MANUFACTURING OF SOLAR PANELS AND WIND TURBINES
Basically, the emission from the renewable power plants during their
operation is approximately zero as discussed above because after all there is
sunlight, wind or water that is been utilized to generate electricity. But there are
other areas in which renewable plants are the cause of certain greenhouse gasses
emissions. These include manufacturing of facilities and components, their
maintenance and their end of lives, plants must be replaced after certain time, and
decomposition of their components at the end. Although during this process,
greenhouse gasses emission rate is high by these plants but are offset to low level
during the operation life span of the plant. A study was done on examining the life
cycle emission from these renewable power plants and the concluded facts are as
follows [32, 33]

 Over the life time, average wind energy emission of CO2 are 34.11g/kWh
while it ranges from 0.4grams to364.8grams per kilowatt hours. While on
the other hand, average solar energy emission of CO2 is 49.91g/kWh with a
range of 1gram to 218grams per kilowatt hour. The higher range is due to
number of other factors that include resource input, locality and size of
plant, capacity of plant, technology and different methods to calculate these
estimated values.

 The source of that energy being utilized to manufacture these components

also matters a lot in the calculation of total GHG emissions. For example, a
PV panel manufacture in Germany will have less than half emissions as
compare to the one manufactured in china because the source of energy in
Germany is primarily natural gas and nuclear power while china produces
its major chunk of energy from black coal.
  For both solar and wind plants, production of material and its fabrication
process is the main process in which a lot of hazardous gasses emit. That
corresponds to 71% of the total emissions while construction of facility and
transportation related to it is responsible for 24% and 19% for wind and
solar life time emissions. While the operation of wind farms and solar
panels emit 23.9% and 13% life time emissions.
 By decommissioning both solar and wind plants after their expected life and
reuse the material obtain from it generally offsets the 19.4% and 3.3% of
the emissions [32].

Figure 4.11 Life cycle Emission of CO2 by Wind and Solar Plants [37]

On average, wind turbines and solar panels having larger life span have low life
cycle emissions per kilowatt hour as compared to the smaller ones. In a research
[38, 39], it was found that for a wind plant having life of 20 years results in an
average emission of 40.69g/kWh while same plant for 25 years emits at the rate of
28.53g/kwh. Same pattern is followed by solar panels too. Figure 4.12 shows
comparison of lifecycle emissions of different technologies too.
 Figure 4.12 Comparison of life cycle emission of different technologies

4.16 RESIDENTIAL SOLAR SYSTEM PAYBACK PERIOD

Cost of installation=$ 26717

loanduration∧rate=15 years∧7 %

annuity factor=10.98 % cap / year

annuities=$ 2933 / year

loan payback=$ 2933 ×10=$ 29330

Average cost of electricity=$ 0.08/kWh

Yearly savings=Average cost of electricity × Annual energy production

0.08 ×37510=$ 2857

Payback Period =loan payback /Yearly savings

29330/2857=10.2Years

Chapter 5
 FUTURE PROSPECTS

5.1 POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS

In order to bring this vast natural and clean renewable resource into effective
action a comprehensive PV analysis from module technologies, BOS components
and raw material to product development and deployment is needed. This section
will show a set of important actions essential for creating efficacious policy
recommendations, which is going to support solar PV to be successful in the
market (Technology Roadmap: Solar Photovoltaic Technology, 2015).

5.2 INCENTIVE AND FRAMEWORK

5.2.1 FINANCIAL INCENTIVE SCHEME AND REGULATORY
FRAMEWORK
To gain more interest of investors for high capital investment for PV
installations and PV modules manufacturing industry, it is essential to have clear,
long term, effective and predictive financial incentives schemes like FiT, portfolio
standards and investment subsidies with a framework like access to grids.
Governments should implement such long-term schemes and energy policies for
PV deployment. In addition, framework should continue to the actual market where
net metering system is involved with an economic incentive schemes for PV
electricity generators and users.
Providing only economic support is not enough, there should be proper regulations
for non-economic hurdles which can hinder the effectiveness of polices and
supportive schemes. There are administrative problems like planning delays, lack
of coordination between authorities, long time for approval and connectivity with
grids. There should be some time schedule for each legal steps and procedure with
a good coordination between all the departments and authorities.
Majority of PV incentive schemes are made for grid connected systems and stand-
alone systems are hardly ever supported, despite the fact that they can offer an
efficient and effective solution (replacing diesel generators with PV systems).

5.2.2 REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR PV GRID INTEGRATION

 The major issues with a PV system are its interconnection with the grid and
load management. This will require more smart ways of generating and distributing
electricity which is simple, safe and reliable. One of the measures that can be taken
to resolve this issue is by better transmission and management technologies, which
include smart grid and metering and improved energy storage system.
Hence, for enhanced grid integration, governments should initiate long-term
planning for system flexibility and grid management. For example, regions with
high amount of irradiation can be connected with high number of grid connected
PV projects with proper distribution management system, with time dependent
electricity tariffs.

5.3 MARKET TRANSFORMATION

5.3.1 GLOBALLY ACCEPTED STANDARDS AND CODES
With an aim to have high-scale PV deployment IEA has identified that
there should be internationally accepted standards, codes and certificates of PV
products (International Energy Agency, 2015b). It will not only help in safety and
quality but will also avoid the administrative barriers. This set of standards, codes
and certificate should include energy and performance of PV modules, quality
assurance, reuse and recycling and for gird interconnections. Overall, this world-
wide accepted standard and codes will enhance the deployment of wide variety of
PV technologies.

5.3.2 PROMOTE NEW INVESTMENT AND BUSINESS MODELS

It is a well-known fact that PV needs initial high investment cost but has a
low operating cost (Dusonchet and Telaretti, 2015). In current scenario, most of the
incentive schemes are for large-scale grid tie projects. However, high-capital
investment is a major hurdle for residential and small commercial customers with
off grid application. One of the options to resolve this issue is to support Energy
Service Companies (ESCOs), which will own the system and provide the energy to
end user for a periodic fee. The user will never be the owner of the system and are
not responsible for any maintenance. Governments should provide some financial
support to PV ESCOs for grid tie and stand-alone PV systems.
According to IEA PVPS (Photovoltaic Power System Programme), 2008 there
should be some sort of financing mechanism options like direct cash sales, credit
sales or lease purchase (Léna, 2013).

5.3.3 SKILLED PV WORKFORCE

From research to installation and maintenance, PV market needs skilled
workers. A highly skilled trained people are required for technology development,
customer's confidence in quality of installation, reliability and cost reduction. To
ensure all these factors, there should be some educational institutes and training
programmes for specific target professional groups such as government planners,
architectures and home builders (Solar Powering America Home, 2015).

5.4 DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNOLOGY AND R&D

5.4.1 ASSURED LONG-TERM R&D FUNDING
PV sector comprises several materials (see ‘PV materials and efficiency’
section) and technologies, which needs potential improvements. Appropriate long-
term high amount of funding assurance is required to develop and improve system
technology and bring novel concepts to industrialization.
It is noticed that R&D funding for PV is increasing in recent years; however, it
need to be increased more in upcoming years to achieve the targets like BLUE
MAP, to reduce the carbon emission by 50% till 2050 (Global Gaps in Clean
Energy RD&D, 2010).

5.4.2 DEVELOP SMART GRIDS AND ENERGY STORAGE

TECHNOLOGIES
As mentioned in ‘Regulatory framework for PV grid integration’ section,
the need of smart grid technology will significantly increase as the PV systems will
increase. It provides a wide range facility to both generator and end user, for
monitoring bidirectional flow of electricity. This technology can keep a control
over conventional generation with a variable PV electricity generation and storage.
It can maintain the proper flow of electricity in the time of peak demand, from the
storage to the end user with an accurate calculation of generated electricity from
both conventional sources and PV. It can also process a real time meteorological
data evaluation to predict the PV electricity generation. An advanced metering
system which is an integrated part of smart grid can deploy the PV systems because
it will provide a better operational characteristic understanding of consumption of
grid electricity and generated PV electricity, i.e. if the user has installed its own PV
plant.
As targeted by IEA vision, PV electricity will share 5% of global electricity after
the year 2030. At that stage, there will be need of superior storage technologies,
which will provide flexibility to the system and minimize the impact of variable PV
generation. Various R&D activities are going on redox flow batteries, compressed
air energy storage, electric double layer capacitors, flywheel systems, Li-ion
batteries and superconducting magnetic energy storage.
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