Motherboard/Processor/Memory

There are different slots and sockets for CPUs, and it is necessary for a motherboard to have the appropriate slot or socket for the
CPU. Most sockets are square. Several precautions are taken to ensure that both the socket and the processor are indicated to ensure
proper orientation. The processor is usually marked with a dot or a notch in the corner that is intended to go into the marked corner of
the socket.

Sockets and slots on the motherboard are as plentiful and varied as processors. The three most popular are the Socket 5 and
Socket 7, and the Single Edge Contact Card (SECC). Socket 5 and Socket 7 CPU sockets are basically flat and have several rows of
holes arranged in a square. The SECC connectors are of two types: slot 1 & slot 2.

Design No of Pins Pin Rows Voltage Mobo Class Processor's supported

Socket 1 169 3 5 Volts 486 80486SX, 80486DX, 80486DX2, 80486DX4

Socket 2 238 4 5 Volts 486 80486SX, 80486DX, 80486DX2, 80486DX4

Socket 3 237 4 5 / 3.3 Volts 486 80486SX, 80486DX, 80486DX2, 80486DX4

Socket 4 273 4 5 Volts 1st Generation Pentium Pentium 60-66, Pentium OverDrive

Socket 5 320 5 3.3 Volts Pentium Pentium 75-133 MHz, Pentium OverDrive

Socket 6 235 4 3.3 Volts 486 486DX4, Pentium OverDrive

Design No of Pins Pin Rows Voltage Mobo Class Processor's supported

Socket 7 321 5 2.5 / 3.3Volts Pentium 75-200 MHz, OverDrive, Pentium MMX

Socket 8 387 5 (dual pattern) 3.1 / 3.3Volts Pentium Pro Pentium Pro OverDrive, Pentium II OverDrive

Intel Slot 1 242 N/a 2.8 / 3.3Volts Pentium Pro / Pentium II Pentium II, Pentium Pro, Celeron.

Intel Slot 2 330 N/a 2.8/ 3.3Volts Intel Xeon Pentium II 400,450, Pentium Xeon

Socket 370 370 N/a 2.0 Volts Celeron Celeron, Pentium IIIs

Socket 423 423 N/a 1.0/1.85 Volts Pentium IV Celeron, Pentium Iv

Socket 479 479 - - Pentium M Pentium M

AMD ATHLON PROCESSORS

Slot A - Original AMD Athlon processors

Socket 462 - Newer AMD Athlon, Athlon XP, Sempron, and Duron processors
Socket 754 - Lower end AMD Athlon 64 and Sempron processors with single-channel memory support
Socket 939 - AMD Athlon 64 and AMD Athlon FX processors with dual-channel memory support
Socket 940 - AMD Opteron and early AMD Athlon FX processors

Different kinds of SLOTS

 Slot 1 - Celeron, Pentium II, Pentium III

 Slot 2 - Pentium II Xeon, Pentium III Xeon
 Slot A - Early Athlons
 Slot B - DEC Alpha

Different kinds of SOCKETS

 Socket 1 - 486
 Socket 2 - 486
 Socket 3 - 486
 Socket 4 - Early Pentiums (60-66)
 Socket 5 - Pentium, IDT Winchip C6, Winchip 2
 Socket 463 - (also known as Socket NexGen) - NexGen Nx586
 Socket 6 - Intel 80486
 Socket 7 - Pentium
 Super Socket 7 - Faster Bus Speed - AMD K6-2, K6-III, Rise mP6
 Socket 8 - Pentium Pro
 Socket 370 - Celeron, Pentium III, Cyrix III
 Socket 423 - Pentium 4 but short lived
 Socket 478 - Intel Celeron, Pentium 4
 Socket 479 - Mobile Pentium
 Socket 775 - (also known as LGA 775 or Socket T) - Intel Pentium 4

 VRM (Voltage Regulator Module) is used for supplying proper voltage to the processor for its operation. A VRM (Voltage
Regulator Module) is installed in Header 8 on the motherboard.
  Most VRMs have VID (Voltage ID). VID allows the processor to program the correct voltage during power-on. If the
motherboard has Header 8, then a VRM must be installed in the header to power the processor.

 High-performance computers use multiple microprocessors to satisfy the computing speeds. The applications use
one VRM for each microprocessor to take advantage of the modularity and economy offered by the VRM. These
multiple VRMS are designed to share the total current demand of the processors.

MEMORY

RAM - Random Access Memory is a collection of memory chips, which function as the computer's primary workspace. In today's
computer, 64MB (64 megabytes) of SDRAM is a minimum for a desktop computer.

 Masked ROMs: The very first ROMs were hardwired devices the contents of which had to be specified before chip
production. They are now called masked ROMs to distinguish them from other types of ROM.

 PROM: One step up from the masked ROM is the PROM (programmable ROM. A Device programmer is used for writing the
data to the PROM; it writes data one word at a time by applying an electrical charge to the input pins of the chip. Once
programmed the PROM's contents can never be changed.

 EPROM (erasable-and-programmable ROM): is programmed in the same manner as a PROM. The advantage
EPROM has over PROM is that it can be erased and reprogrammed repeatedly. Data on an EPROM is erased by exposing it
to a strong source of ultraviolet light which resets EPROM to its initial un-programmed state.

Hybrid memories are developed that can be read and written as desired just like RAM, but maintain their contents without electrical
power, just like ROM. EEPROM and flash are descendants of ROM devices. These are typically used to store code. The third
hybrid, NVRAM, is a modified version of SRAM. NVRAM holds persistent data.

 EEPROM: Electrically-erasable-and-programmable. In EEPROMs the erase operation is accomplished electrically,

rather than exposure to ultraviolet light.

Flash memory devices are high density, low cost, nonvolatile, fast (to read, but not to write), and electrically reprogrammable.
The technologies for flash and EEPROM are similar. The major difference is that flash devices can only erase sector by sector
but not byte by byte. Typical sector sizes are in the range 256 bytes to 16KB. Despite this disadvantage, flash is much more
popular than EEPROM due to its advantages.

 NVRAM: Non-volatile RAM is the third member of Hybrid memory class. NVRAM has similar characteristics as hybrid
memories discussed previously but it is physically different. An NVRAM is usually just an SRAM with a battery backup. When
the power is turned on, the NVRAM operates just like any other SRAM. When the power is turned off, the NVRAM draws just
enough power from the battery to retain its data. NVRAM application is limited due to its high cost.

There are two types of RAM:

1. Static RAM (SRAM) retains its contents as long as electrical power is applied to the chip. If the power even if lost temporarily,
its contents will be lost forever. They are faster than DRAM but are expensive. SRAM is used only where access speed is
extremely important.

2. Dynamic RAM (DRAM) has an extremely short data lifetime-typically about four milliseconds. They are effective whenever
large amounts of RAM are required.

Apart from SRAM and DRAM, there are EDO RAM, VRAM (Designed for graphics), SDRAM (next level of DRAM), DDR RAM (Next
level of SDRAM) and RDRAM.

History of Memory with: Speed Number of Pins

Year Introduced Technology Speed Limit Form Factor

1987 FPM 50ns 30- or 72-pin SIMM

1995 EDO 50ns 72-pin or 168-pin DIMM

1996 PC66 SDRAM 66MHz 168-pin DIMM

1998 PC100 SDRAM 100MHz 168-pin DIMM

1999 RDRAM 800MHz 184-Pin RIMM

1999/2000 PC133 SDRAM 133MHz 168-pin DIMM

2000 DDR SDRAM 266MHz 184-pin DIMM

3. EDO (Extended Data Out) RAM:

 Increases performance up to 15 percent over DRAM by eliminating memory wait states, this means eliminating
few steps to access memory.

 Extends the availability of data in the memory as the read time does not expire until an additional signal is
sent to the chip. Hence it is called an Extended Data Out RAM. In comparison a DRAM discharges its contents
after read and must be refreshed before another read can occur.

 Is more expensive than DRAM, but less expensive than SDRAM. EDO RAM comes in 72-pin SIMMs and
sometimes even on 168-pin DIMMs (dual inline memory modules).

4. DRAM (Dynamic random access memory):

 Is an enhancement over SRAM. DRAM has a different approach towards storing the 1s and 0s. DRAM stores
information as charges in very small capacitors, instead of transistors.

 Stores each bit of data in a separate capacitor. If a charge exists in a capacitor, it's interpreted as a 1. The absence
of a charge will be interpreted as a 0.

 Uses capacitors instead of switches. As the capacitor leaks electrons, the information gets lost eventually,
unless the charge is refreshed periodically, therefore it uses a constant refresh signal to keep the
information in memory. Because it must be refreshed periodically, it is called dynamic memory.

 Needs more power than SRAM to refresh signals, therefore, is mostly found in desktop computers.

 Uses several memory units called cells. These cells are packed with very high density. Hence, these chips can
hold large amounts of data.

 Also known as FPM (fast page mode) DRAM, it comes in 80, 70 or 60 nanosecond (ns) speeds.� Takes two
processor wait-states each time a read or write takes place. The advantage is that, it's compatible with just about
everything. Disadvantage is that it's the slowest of the memory types currently available and because it isn't in
demand, it's now more expensive than faster memory alternatives such as EDO and SDRAM.

 Is available on industry standard 30- or 72-pin Single Inline Memory Modules (SIMMs). DRAM is also
available in DIMMs (Dual Inline Memory Modules).

5. SRAM (Static Random Access Memory) is a type of semiconductor memory. The word "static" indicates that the memory
retains its contents as long as power is continuously applied.

In a SRAM, the only time the data on the memory is refreshed or changed is when an actual write command is executed.
SRAM is very fast, but is much more expensive than DRAM. SRAM is often used as cache memory due to its speed.

Random access indicates that locations in the memory can be accessed, i.e. written or read, in any order regardless of the
memory location that was accessed before.

The symmetric circuit structure allows the value of a memory location to be read much faster than in a DRAM.

Fast SRAM is faster than DRAM and is used where speed is the most important requirement. Slow, low-capacity SRAMs are
used where low power consumption and low cost are the most important requirements. The power consumption of SRAM
varies widely depending on its speed. Fast SRAM requires more power than DRAM. Slow SRAM, such as the battery-powered
"CMOS" RAM on PC motherboards, has very low power consumption.

Types of SRAM:

 Async SRAM: This is an older type of SRAM used in many PC's for L2 cache. It works independently of

 the system clock.

 Sync SRAM: This type of SRAM is synchronous, meaning it is synchronized with the system clock.
  Pipeline Burst SRAM: This type of SRAM is most commonly used. SRAM requests are pipelined, meaning larger
packets of data re sent to the memory at once, and acted on very quickly. This type of SRAM can operate at bus
speeds higher than 66MHz, so is often used.

6. VRAM (Video RAM) is a term used in computers to describe RAM dedicated for displaying bitmap graphics in graphics
hardware. VRAM resides on the motherboard physically and is separate from the main RAM. In few systems the VRAM is
shared with the system RAM.

The term VRAM is used more specifically in high performance graphics hardware. The VRAM is used to constantly refresh the
display and at the same time be responsive to modifications from the host system. Dual Ported VRAM allows the graphics
processor to read from memory and redraw the screen simultaneously, eliminating the problem plaguing single-ported memory
types (i.e., DRAM).

7. SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM) was introduced in 1996. SDRAM was developed to match the ever-increasing processing
speeds of the Pentium systems.

Synchronous DRAM, is synchronized to the speed of the systems (e.g. PC66 SDRAM runs at 66MHz, PCIOO runs at 100M
HZ, PC133 runs at 133MHz and so on) hence the name "synchronous". Synchronizing the speed of the systems prevents
the address bus from having to wait for the memory because of different clock speeds.

A SDRAM's timing is synchronized to the system clock. By running in sync to an external clock signal, SDRAM can run at the
same speed as the CPU/memory bus, there by eliminating the CPU wait states. The chip is divided into two cell blocks, and
data is split between the two. While a bit in one block is accessed, a bit in the other is buffered for access. This allows SDRAM
to burst subsequent, contiguous characters at a much faster rate than the first character.

SDRAM are DIMMs and have 168-pins running at 3.3 volts.

8. DDR SDRAM or double-data-rate synchronous dynamic random access memory is a type of memory used in computers. It is
designed to double the clock speed of the memory. It achieves greater bandwidth by transferring data on both the rising and
falling edges of the clock signal. Thus a 100 MHz DDR system has an effective clock rate of 200MHz.

With data being transferred 8 bytes at a time DDR RAM gives a transfer rate of 16 bytes Thus with a bus frequency of 100
MHz, DDR-SDRAM gives a max transfer rate of 1600 MB/s.

DDR SDRAM DIMMs has 184 pins, and can be differentiated from SDRAM DIMMs by the number of notches (DDR SDRAM
has 1, SDRAM has 2). DDR operates at a voltage of 2.5V, compared to 3.3V for SDRAM. This can significantly reduce power
usage.

Few new chipsets use DDR memory in dual or even quad channel configurations, which doubles or quadruples the effective
bandwidth. In the dual-channel configuration it is recommended to use a matched pair of memory modules for optimize
performance. The pair must have the same size, speed, and latency timings, enabling the chipset to interleave accesses with
maximum efficiency is replaced by DDR-2, which has some alterations to allow higher clock frequency, but operates
on the same principle as DDR. SDRAM

9. DDR2 SDRAM (Double Data Rate Two Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory) is a computer memory technology
that is becoming the mainstream standard for PC memory. DDR2 is part of the SDRAM family of random access memory
technologies. The advantage DDR2 has over DDR is its ability to work at higher effective clock speeds.

10. XDR DRAM is a high performance RAM with clock speed of 3.2 GHz, providing up to 6.4 GB/s bandwidth. XDR is the official
choice by Sony for the Play station 3 console.

11. RDRAM (Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory) is a memory subsystem that can transfer data up to 1.6 billion bytes per
second. The subsystem consists of the RAM, the RAM controller, and the bus connecting RAM to the microprocessor and
devices in the computer that use it. RDRAM has 184 pins and are available in RIMM. They are recognized by their aluminum
sheath called a heat spreader.

The term form factor in computers describes the size, configuration, or physical arrangement of a computer hardware object. The term
is commonly used to describe the size and the arrangement of a computer case or chassis or its internal components such as a
daughterboard. In short, the design structure, look and feel of a hardware device.

SIMM
Single In-line Memory Module (SIMM) is a small circuit board with integrated circuit chips used to hold RAM (Random Access
Memory). SIMMS clip into the memory expansion socket s on the motherboard.

SIMMs offer two main advantages, minimal consumption of board surface and ease of installation. A vertically mounted SIMM requires
very less space when compared to a horizontally mounted DRAM. On a SIMM, the metal leads on either side of the board are
electrically tied together.
A SIMM is an older type of memory module used for RAM in PC. The difference from a DIMM being that the contacts on a SIMM are
redundant on both sides of the module.

30 Pin SIMM: The first variant of SIMMs has 30 pins and lets (transfers) 8 bits of data (9 bits in parity versions).

72 Pin SIMM: The second variant of SIMMs - also called PS/2 after the IBM line of computers in which it was first used - has 72 pins
and lets (transfers) 32 bits of data (36 bits in parity versions).

The best and easiest way to differentiate these two different kinds of SIMMs was by the number of pins or connectors. Also the 72-pin
SIMMs is 3/4 of an inch longer than the 30-pin SIMMs and has a notch in the lower middle.

To install a SIMM, the module should be placed in the socket at an angle then rotate it (angled) into position. To remove the module,
the two metal clips at each end should be part to the side and then the chip must be tilted back and pulled out.

DIMM (Dual In-line Memory Module) is an assembly of several memory chips on a single PCB used to upgrade RAM capacity.
DIMMs have gradually replaced SIMMs used in earlier machines. SIMMs only had contacts on one side of the card. DIMMs have
contacts on both sides that hold twice as many chips as a SIMM. DRAM and SDRAM are two types of memory chips used in DIMMs.
Extended Data Out (EDO) DRAM is the most common type of asynchronous DRAM used. At times it is also called hyper page mode
DRAM.
DIMMs gradually began replacing SIMMs as the predominant type of memory module when Intel's Pentium processors were in the
mainstream market.

The most common types of DIMMs are:

72-pin-DIMMs, used for SO DIMM

144-pin-DIMMs, used for SO DIMM
168-pin-DIMMs, used for SDRAM
184-pin-DIMMs, used for DDR SDRAM
240-pin-DIMMs, used for DDR2 SDRAM

Generally, the DIMMs have either 72 or 168 pins. Some DIMMs are 32-bit, but more and more are 64-bit and only have to be
installed one at a time in Pentium-class computers.

DIMMs closely resemble SIMMs. Like SIMMs, most DIMMs install vertically into expansion sockets. The major difference between
the two is that SIMM has pins on opposite sides of the board are "tied together" to form one electrical contact whereas a
DIMM has opposing pins remain electrically isolated to form two separate contacts.

168-pin DIMMs transfer's 64 bits of data at a time and is used in computer that supports a 64-bit or wider memory bus. Major
physical differences between 168-pin DIMMs and 72-pin SIMMs include: the length of module, the number of notches on the module,
and the way the module installs in the socket. Another difference is that many 72 pin SIMMs install at a slight angle, whereas 168-pin
DIMMs install straight into the memory socket and remain completely vertical in relation to the system motherboard.

SO-DIMM (Small Outline Dual In-line Memory Module) is a type of computer memory integrated circuit that is a smaller alternative to
a DIMM and is roughly half the size of regular DIMMs. SO-DIMMs are designed for applications with limited space and require low
power consumption. SO-DIMMs are often utilized in laptop computers, small footprint PCs (PC's with a Mini ITX motherboard)
and high-end upgradeable office printers.

SO-DIMMs have 72 pins (supporting 32-bit data transfer) or 144 pins or 200 pins (both supporting 64-bit data transfer). This
compares to regular DIMMs that have 168 pins and support 64-bit data transfer. 144-pin SO-DIMMs are commonly found in notebook
computers.

SO-DIMMs are smaller and thinner than regular DIMMs. The gold pins on the bottom of the SODIMM provide a connection between the
module and a socket on a larger motherboard.

RIMM is the term used for a module using Rambus technology. It stands for "Rambus In-Line Memory Module". At times it is
wrongly used as an acronym for Rambus Inline Memory Module. Officially, "RIMM" is a term trademarked by Rambus Inc., and it's
neither a brand-independent reference nor an acronym like "DIMM". However, many consumers have started to use the term "RIMM" in
much the same way people say "Kleenex" for "facial tissue".

RIMM is a memory module that takes up less space inside the computer than the older DIMM module and has different PIN
architecture. It is similar to DIMMs using Direct Rambus DRAM memory subsystems.

A RIMM has a 184-pin connector and an SO-RIMM module has a 160-pin connector. An SO-RIMM is smaller and is used in
systems that require smaller form factors.

A RIMM module consists of RDRAM chips that are attached using a thin layer of solder. Solder balls on each chip create a metal
pathway used to conduct electricity.
 - These are Smaller than SODIMM. Micro DIMMS are primarily used in note book (laptop) computers. Micro DIMMs are
available in 144-pin SDRAM and 172-pin DDR. Each 172 Pin Micro DIMM provides a 64-bit data path. They are utilized in the latest
laptop/notebook computers and networking applications that require high performance DDR memory.

RIMM's transfer data in 16-bit chunks. The faster access and transfer speed generates more heat. An aluminum sheath, called a heat
spreader, covers the module to protect the chips from overheating.

RDRAM (Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory) is a memory subsystem that offers to transfer up to 1.6 billion bytes per
second. The subsystem consists of the random access memory (RAM), the RAM controller, and the bus (path) connecting RAM to the
microprocessor and devices in the computer that use it. It can be identified by its heat spreader.

CACHE MEMORY: a fast storage area used to store frequently used data and instructions; there are 3 kinds of cache
memory:

Cache is a high-speed storage mechanism. Level 2 cache (External cache) is a memory cache that is external to the CPU chip.
Typically located on the motherboard, the L2 cache is also known as a "secondary cache." L2 caches sit between the CPU and the
DRAM. An L2 cache feeds the L1 cache. If the L2 cache is also integrated on the CPU chip, then the external motherboard cache
becomes the L3 cache. The L3 cache feeds the L2 cache, which feeds the L1 cache, which feeds the CPU.

Cache Level

The level of cache is determined by referring to its connecting circuits or electronic pathways (bus) and physical proximity to the CPU.

 Internal Cache (Level I or L1)

Internal cache is a small amount of SRAM placed inside the actual CPU (internally) and is accessed directly. It runs at the
same speed as the processor. With the introduction of the 486 CPU, Intel placed 8K of internal cache memory in the
processor. The present computers have 16K - 64K of L1 cache memory.

L1 cache is built into the CPU chip or packaged within the same module as the chip. Sometimes known as the
“primary cache”, an L1 cache is the memory closest to the CPU.

 External Cache (Level II or L2)

External Cache is external to the CPU. It's on the motherboard in DIP chips or in COAST (Cache On A Stick) slots. The speed
of L2 cache is directly proportional to the system bus speed.

Modern computers have the level II cache inside the CPU package to shorten the bus length and increase the speed to L2
cache. However it's still separate from the CPU core and connected by a bridge, termed as 'backside bus'. These level II
cache runs at half the processor speed.

Level II on the backside bus or bridge running at half the processor speed, and Level III cache attached to the motherboard
with a bus speed the same as the system bus. Basically, it runs slower than the processor, but faster than the main memory.

L2 cache, also referred to as secondary cache, is typically located on the motherboard and feeds the L1 cache.

 Level 3 Cache (L3)

If the L3 cache is also integrated on the CPU chip, then the external motherboard cache becomes the L3 cache. The L3 cache
feeds the L2 cache which feeds the L1 cache which in turn feeds the CPU.

The next level of cache is the main memory itself & the one after that is called virtual memory. Most operating systems use
this when they run out of main memory, but some use it in other ways as well.

CAUTION: For the purposes of the exam, you should remember that the primary (L-1) cache is internal to the
processor chip itself, and the secondary (L-2) cache is almost always external.

COMPUTER BUS:

A bus is a set collection of wires that allow information and signals to travel between components inside or outside of a
computer.

Types of bus systems for the motherboard:

 ISA Bus: The original 8-bit bus used in first-generation IBM PCs accepted only 8-bit expansion boards. It was superseded by
the 16-bit AT bus, later known as the ISA bus.
 VL-Bus (VESA Local bus): was a bus originally used with the 486 computers and was limited in the number of slots to
add on devices. Used for expansion cards such as video cards.
 PCI Bus: This bus is the present standard. It can transfer data 64-bit at a time with rates up to 66 MHz. The fastest of the
present PIC is the PCI express (clock speeds reaching 133 MHz).
  COMBO Bus: It is a combination of VL-Bus and PCI bus and allows use of both types of add-in cards.
 AGP Bus: The AGP bus is designed for video cards. A PCI bus is shared by devices connected to the bus. The transfer rate
is reduced as more peripherals plugged to the PCI bus. This is eliminated by AGP Bus.

Devices operating on a bus can be divided into two categories, bus masters, and bus slaves. Bus masters are devices capable of
initiating any bus cycle (memory read/write, port addressing, etc.) and bus slaves are devices responding to a bus cycle but are not
capable of initiating them.

The bus consists of components like the external bus, the control bus, the data bus and the address bus.

The external lines are also called the system bus or expansion bus. These lines allow the processor to talk to device. The control lines
are responsible for passing control signals across the bus which instruct the device when to read / write data.

The address lines provide the memory or I/O device with the exact locations of the data.

The data lines provide a channel through which the actual data is transmitted, the larger the bus width, the more data it can transfer.
Data in a computer is transferred digitally. A single wire carries 5 volts to indicate a 1 data bit or carries zero volts to indicate a 0 data
bit.

Expansion slots are used to install various devices in the computer to expand its capabilities. A few such expansion devices are video,
network, sound, and disk interface cards.

A motherboard is likely to have three main types of expansion slots namely,

 ISA
 PCI
 AGP

Each type differs in its appearance and function. Most computers have Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) slots. They are
around 3" long and usually in white or cream color. PCI slots can usually be found in any computer that has a Pentium-class processor
or higher.

The PCI bus uses either 32 or 64 bits of parallel data, depending on the version. So with each clock tick, 32 or 64 bit data is transferred
over the bus. Transferring 64 bits at a time translates to a very large parallel bus, using a minimum of 64 lines in addition to all the
required control and signal lines.

PCI Express Bus has been released using a differential serial bus instead of a parallel bus. The PCI Express bus requires only a few
sets of differential lines. The newer motherboards will have a PCI Express bus instead of an AGP slot.

PCI slots are characterized by 33.33 MHz clock speed with a peak transfer rate of 133 MB per second. PCI-X, runs at 133MHz on 64
bit bus.

PCI devices are plug and play.

Note: Plug and Play is a term used in the computer field to describe a computer's ability to have new devices, normally peripherals,
added to it without having to reconfigure or (ideally) restart the computer.

Advanced Graphics Port is a high-speed point-to-point channel for attaching a video graphics card to the motherboard, primarily to
accelerate the computer graphics.

Earlier PCI or ISA slots were used for accelerated graphics video cards. As games adapted to better graphics, more realism and more
speed there was a need for a slot dedicated to video graphics. AGP slots were designed to be a direct connection between the video
circuitry and the PC's memory.

AGP slots are easily recognizable because they are usually brown, shorter than the PCI slots and located right next to the PCI slots on
the motherboard. Basically, AGP runs at twice the speed of a memory bus.

Few of AGP standards are listed below:

 AGP 1x: Operates at 66 MHz reaching up to a maximum data rate of 266 megabytes per second using a 32-bit channel.
Doubled from the 133MBytes/s transfer rate of PCI bus 33MHz / 32bit.
 AGP 2x: Operates at 66 MHz double pumped to an effective 133 MHz reaching up to a maximum data rate of 533
megabytes per second using a 32-bit channel.
 AGP 4x: Operates at 66 MHz quad pumped to an effective 266 MHz reaching up to a maximum data rate of 1066 megabytes
per second using a 32-bit channel. Uses 1.5 V signaling.
 AGP 8x (Pro): Operates at 66 MHz octuple pumped to an effective 533 MHz reaching up to a maximum data rate of 2133
megabytes per second using a 32-bit channel. Uses 0.8 V signaling.

In addition, AGP Pro cards come in two versions based on physical interface, 3.3V and 1.5V cards. They require more power and are
often longer than standard AGP cards, though the slot remains the same. These cards are usually used to cater to high end computer
designing applications employed in architecture, machining, engineering and similar fields. 64 bit AGP slot is also available, using a 64
bit channel. They are used in high end professional graphic cards.

Motherboards that support AGP have Plug-and-Play BIOS that will automatically configure the card. Once the card is installed (System
power off state) & the system is turned on, the BIOS will configure the card automatically. The driver may need to be installed for the
operating system.

The Motherboard is the main circuit board of a computer. The motherboard contains the connectors for attaching additional
components. The collection of chips and controllers is known as the "chipset".

The motherboard is a collection of devices that control the flow of data and operating electricity for all the primary components in a PC.
The Motherboard has two main processing chips on it called the Northbridge and the Southbridge. The Northbridge handles all the data
flows to and from the main memory and also all the CPU transactions

Integrated and nonintegrated are the two major types of Motherboards based on the way components were installed or
designed on it.

Nonintegrated motherboards have lot of expansion cards. The major components are the video card, disk controllers. Nonintegrated
motherboards can be easily identified because each expansion slot is usually occupied by one of the components.

Integrated system boards have most of the components included into the motherboard circuitry that would otherwise be installed as
expansion cards, thus the name integrated. Integrated system boards were designed for their simplicity. A major drawback is that even
in case one component breaks down then the entire motherboard needs to be replaced. Though they are cheaper to produce, they are
more expensive to repair. ATX mother boards are common integrated motherboards.

Nonintegrated system boards are further classified based on their form factors (design): mainly into 2 types AT and ATX.

The AT motherboards are the first modern form factor to be widely used. AT stands for Advanced Technology & it was
released by IBM in 1984. The PC and XT form factors that preceded it were quite uncommon. There are a few computers that still use
AT and its variant Baby AT, but current standards are in favor of ATX.

AT was not a huge technological advancement from older form factors. The biggest advancement was the "tower" design and a power
switch in the front. The AT power supply provided 192 watts, thrice more than older form factors.

The AT motherboard is 12 inches (305 mm) and it won't fit in "mini-tower cases" or "mini desktop". One of the major problems with the
width of this board it takes up space behind the drive bays making installation of new drives difficult. The power connectors for AT
motherboards are almost identical with 6-pin cords. The two connectors are not physically distinguishable, leading to damage of the
motherboard when they were connected incorrectly.

Baby AT is a variant of AT, introduced by IBM in 1985. Baby AT motherboards were popular as they were cheaper and smaller.
These motherboards have the same functionality as AT motherboards but the width is reduced from 12" to 8.5" and are marginally
longer.

AT and Baby AT motherboards were the first PC motherboards to have built in sockets (headers) for I/O ports (serial, parallel, etc.). The
serial and parallel port connectors are usually attached using cables that go between the physical connectors mounted on the back of
the case and headers (pin connectors). These motherboards are distinguished by their shape, and by the presence keyboard connector
soldered onto the motherboard. They were widely used in 386, 486 and early Pentium computers.

The AT and Baby AT form factors have the processor socket(s)/slot(s) and memory sockets at the front of the motherboard. Long
expansion cards and drives were designed to extend over them. Older processors and memory chips were small and put directly onto
the motherboard. As processors became larger, the form factor did not have space to fit the combination of processor, heat sink, and
fan. The introduction of SIMM/DIMM sockets, the concept of direct memory installation became obsolete.

The ATX form factor was later on designed by Intel in order to overcome the above issues.

ATX Motherboards that were introduced in 1995 quickly replaced older Baby AT & AT computers

ATX (Advanced Technology EXtended motherboard) improves on the previous Baby AT & AT form factors, by rotating the
orientation of the board 90 degrees. This allowed for a more efficient design, with disk drive cable connectors nearer to the
drive bays and the CPU closer to the power supply and cooling fan. ATX is not an abbreviation and is actually a trademark
that belongs to Intel.

The AT standard had only a keyboard connector. Other common I/O connectors (serial & parallel ports etc) had to be mounted
individually. The ATX was the first computer motherboard to not only include I/O support (serial, parallel, mouse, etc.), but to place all
the connectors directly (soldered) onto the motherboard. ATX allowed each motherboard manufacturer to put these ports in a
rectangular area on the back of the system, with an arrangement they could define themselves.

Prior to the ATX, only the keyboard connector was attached to the motherboard.

AT-style computer cases had a power button that was directly connected to the system power supply unit (PSU). The Power could be
managed with proper BIOS support.
Instead of two similar-looking power connectors (that could sometimes be misconnected causing short-circuits) ATX used one large 20-
pin power connector, which made installation much easier and safer. The newer ATX specification defines a 24-pin power connector to
support the power requirements of PCI Express.

Maximum measures of ATX board are 12" x 9.6" (305mm x 244mm). A Full ATX is 12" wide x 9.6" deep & a Mini-ATX is 11.2" wide x
8.2" deep.

Apart from above mentioned advantages ATX form factors also provides Improved Design for Upgradeability, Reduces Drive Bay
Interference, Reduces Expansion Card Interference & has Better Air Flow.

Some related designs include mini-ATX and microATX. MicroATX offers same benefits as ATX form factor but by reducing the
physical size of the motherboard it improved the overall system design costs. This was done by reducing the number of I/O slots
supported on the board. The microATX form factor provides more space at the rear to reduce emissions from using integrated I/O
connectors. ATX will eventually be replaced by BTX.

NLX is a new form factor used in "low profile" motherboard types. They have a unique design where the expansion slots are
placed sideways on a special riser card to optimally use the space. . Some manufactures design and manufacture their own
motherboard designs, which don't conform to either standard. Basically, the components are laid out differently than an AT or ATX, but
it will work as a PC. Such motherboard is known as a proprietary design motherboard.

The BTX (Balanced Technology Extended) form factor will to be the replacement for the ATX form factor. It was proposed by Intel to
address some of the issues that arose from using newer technologies, which demand more power and produce more heat on
motherboards compliant with the ATX specification.

PORT “STUFF” TO KNOW:

Ports are connectors used to connect external cables and devices to the motherboard. Motherboards that don't use integrated ports;
they use headers on the motherboard instead. Headers are groups of pins used to connect devices or ports to the motherboard. A
cable runs from the port and is plugged into the header on the board.

Listed here, are few communication ports:

Serial Ports: It is A male 9-pin or 25-pin port on a computer system used by slower I/O devices such as a mouse or modem. The
name "serial" comes from the fact that a serial port "serializes" data.

Parallel Port: This header has 26 pins. A parallel port is used for simultaneous transmission of data, one byte at a time but over
multiple wires i.e. one bit per wire. This port on the back of the computer normally connects printers and scanners.

PS/2 Mouse Port: MOUSE PORT is GREEN with 6-pin mini-din PS/2 connector (same connector also used for the KEYBOARD PORT
except it is color-coded PURPLE) NOTE: This 6-pin mini-din connector replaced the older, larger 5-pin DIN connector that was used on the
IBM PC/AT design

IR (Infrared) Port: Some motherboards have 4 or 5 pin headers to run a connection for an infrared communications port, typically
used for wireless communication to IR devices. IR ports are very much common on laptops than desktop machines.

USB (Universal Serial Bus): The USB technology is proposed to be the new standard for connecting devices such as keyboards,
mice and other external devices to the PC. Some motherboards provide a 10 pin header to connect a port. Most of the present
motherboards have built in USB ports; USB CONNECTORS: There are 4 TYPES of USB CONNECTORS: TYPE A which is the MOST
COMMON, TYPE B which has a rounded sheath, the STANDARD MINI-B (one-third the size of TYPE A) and the ALTERNATE MINI-B (one-fourth
the width of TYPE A); the mini connectors have been used for smaller devices such as PDAs, mobile phones or digital cameras

Primary and Secondary IDE/ATA Hard disk Interface: Most of the new motherboards have integrated headers for two IDE
channels. Each has 40 pins.

Floppy Disk Interface: Most motherboards provide a 34-pin header for the floppy disk cable.

SCSI: Few motherboards have integrated SCSI ports or headers, though they were uncommon, they are becoming increasingly
popular. They are either 50 or 68 pins in size, depending on the type of SCSI implemented.

MISCELLANEOUS FACTS TO KNOW

 First processor to combine the L2 system cache inside the processor CPU package? PENTIUM PRO

 First processor to use SLOTS instead of sockets? PENTIUM II

 BTX form factor motherboards are incompatible with most ATX form factor cases and vice-versa but all connectors
are compatible, including power supplies, PCI cards, processors, RAM, hard drives, etc.

 The ATX Power Supply supplies:

+ / - 5 volts
 + / - 12 volts

+ 3.3 volts Note: It does not supply - 3.3 volts !!!

Connector “PIN” Details to Know:

Parallel: a two-row 25-pin FEMALE connector

Serial: a two-row 9-pin MALE connector (DB-9); could also be a DB-25 MALE (older one)

PS/2: a 4-pin connector

VGA: a three-row 15-pin FEMALE connector

GAME: a two-row 9-pin FEMALE connector

SCSI: There are a number of different connectors; the most common are highlighted in yellow

3666336
Most SCSI SLOW (5 Mbyte/sec)
computers and host adapters use
the Centronics-type 50-pin
connector. Also some 8-bit Fast
computers and host adapters.

Old Sun and DG Computers

Many 8-bit SCSI FAST (up to 10

Mbytes/sec) computers and host
adapters use this 50-pin High-
Density connector.

Apple/Mac and some older Sun 8-

bit workstations.

All FAST/WIDE (16-bit) SCSI-3

computers and host adapters plus
old DEC single-ended SCSI use
this 68-pin High Density
connector.

New SCA 80-pin