The Ultimate Guide To Additional Mathematics

THE ULTIMATE GUIDE
TO ADDITIONAL
MATHEMATICS
MASTER A MATH IN LESS THAN 30 DAYS!
BY PRI M US LE ARN I N G CEN T RE

THE ULTIMATE GUIDE TO ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS
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Contents
THE ULTIMATE GUIDE TO ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS .................................................................................. 0
Indices and Surds......................................................................................................................................................... 5
Indices ........................................................................................................................................................5
Law of Indices .......................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Surds ..........................................................................................................................................................6
Rules for Operations with Surds ............................................................................................................................................ 6
Conjugate Surds ...................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Rationalizing the Denominator .............................................................................................................................................. 7
Solving Equations Involving Surds ......................................................................................................................................... 7
Nature of Roots of Quadratic Equations ............................................................................................................................. 7
Intersection of a Line and a Curve........................................................................................................................................ 8
Always Positive/Negative Quadratic Expressions ............................................................................................................. 8
Quadratic Graphs................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Interaction between Discriminant, Quadratic, Graph, Expression, Equation, Equalities and Inequalities ............... 11
Polynomials ............................................................................................................................................ 13
Multiplication of Polynomials .............................................................................................................................................. 13
Division of Polynomials ........................................................................................................................................................ 13
Remainder Theorem ............................................................................................................................................................. 14
Factor Theorem ..................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Factorization of Sum or Difference of Two Cubes .......................................................................................................... 14
Rational Root Theorem (OPTIONAL) ..................................................................................................... 15
Rational Root Theorem ........................................................................................................................................................ 15
Finding a Linear Factor of a Polynomial with Integral Coefficients.............................................................................. 16
Solving Cubic Equations with Integral Coefficients.......................................................................................................... 16
Simultaneous Equations in Two Unknowns ......................................................................................................................... 17
Partial Fraction (NA) .............................................................................................................................. 18
Degree of a Polynomial ...................................................................................................................................................... 18
Proper and Improper 𝑷(𝒙)𝑸(𝒙)....................................................................................................................................... 18
Expressing a Proper 𝑷(𝒙)𝑸(𝒙) in Partial Fractions...................................................................................................... 19
Partial Fractions for an Improper 𝑷(𝒙)𝑸(𝒙) ................................................................................................................. 20
Binomial Theorem .................................................................................................................................. 21
Binomial ................................................................................................................................................................................. 21
Factorial Notation, 𝒏! .......................................................................................................................................................... 21
Binomial Coefficient 𝒏𝒓 for Nonnegative Integer 𝒏 ....................................................................................................... 21
Binomial Theorem ................................................................................................................................................................. 22
General Term or the (𝒓 + 𝟏)𝒕𝒉 Term .............................................................................................................................. 23
Modulus, Power, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions(NA) ........................................................... 24
Modulus of 𝒙, 𝒙 ..................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Basic Properties of Moduli .................................................................................................................................................. 24
Graphs of Modulus Functions.............................................................................................................................................. 24
Solving Modulus Equations .................................................................................................................................................. 25
Power Functions..................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Graphs of Power Functions ................................................................................................................................................. 26

Exponential Functions ........................................................................................................................................................... 28

Graphs of Exponential Functions........................................................................................................................................ 30
Logarithms ............................................................................................................................................................................. 28
Common Logarithms and Natural Logarithms .................................................................................................................. 30
Laws of Logarithms............................................................................................................................................................... 28
Change of Base of Logarithms ........................................................................................................................................... 29
Graphs of Logarithmic Functions ........................................................................................................................................ 31
Coordinate Geometry in Two Dimensions ............................................................................................ 30
Gradient and Equation of a Straight Line ........................................................................................................................ 30
Parallel and Perpendicular Lines ....................................................................................................................................... 31
Three Collinear Points .......................................................................................................................................................... 31
Length, Midpoint and Perpendicular Bisector of a Line Segment ................................................................................. 31
Special Quadrilaterals ........................................................................................................................................................ 32
Finding Area of a Polygon with the coordinates of all its Vertices given ................................................................... 33
Graphs of 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒌𝒙 ............................................................................................................................................................ 35
Equations of Circles .............................................................................................................................................................. 36
Linear Laws............................................................................................................................................................................ 37
Trigonometry .......................................................................................................................................... 38
The Four Quadrants of the Cartesian Plane..................................................................................................................... 38
Radians and Degrees .......................................................................................................................................................... 38
General Angles and Reference Angles ............................................................................................................................ 38
Six Trigonometric Ratios for a General Angle ................................................................................................................ 40
Six and Values of Trigonometric Ratios of a General Angle ........................................................................................ 40
Exact Values of Trigonometric Ratios for Special Angles .............................................................................................. 41
Graphs of Trigonometric Functions .................................................................................................................................... 42
The Cosine Curve .................................................................................................................................................................. 43
The Tangent Curve ............................................................................................................................................................... 44
Important Trigonometric Identities ..................................................................................................................................... 46
Angle Sum and Difference Formulae (Addition Formulae) ............................................................................................ 46
Double Angle Formulae ....................................................................................................................................................... 47
Half Angle Formulae............................................................................................................................................................ 47
R-Formulae ............................................................................................................................................................................ 47
Solving Trigonometric Equations......................................................................................................................................... 48
Proofs in Plane Geometry ...................................................................................................................................... 49

Two Straight Lines and a Transversal ................................................................................................... 49
Congruent Triangles ............................................................................................................................................................. 50
Similar Triangles ................................................................................................................................................................... 51
Two Common Structures....................................................................................................................................................... 52
Midpoint Theorem ................................................................................................................................................................ 53
Angle Properties of a Circle ............................................................................................................................................... 53
Angle Properties of a Cyclic Quadrilateral ..................................................................................................................... 54
Properties Involving Chord(s) of Circle(s) .......................................................................................................................... 54
Properties Involving Chord(s) of Circle(s) .......................................................................................................................... 55
Properties Involving Tangent(s) to a Circle ....................................................................................................................... 56
Tangent-Chord Theorem (Alternate Segment Theorem) ................................................................................................. 56
Differentiation ........................................................................................................................................................... 57
Notations for Derivatives ....................................................................................................................... 57

Basic Rules of Differentiation .............................................................................................................................................. 57

Derivative of Common Functions ........................................................................................................................................ 57
Derivative of Trigonometric Functions................................................................................................................................ 58
Derivative of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions ..................................................................................................... 58
Increasing and Decreasing Functions ................................................................................................................................. 58
Test for Increasing/Decreasing Functions.......................................................................................................................... 59
Stationary Points................................................................................................................................................................... 59
Test for Maximum and Minimum Points ............................................................................................................................. 60
2nd Derivative Test .............................................................................................................................................................. 62
Test for Maximum and Minimum Points ............................................................................................................................. 63
Gradient of Tangent and Normal to a Curve.................................................................................................................. 63
Rates of Change ................................................................................................................................................................... 63
Integration ................................................................................................................................................................. 64
Integration as the reverse of Differentiation ......................................................................................... 64
Basic Rules of Integration .................................................................................................................................................... 64
Indefinite Integral of Common Functions ........................................................................................................................... 65
Indefinite Integral of Trigonometric Functions (NA) ......................................................................................................... 65
Indefinite Integral of Exponential Functions (NA) ............................................................................................................ 65
Basic Properties of Definite Integral ................................................................................................................................. 66
Area Bounded by a Curve and Line(s).............................................................................................................................. 67
Area between a Curve and the 𝒚-axis............................................................................................................................. 68
Area of a Region Bounded by a Curve and Lines Parallel to the Coordinate Axes (I) ............................................ 69
Area of a Region Bounded by a Curve and Lines Parallel to the Coordinate Axes (II) ........................................... 70
Area Enclosed by a Curve and an Intersecting Line ....................................................................................................... 71

Indices and Surds

Indices
In the notation aⁿ, a is called the base and n is called the indexnis or exponent or power.
If a is a real number and n is a positive integer, then aⁿ denotes ⏟

𝑎 × 𝑎 ×…× 𝑎 .
𝑛 𝑎 ′𝑠
Law of Indices
For any positive real numbers a, b and any real number m, n,
1. 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛
2. 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑏 𝑚 = (𝑎 × b) 𝑚
3. (𝑎𝑚 )ⁿ = 𝑎𝑚𝑛
𝑎𝑚
4. 𝑎𝑚 ÷ 𝑎𝑛 = = 𝑎𝑚−𝑛
𝑎𝑛
𝑎𝑚 𝑎 𝑚
5. 𝑎 𝑚 ÷ 𝑏 𝑚 = 𝑏 𝑚 = (𝑏 )
6. 𝑎0 = 1 (Note that 0° is not defined.)

1
7. 𝑎−𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛
𝑎 −𝑛 𝑏 𝑛
8. (𝑏 ) = (𝑎 )
1
𝑛
9. 𝑎 𝑛 = √𝑎 (n is a positive integer.)
𝑚
𝑛 𝑛
10. 𝑎 = √𝑎𝑚 = ( √𝑎)𝑚
𝑛 (n is a positive integer.)

Surds
3 5
A surd is an irrational number involving roots. For example √3, √5, 2 − √5, 2√5 + 3√8 and 3√7 − √34 are
3 1 1
surds, whereas √4 = 2 , √ = , 𝜋 (≈ 3.14159) and 𝑒 (≈ 2.71828) are not surds.
27 9
Note that 𝑎√𝑏 = 𝑎 × √𝑏
Rules for Operations with Surds

For any a, b > 0, and any real numbers m, n.
1. √𝑎 × √𝑏 = √𝑎 × 𝑏 = √𝑎𝑏
√𝑎 𝑎
2. √𝑎 ÷ √𝑏 = = √𝑏
√𝑏
3. 𝑚√𝑎 + 𝑛√𝑎 = (𝑚 + 𝑛)√𝑎

4. 𝑚√𝑎 + 𝑚√𝑏 = 𝑚(√𝑎 + √𝑏 )
Note that √𝑎 + √𝑏 ≠ √𝑎 + 𝑏.
For example, √4 + √9 = 2 + 3 = 5,whereas √4 + 9 = √23
Vice Versa √𝑎 − √𝑏 ≠ √𝑎 − 𝑏.
Conjugate Surds
√𝑎 + √𝑏 and √𝑎 − √𝑏 are specially related surds, called conjugate surds. For example, √7 and −√7,
−3 + √5 and −3 − √5 are pairs of conjugate surds.
Multiplying a pair of conjugate surds gets rid of all the outermost square roots, as
𝟐
(√𝒂 + √𝒃)(√𝒂 − √𝒃) = (√𝒂)𝟐 − (√𝒃) = 𝒂 − 𝒃

Rationalizing the Denominator

A surd in the form of a fraction can have its denominator rationalized (i.e., becomes a rational number).
Examples
3+√2 3+√2 √6 (3+√2)(√6) 3√6+√12
a) = × = =
√6 √6 √6 6 6
2−√3 2−√3 3−√3 (2−√3)(3−√3) 6−3√3−3√3+3 8−6√3 4−3√3
b) = × = = = =
3+√3 3+√3 3−√3 (3+√3)(3−√3) 9−3 6 3
Solving Equations Involving Surds

Equations involving one or more √ may sometimes be solved by the following steps:
Step 1: Make sure one side of the equation just a single term involving √ .
Step 2: Square both sides of the resulting equation from Step 1 to get rid of that √ in Step 1.
Step 3: If the resulting equation from Step 2 still contains one or more terms involving √, then repeat
Step 1, otherwise, go to Step 4.
Step 4: Solve the resulting equation from Step 3, which has no more √.
Step 5: Check the solution obtained from Step 4.
Checking of solution is needed, as squaring both sides of an equation may introduce extraneous solutions, which
do not satisfy the given equation.
Nature of Roots of Quadratic Equations

Let 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 be a quadratic equation, where a, b, c are real numbers with 𝑎 ≠ 0.
−𝒃±√𝑫
Its two roots are given by the quadratic formula: 𝑥 = ,
𝟐𝒂
𝑫 = 𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 is the discriminant quadratic equation.
The nature of two roots is determined by the sign of its discriminant, 𝐷 = 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐:
Quadratic Equation has

𝐷>0 two real and distinct (or unequal) roots.
𝐷=0 two real and equal (or repeated) roots.
𝐷<0 no real roots
Example: For what values of b does −2𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 1 = 0 have real solution(s)?

Solution: Since 𝐷 = 𝑏2 − 4(−2)(1) = 𝑏2 + 8 ≥ 8 > 0 for all real b, the equation always has two real and distinct
roots for all real values of b.

Intersection of a Line and a Curve

Consider a curve with equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and a line with equation 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑘.
If the equation 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑘 = 𝑓(𝑥) can be transferred into a quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 with discriminant
𝐷 = 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐, then the sign of D determines whether the line will intersect the curve:
𝐷>0 the line intersects the curve at two points.

𝐷=0 the line is a tangent to the curve at one point.
𝐷<0 the line does not meet the curve.
The 𝑥-coordinate of a point intersection (if any), is real root of the quadratic equation.
Always Positive/Negative Quadratic Expressions

Consider a quadratic expression 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐.
Its discriminant D is given by 𝐷 = 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐.
When
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 > 0 for all real 𝑥 𝐷 < 0 and 𝑎 > 0.
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 < 0 for all real 𝑥 𝐷 < 0 and 𝑎 < 0.
The quadratic expression is always positive/negative if 𝑫 ˂ 𝟎.

Quadratic Graphs
The graph of a quadratic function 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is a parabola concave up if 𝑎 > 0, and a parabola
concave down if 𝑎 < 0:
The 𝑥-intercepts, if any, are the real roots of the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0.
There are six possible case for a quadratic graph, depending on both the signs of 𝐷 and 𝑎:
𝑎>0 𝑎<0
𝑥
𝐷>0
𝑥
𝐷=0
𝑥
𝐷<0
𝒃
The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 has only one line of symmetry, namely, the vertical line 𝒙 = − 𝟐𝒂 .

Relationships between Roots and Coefficients of a Quadratic Equation

If α and β are the two roots of the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 with 𝑎 ≠ 0, then
𝑏
Sum of Roots = α + β = − 𝑎
𝑐
Product of Roots= αβ = 𝑎
𝑥 2 -(Sum of Roots) 𝑥 +(Product of Roots) =0
𝑥 2 − (α + β)𝑥 + αβ = 0 is equivalent to (𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − β) = 0
Note that these relationships between roots and coefficients of a quadratic equation always hold, even for cases
where the roots are not real.
A Few Useful Identities
𝛼 2 + 𝛽2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽
𝛼 2 − 𝛽2 = (𝛼 − 𝛽)(𝛼 + 𝛽)
(𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 4𝛼𝛽

Interaction between Discriminant, Quadratic, Graph, Expression, Equation, Equalities

and Inequalities
Consider the quadratic expression 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐.
−𝑏−√𝐷 −𝑏+√𝐷
Let 𝛼 = and 𝛽 = , where 𝐷 = 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 is the discriminant of the quadratic expression.
2𝑎 2𝑎
If 𝐷 ≥ 0, then 𝛼 and 𝛽 are real with 𝛼 ≥ 𝛽
a 𝑎>0
𝐷= 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 𝐷>0 𝐷=0 𝐷<0
Graph of
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑏
− +
2𝑎 +
𝑥 𝑥 +
− − 𝑏 𝑥
− − 𝑏
2𝑎 −
2𝑎
𝑏
(𝛼 = 𝛽) = −
2𝑎
Two 𝑥-intercepts One 𝑥-intercepts No 𝑥-intercept
Signs of Can be positive,

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 negative, or 0 Always non-negative Always positive
Real roots of 𝑏
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 𝑥 = 𝛼, 𝛽 𝑥=−
2𝑎
2 real & distinct roots 2 real & equal roots No real roots
Solutions of 𝑥 < 𝛼 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 𝛽 𝑏 𝑏 𝑥∈ℝ

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 > 0 𝑥<− 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > −
2𝑎 2𝑎
𝑥
𝑥
𝛼 𝛽 𝑥
Solutions of 𝑥 ≤ 𝛼 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 𝛽 𝑥∈ℝ 𝑥∈ℝ

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 ≥ 0
𝑥 𝑥
𝑥
𝛼 𝛽
Solutions of 𝛼<𝑥<𝛽
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 < 0
No Solution No Solution
𝑥
𝛼 𝛽

Solutions of 𝛼≤𝑥≤𝛽 𝑏
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 ≤ 0 𝑥=−
2𝑎
𝑥 No Solution
𝑥
𝛼 𝛽
a 𝑎>0
𝐷= 𝑏2− 4𝑎𝑐 𝐷>0 𝐷=0 𝐷<0
Graph of 𝑏 𝑏
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + (𝛼 = 𝛽) = − + −
𝑥 2𝑎 2𝑎
𝑏 𝑥
− 𝑏 − −
− + 2𝑎
2𝑎 𝑥
−
Two 𝑥-intercepts
No 𝑥-intercept
One 𝑥-intercept
Signs of Can be positive,
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 negative, or 0 Always non-positive Always negative
Real roots of 𝑏
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 𝑥 = 𝛼, 𝛽 𝑥=−
2𝑎
2 real & distinct roots 2 real & equal roots No real roots
Solutions of 𝛼<𝑥<𝛽
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 > 0
No Solution No Solution
𝑥
Solutions of
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 ≥ 0 𝛼≤𝑥≤𝛽 𝑏
𝑥=− No Solution
2𝑎
𝑥 𝑥
Solutions of 𝑥 < 𝛼 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 𝛽 𝑏 𝑏 𝑥∈ℝ

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 < 0 𝑥<− 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > −
2𝑎 2𝑎
𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
𝑏
− 2𝑎
Solutions of 𝑥 ≤ 𝛼 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 𝛽 𝑥∈ℝ 𝑥∈ℝ
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 ≤ 0
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

Polynomials
Multiplication of Polynomials
Example: Expand each of the following
(3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 4)(2𝑥 − 3)
Solution:
(3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 4)(2𝑥 − 3)
= 6𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 8𝑥 − 12
= 6𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 12
Division of Polynomials
Example: Perform long division for (3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 5) ÷ (𝑥 + 2), and state the quotient 𝑄(𝑥) and the
remainder 𝑅.
Solution: 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 22 Quotient
𝑥 + 2√3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 5
3𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2
−8𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 5
−8𝑥 2 − 16𝑥
22𝑥 + 5 Remainder
22𝑥 + 44
−39
Quotient𝑄(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 22, remainder 𝑅 = −39.
Note: 3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 5 = (𝑥 + 2) 𝑄(𝑥) + 𝑅.
When the division is linear, the remainder is just a constant.

Remainder Theorem
𝑏
When a polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by a linear polynomial (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏)(𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 ≠ 0), the remainder is 𝑓(𝑎).
Example: Find the remainder when 3𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 − 2 is divided by

𝑥−1
Solution:
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 − 2.
By the Remainder Theorem, the remainder is
𝑓(1) = 3(1)4 + 2(1)3 + (1) − 2 = 4
Factor Theorem
𝑏
(𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏)(𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 ≠ 0) is a factor of the polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) if and only if 𝑓 ( ) = 0.
𝑎
Example: Determine which of the following is a factor of 16𝑥 4 − 24𝑥 3 + 89𝑥 2 − 120𝑥 + 45
2𝑥 + 1
4𝑥 − 3
Solution: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 16𝑥 4 − 24𝑥 3 + 89𝑥 2 − 120𝑥 + 45.
1 1 4 1 3 1 2 1 525
𝑓 (− ) = 16 (− ) − 24 (− ) + 89 (− ) − 120 (− ) + 45 = ≠0
2 2 2 2 2 4
By Factor Theorem, 2𝑥 + 1 is not a factor of 𝑓(𝑥)
3 3 4 3 3 3 2 3
𝑓 ( ) = 16 ( ) − 24 ( ) + 89 ( ) − 120 ( ) + 45 = −45 + 45 = 0
4 4 4 4 4
By Factor Theorem, 4𝑥 − 3 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥)
Factorization of Sum or Difference of Two Cubes

𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )
𝑎3 − 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )
Note that both expressions 𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏2 and 𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏2 cannot be factorized into real

Rational Root Theorem (OPTIONAL)

The Rational Root Theorem greatly reduces the number of trials needed when trying to find a possible rational
root to a polynomial equation. Before stating the theorem, we need some terminology.
In the polynomial 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 = 0 , where 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0, the numbers 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 , … , 𝑎1 , 𝑎0 are

called the coefficients of the polynomial, and 𝑎𝑛 is called the leading coefficients, and 𝑎0 the constant term of the
polynomial. If 𝑎𝑛 = 1, then the polynomial is said to be a monic.
Rational Root Theorem

If the equation 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 = 0, where 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0 and 𝑎𝑛 , … , 𝑎0 are all integers, has a
𝑝 𝑝
rational root , where is in lowest terms, then 𝑝 is a factor of the constant term 𝑎0 , and 𝑞 is a factor of 𝑎𝑛 .
𝑞 𝑞
An immediate consequence is,
If 𝒇(𝒙) is a monic polynomial with integral coefficients, then any rational root of the equation 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟎 is
an integer.
Note that an equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0, where 𝑓(𝑥) is a polynomial with integral coefficients, may have no rational
root at all.

Finding a Linear Factor of a Polynomial with Integral Coefficients

Example: Find a linear factor of 𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 6.
Solution: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 6.
Note that the factors of 6 are 1, 2, 3, 6.
By the Rational Root Theorem, all possible rational solutions of the equation
𝑓(𝑥) = 0 ____________ (1)
are ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6.
Furthermore, as all the coefficients of 𝑓(𝑥) are positive, (1) does not have any positive solution. So we just need to test whether
the negative integers −1, −2, −3, −6 are rational solutions of (1).
By Trial and Error.
𝑓(−1) = (−1)3 + 7(−1)2 + 7(−1) + 6 = 5 ≠ 0.
𝑓(−2) = (−2)3 + 7(−2)2 + 7(−2) + 6 = 12 ≠ 0.
𝑓(−3) = (−3)3 + 7(−3)2 + 7(−3) + 6 = 21 ≠ 0.
𝑓(−6) = (−6)3 + 7(−6)2 + 7(−6) + 6 = 0.
∴ 𝑥 = −6 is a rational solution of (1).
∴ By Factor Theorem, 𝑥 + 6 is a (rational) linear factor of 𝑓(𝑥).
Solving Cubic Equations with Integral Coefficients

Example: Solve the cubic equation 𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 6 = 0.
Solution: Let𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 6
By a previous example, we have found that (𝑥 + 6) is a linear factor of 𝑓(𝑥).

Now, by long division or by comparing coefficients, we have
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 6)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)
Since discriminant of (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1), 𝐷 = 12 − 4(1)(1) = −3 < 0, the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 has no real

solution.
∴ 𝑥 = −6 is the only real solution for the given cubic equation.

Simultaneous Equations in Two Unknowns

Solving Simultaneous Equations with One Linear Equation
To solve a pair of simultaneous equations with one linear equation in two unknowns 𝑥 and 𝑦, use the linear
equation to express 𝑦 (or an expression in 𝑦)in terms of 𝑥 , or 𝑥 (or an expression in 𝑥) in terms
of 𝑦 , and substitute into the nonlinear equation to solve for 𝑥 or 𝑦.
Example: Solve the following simultaneous equations:

𝑦−𝑥 =6
(𝑦 − 3)2 + (𝑥 + 5)2 = 4
Solution:
𝑦−𝑥 = 6 _____(1)
2 2
(𝑦 − 3) + (𝑥 + 5) = 4 _____(2)
From (1), 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 6 _____(3)
Substitute (3) into (2),
(𝑥 + 6 − 3)2 + (𝑥 + 5)2 = 4
(𝑥 + 3)2 + (𝑥 + 5)2 = 4
𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9 + 𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 + 25 = 4
2𝑥 2 + 16𝑥 + 30 = 0
𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 15 = 0
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 5) = 0
𝑥 = −3, or − 5
Substitute into (3),
𝑦 = −3 + 6 or 𝑦 = −5 + 6
𝑦 = 3 or 𝑦 = 1
∴ The solutions are (𝑥, 𝑦) = (−3, 3) or (−5, 1).

Partial Fraction (NA)

Degree of a Polynomial
The degree of a polynomial in 𝑥 is the largest (whole number) index of 𝑥 among all its terms. The degree of a
nonzero constant polynomial is 0.
For example,
𝑃(𝑥) Degree of 𝑃(𝑥) Name
8 + 𝜋 − √𝑒 0 Constant
5−𝑥 1 Linear
3𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 2 Quadratic
(𝑥 − 3)(3𝑥 2 + 5) 3 Cubic
(1 − 𝑥 2 )2 −8𝑥 3 4 Quartic
𝑥 5 Quantic
10𝑥 5 + 8𝑥 3 −
9
𝑷(𝒙)
Proper and Improper 𝑸(𝒙)
Let 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄(𝑥) be polynomials.
𝑃(𝑥)
is proper if (degree of 𝑃(𝑥)) < (degree of 𝑄(𝑥))
𝑄(𝑥)
𝑃(𝑥)
is improper if (degree of 𝑃(𝑥)) ≥ (degree of 𝑄(𝑥))
𝑄(𝑥)
𝑃(𝑥)
For example, the following 𝑄(𝑥) are proper:
5 3𝑥 + 2 𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 1
, , 2 ;
𝑥 + 5 (2𝑥 − 1)(3 − 𝑥) (𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 5)
𝑃(𝑥)
And the following are improper:
𝑄(𝑥)
𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 7 𝑥2 + 1 3𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 7
, , .
2𝑥 − 9 (𝑥 − 5)(7𝑥 + 4) 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 4

𝑷(𝒙)
Expressing a Proper 𝑸(𝒙)
in Partial Fractions
𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄(𝑥) are polynomials, where they have no common factors other than ± 1.
𝑷(𝒙)
A proper 𝑸(𝒙) can be expressed as a sum of partial fractions:
Type of Factor Collected Factor of 𝑄(𝑥) Corresponding Partial Fraction(s)

Linear, non-repeated 𝒂𝒙 ± 𝒃 𝐴
𝑎𝑥 ± 𝑏
Linear, repeated once (𝒂𝒙 ± 𝒃)𝟐 𝐴 𝐵
+
𝑎𝑥 ± 𝑏 (𝑎𝑥 ± 𝑏)2
Quadratic, non-repeated, 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
discriminant < 0 (𝑐 ≠ 0) 𝑥2 + 𝑐2
59−6𝑥
Example: Express in partial fractions.
(𝑥+3)(2𝑥−5)
Solution: Let
59 − 6𝑥 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑥 + 3)(2𝑥 − 5) 𝑥 + 3 2𝑥 − 5
Multiply both sides by (𝑥 + 3)(2𝑥 − 5).
59 − 6𝑥 = 𝐴(2𝑥 − 5) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 3)
Put 𝑥 = −3,
59 − 6(−3) = 𝐴(2(−3) − 5) + 𝐵((−3) + 3)

77 = −11𝐴
∴ 𝐴 = −7

𝑷(𝒙)
Partial Fractions for an Improper 𝑸(𝒙)
3𝑥 2 +20𝑥2 +51𝑥+47 𝐶 𝐷
Example: Express in the form 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 + + .
(𝑥+3)2 𝑥+3 (𝑥+3)2
3𝑥 2 +20𝑥 2+51𝑥+47
Solution: is improper, so we need to perform long division.
(𝑥+3)2
(3𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 2 + 51𝑥 + 47) ÷ (𝑥 + 3)2 first, we use 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9 instead of (𝑥 + 3)2 for long division.
3𝑥 + 2
𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9 √3𝑥 3 − 20𝑥 2 + 51𝑥 + 47
3𝑥 3 + 18𝑥 2 + 27𝑥
2𝑥 2 + 24𝑥 + 47
2𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 18
12𝑥 + 29
∴ 3𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 2 + 51𝑥 + 47 = (𝑥 + 3)2 (3𝑥 + 2) + 12𝑥 + 29

3𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 2 + 51𝑥 + 47 12𝑥 + 29
∴ 2
= 3𝑥 + 2 +
(𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 + 3)2
12𝑥 + 29 𝐶 𝐷
Let 2
= + _________ (1)
(𝑥 + 3) 𝑥 + 3 (𝑥 + 3)2
Multiply both sides by (𝑥 + 3)2 12𝑥 + 29 = 𝐶(𝑥 + 3) + 𝐷 _________ (2)
12(−3) + 29 = 𝐶((−3) + 3) + 𝐷 Put 𝑥 = −3 in (2)
−36 + 29 = 0 + 𝐷
∴ 𝐷 = −7
0 + 29 = 3𝐶 + 𝐷 Put 𝑥 = 0 in (2)
29 = 3𝐶 − 7
∴ 𝐶 = 12
3𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 2 + 51𝑥 + 47 12 7
∴ = 3𝑥 + 2 + −
(𝑥 + 3)2 𝑥 + 3 (𝑥 + 3)2

Binomial Theorem
Binomial
A binomial is an algebraic expression consisting of two unlike terms.
For example, 𝑎 − 1, 1 − 𝑏 and 𝑥 + 𝑦 are binomials, but 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 2𝑥 is not a binomial.
Factorial Notation, 𝒏!
For any natural number 𝑛, 𝒏! (read as “𝒏 factorial”) is the shorthand notation for the product of all the first 𝒏
natural numbers, i.e,
𝒏! = 𝒏(𝒏 − 𝟏)(𝒏 − 𝟐) … (𝟑)(𝟐)(𝟏)
Also, 0! is defined to be 1, i.e., 𝟎! = 𝟏
Binomial Coefficient (𝒏𝒓) for Nonnegative Integer 𝒏

Let 𝑛 be any nonnegative integer. Then for any integer 𝑟 with 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑛, the binomial coefficient (𝒏𝒓) (read as
"𝑛 choose 𝑟”) is defined by
𝒏 𝒏!
( )=
𝒓 𝒓! (𝒏 − 𝒓)!
𝒏(𝒏 − 𝟏)(𝒏 − 𝟐) … (𝒏 − 𝒓 + 𝟏) for 1 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑛
=
𝒓(𝒓 − 𝟏)(𝒓 − 𝟐) … (𝟏)
Example: Evaluate (52) without using a calculator.

Solution:
6 6(5)
( )= = 15
2 2(1)
Example: Express (𝒏3) as a polynomial in 𝑛, 𝑛 > 3.
Solution:
𝑛 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) 1
( )= = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)
3 3(2)(1) 6

Binomial Theorem
For any positive integer 𝑛,
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏 2 + ⋯ + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏 𝑟 + ⋯ + ( ) 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑛−2 + ( ) 𝑎𝑏 𝑛−1 + 𝑏 𝑛
1 2 𝑟 𝑛−2 𝑛−1
Right hand side is called the binomial expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 .
There are (𝑛 + 1) terms in the expansion.
𝑎𝑛 is called the 1st term of the expansion, (𝑛1)𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏 is called the 2nd term of the expansion, and so on.
The power of 𝑎 starts form 𝑛, and the power of 𝑏 starts from 0. From any one term in succeeding term, the
power of 𝑎 decreases by 1, while the power of 𝑏 increases by 1.
∴The sum of the power of 𝑎 and of 𝑏 is 𝒏 for each term.
When 𝑎 = 1 and 𝑏 = 𝑥, we have the important Special Case
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
`(1 + 𝑥) 𝑛 = 1 + ( ) 𝑥 + ( ) 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + ( ) 𝑥 𝑟 + ⋯ + 𝑥 𝑛 .
1 2 𝑟
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) 3
= 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛
2 3!

General Term or the (𝒓 + 𝟏)𝒕𝒉 Term

Consider the binomial expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 .
Each of the (𝑛 + 1) terms of the expansion takes the same form (𝑛𝑟)𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏 𝑟 with different numerical value for 𝑟,
namely, 0, 1, 2, …, 𝑛.
𝑛
(𝑟 + 1)𝑡ℎ 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = ( ) 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏 𝑟
𝑟
The (𝑟 + 1)𝑡ℎ term is also called the general term of the binomial expansion, as any one of the (𝑛 + 1) terms of
the expansion can be obtained from the above formula for the (𝑟 + 1)𝑡ℎ term by substituting 𝑟 by one of the
numbers 0, 1, 2, … , 𝑛.

Modulus, Power, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions(NA)

Modulus of 𝒙, |𝒙|
The modulus (also called absolute value) of 𝑥, denoted by |𝑥|, is defined by:
𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
|𝑥| = {
−𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
For example, |0| = 0, |6| = 6, |−5| = −(−5) = 5.
Basic Properties of Moduli

For any real numbers 𝑎, 𝑏 and any natural number 𝑛,
|𝑎| ≥ 0
−|𝑎| ≤ 𝑎 ≤ |𝑎|
|−𝑎| = |𝑎|
|𝑏 − 𝑎| = |𝑎 − 𝑏 |
|𝑎𝑏 | = |𝑎||𝑏 |
𝑎 |𝑎|
| |= (𝑏 ≠ 0)
𝑏 |𝑏 |
|𝑎𝑛 | = |𝑎|𝑛
|𝑎2 | = |𝑎|2 = 𝑎2
Graphs of Modulus Functions 𝑦

The graph of 𝑦 = |𝑥| is as shown on the right. It is V-shaped with
the vertex at the origin. 𝑦 = |𝑥|
To sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑘 |𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 |:

1
Step 1: Find the vertex, which is the point with 𝑥-coordinate
satisfying 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0
0 𝑥
Step 2: Find the coordinates of any two other points, one to -1 1
the left and one to the right of the vertex.
-1
Step 3: Join these two other points to the vertex to get the
V-shaped or inverted V-shaped graph of 𝑦 = 𝑘 |𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 |.

Solving Modulus Equations

Use the following rule to solve the following type of modulus equations:
𝐈𝐟 𝒚 = |𝒇(𝒙)| = 𝒌, 𝒌 ≥ 𝟎, 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒌 𝒐𝒓 𝒇(𝒙) = −𝒌.
Example: Solve the following modulus equations;
(𝑎)|𝑥 − 8| = −4
(𝑏)|𝑥 − 5| = 9
Solution:
(a) Since |𝑥 − 8| ≥ 0 for any real number 𝑥,
the equation |𝑥 − 8| = −4 has no solution.
(𝑏) |𝑥 − 5| = 9,
𝑥 − 5 = 9 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 − 5 = −9
𝑥 = 14 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −4
Power Functions
If 𝑎 and 𝑘 are real constants with 𝑎 ≠ 0, then the function 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑘 is called a power function

Graphs of Power Functions

1
We shall only discuss graphs of power functions of the forms 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 ±𝑛 and 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 ±𝑛, where 𝑛 is a positive
integer.
𝒏(≠ 𝟎) is an even number

𝒂>𝟎 𝒂<𝟎
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛
𝑎
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 −𝑛 =
𝑥𝑛
1
𝑛
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎 √𝑥
1 𝑎
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 −𝑛 = 𝑛
√𝑥

𝑛 is an odd number
𝑎>0 𝑎<0
𝑦= 𝑎𝑥 𝑛
𝑎
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 −𝑛 =
𝑥𝑛
1
𝑛
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎 √𝑥
1 𝑎
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 −𝑛 = 𝑛
√𝑥

Exponential Functions
If 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 1, then the function 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 is an exponential function.
The function 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 , where 𝑒 (≈ 2.71828) is the Euler number, is called the natural exponential function.
Logarithms
A logarithm is actually an index.
𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 is equivalent to 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑦
The following important properties of logarithms follow immediately from the above definition of a logarithm:
1. 𝑎log𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑦
2. log 𝑎 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥
Example: Evaluate the following:

log 2 8
Solution:
Since 8 = 23 , so log 2 8 = 3.
Laws of Logarithms
Most of the following laws of logarithms follow from the corresponding laws of indices:
For any positive real numbers 𝑎, 𝑥, 𝑦 with 𝑎 ≠ 1, and any real number 𝑟.
1. 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝟏 = 𝟎
2. 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒂 = 𝟏
3. 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 (𝒙𝒚) = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙 + 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒚
4. 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙𝒓 = 𝒓 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙
𝒙
5. 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 (𝒚) = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙 − 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒚
𝟏
6. 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 ( ) = −𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙
𝒙
7. 𝒓 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒂𝒓

Change of Base of Logarithms

For any positive real numbers 𝑎 (≠ 1), 𝑏(≠ 1), 𝑥,
log 𝑥
1. log 𝑎 𝑥 = log𝑏 𝑎
𝑏
1
2. log 𝑎 𝑏 =
log𝑏 𝑎
Example: Use a scientific calculator to evaluate log 2 18, giving your answer correct to 3 decimal places.
lg18
Solution: log 2 18 = lg 2
≈ 4.170 (to 3 d. p)
ln18
Or log 2 18 = ln 2
≈ 4.170 (to 3 d. p)

Coordinate Geometry in Two Dimensions

We shall be dealing with only Coordinate Geometry in the Cartesian plane.
Gradient and Equation of a Straight Line

The gradient m, of the straight line passing through the two points 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) is given by
𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑦1 − 𝑦2
𝑚= = (𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 )
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑥1 − 𝑥2
The gradient of any horizontal line is zero.

The gradient of any vertical line is undefined.
By the gradient of a line segment, we mean the gradient of the line on which the line segment lies.
When the horizontal and vertical scales are the same, then 𝑚 = tan 𝜃, where 𝜃 is the anticlockwise positive angle
the straight line with gradient 𝑚 makes with the positive 𝑥-axis.
𝜃
𝜃
𝑥 𝑥
The equation of the straight line with gradient 𝑚 and 𝑦-intercept 𝑐 is given by 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄
The equation of any horizontal line is of the form 𝒚 = 𝒄, and the equation of any
vertical line is of the form 𝒙 = 𝒄, where 𝑐 is a constant. 𝑐
The equation of the straight line with gradient 𝑚 and passing through the point
𝑥
𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) can be obtained from 𝑂
𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )
Therefore, the equation of the straight line passing through the two points
𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) can be obtained directly from
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ), 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2
𝑥2 − 𝑥1

Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

Let 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 be two distinct lines.
If line 𝑙1 has equation 𝑦 = 𝑚1 𝑥 + 𝑐1 and line 𝑙2 has equation 𝑦 = 𝑚2 𝑥 + 𝑐2 , then
𝑙1 is parallel to 𝑙2 ,if and only if 𝒎𝟏 = 𝒎𝟐
𝑙1 is perpendicular to 𝑙2 ,if and only if 𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐 = −𝟏
Three Collinear Points

Three points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are collinear (i.e., lie on the same straight line) if and only if at least two of the three
gradients of the line segments 𝐴𝐵, 𝐴𝐶 and 𝐵𝐶 are equal.
In fact, once any two of the above three gradients are equal, the other gradient will also be equal to these two
equal gradients.
Length, Midpoint and Perpendicular Bisector of a Line Segment

Let 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) be two distinct points. Then 𝐴𝐵 is a line segment, and
𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 of 𝐴𝐵 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1) 2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 = √(𝑥1 − 𝑥2) 2 + (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )2
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
𝐌𝐢𝐝𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭 of 𝐴𝐵 = ( , )
2 2
The perpendicular bisector of the line segment 𝐴𝐵 is the line passing through the midpoint of 𝐴𝐵 and
perpendicular to 𝐴𝐵.
If 𝑀(𝑚, 𝑛) is the midpoint of 𝐴𝐵, and the coordinates of 𝐴 and 𝑀 are known, to find the coordinates of 𝐵, we
note that
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
𝑚= and 𝑛 =
2 2
Solving for 𝑥2 and 𝑦2, we have
(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = (2𝑚 − 𝑥1 , 2𝑛 − 𝑦1 )

Special Quadrilaterals
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel opposite sides.
∴ A parallelogram has opposite sides equal in length.
The following property of a parallelogram is very useful in finding the 4th vertex, when given the other 3 vertices
of the parallelogram:
The two diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other at their common midpoint.
In fact, a quadrilateral is a parallelogram if and only if its two diagonals bisect each other at their common
midpoint.
Rhombuses, rectangles and squares are all parallelograms with additional conditions(s).
A rhombus is a parallelogram with all its four sides equal in length. Its two diagonals bisect
𝜋
each other at right angles, i.e., at 90° = 2 .
A rectangle is a parallelogram with all its four interior angles equal, i.e., each interior angle
is a right angle. Its two diagonals are equal in length.
A square is a parallelogram which is both a rhombus and a rectangle. Its four sides are equal in
length, and its four interior angles are all right angles. Its two diagonals are equal in length, and
they bisect each other at right angles.
A trapezium is a quadrilateral with only one pair of parallel opposite sides. These parallel
opposite sides have different lengths. A parallelogram is never a trapezium, and a
trapezium is never a parallelogram.
A kite is a quadrilateral with two pairs of adjacent sides equal in length, and with each of its
interior angles less than 180°. One of its two diagonals not only bisects the other diagonal at right
angles, but also bisects both interior angles on its two ends.

Finding Area of a Polygon with the coordinates of all its Vertices given
Let 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) and 𝐶(𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ) be three vertices, taken in an anticlockwise order, of a triangle ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶.
Then
𝐶(𝑥3, 𝑦3)
1 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥1
Area of ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 = |𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 |
2 1 2 3 1
𝐵(𝑥2, 𝑦2 )
𝐴(𝑥1, 𝑦1 )
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
|𝑦1 𝑦2 𝑦3 𝑦1 | is a shorthand notation for
1 2 3 1
((𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑦3 + 𝑥3 𝑦1 ) − (𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑥3 𝑦2 + 𝑥1 𝑦3 ))
This shorthand notation contains products along two directions, and
Type equation here.
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥1
|𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 |
1 2 3 1
Actual Expression = (Sum of all products taken along the direction) −
(Sum of all products taken along the direction)
Let 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ), 𝐶(𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ) and 𝐷(𝑥4 , 𝑦4 ) be four vertices, take in an anticlockwise order, of a
quadrilateral 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷. Then
𝐷(𝑥4, 𝑦4 )
1 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥1
𝐶(𝑥3, 𝑦3) 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 = | |
2 𝑦1 𝑦2𝑦3 𝑦4 𝑦1
𝐵(𝑥2, 𝑦2 )
𝐴(𝑥1, 𝑦1 )

In general, for any natural 𝑛 ≥ 3 , if 𝐴1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), 𝐴2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ), … , 𝐴𝑛 (𝑥𝑛 , 𝑦𝑛 ) are the 𝑛 vertices, taken in an
anticlockwise order, of a 𝑛-sided polygon 𝐴1 𝐴2 … 𝐴𝑛 , then
𝐴5(𝑥5 , 𝑦5 )
𝐴𝑛 (𝑥𝑛 , 𝑦𝑛 )
1 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 … 𝑥𝑛 𝑥1
𝐴4(𝑥4, 𝑦4 ) 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛 𝐴1 𝐴2 … 𝐴𝑛 = | |
2 𝑦1 𝑦2𝑦3 … 𝑦𝑛 𝑦1
𝐴1 (𝑥1, 𝑦1 )
𝐴3(𝑥3 , 𝑦3 )
𝐴2(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )

Graphs of 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒌𝒙
𝑘<0 𝑘>0
𝑦 2 = 𝑘𝑥 2
e.g. (𝑦 = −4𝑥) 𝑦 2
e.g. (𝑦 = 4𝑥) 𝑦
𝑥 𝑥
𝑂 𝑂
Graph is symmetrical about the 𝑥-axis Graph is symmetrical about the 𝑥-axis
Note:
1. For each non-zero real number 𝑘, the graph of 𝑦 2 = 𝑘𝑥

i. Is symmetrical about the x-axis.
ii. Has the origin as its vertex.
iii. Is a parabola opens left if 𝑘 < 0.
iv. Is a parabola opens left if 𝑘 > 0.
2. The graph of 𝑦 2 = −𝑘𝑥 can be obtained from the graph of 𝑦 2 = 𝑘𝑥 by reflection in the 𝑦-axis.
3. The graph of 𝑦 2 = 𝑘𝑥, 𝑘 > 0, is the combined graph of 𝑦 = √𝑘𝑥 and 𝑦 = −√𝑘𝑥.
Graph of 𝑦 2 = 𝑘𝑥 for some values of 𝑘.

𝑦 𝑦
K=-2 K=2
K=-1 K=1
K=-0.2 K=0.3
𝑥 𝑥
𝑂 𝑂

Equations of Circles 𝑦
Standard Equation of a Circle
𝑟
The standard equation of a circle with center 𝑪(𝒂, 𝒃) and radius
𝒓 > 0 is
𝐶(𝑎, 𝑏)
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝑥
(𝒙 − 𝒂) + (𝒚 − 𝒃) = 𝒓 𝑂
General Equation of a Circle 𝑦
If 𝒈, 𝒇and 𝒄 are real constants such that 𝒈𝟐 + 𝒇𝟐 − 𝒄 > 𝟎,

then
𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝒙 + 𝟐𝒇𝒚 + 𝒄 = 𝟎
𝐶(−𝑔, −𝑓)
Is the general equation of the circle with center 𝑪(−𝒈, −𝒇) 𝑥
and radius √𝒈𝟐 + 𝒇𝟐 − 𝒄 . 𝑂

Linear Laws
Given a non-linear relationship (possibly with at most two unknown constants) between two variables 𝑥 and 𝑦, we
are able to transform it into a linear relationship of the form 𝒀 = 𝒎𝑿 + 𝒄, where 𝑋 and 𝑌 are expressions in 𝑥
and/or 𝑦 only if they do not contain unknown constants, and 𝑚 and 𝑐 are constants (possibly in terms of the
unknown constants). The graph of 𝑌 against 𝑋 (not the graph of 𝑦 against 𝑥) is a straight line with gradient 𝑚
and 𝑌-intercept 𝑐.
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
(non-linear) 𝑌 = 𝑚𝑋 + c
transformers to
(linear)

Trigonometry
The Four Quadrants of the Cartesian Plane
The 𝑥-axis and the 𝑦-axis divides the Cartesian Plane into four quadrants, numbered as 1st,2nd,3rd and 4th, in
an anticlockwise sequence, as shown
2nd Quadrant 1st Quadrant

𝑥
3rd Quadrant 4th Quadrant
Radians and Degrees

Recall that:
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 180°
180°
1 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = ≈ 57.3°
𝜋
𝜋
1° = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 ≈ 0.0175 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
180
General Angles and Reference Angles

Angles can be of any magnitude; angles need not be restricted between 0° and 360° only. Angles need not be
either positive or zero, angles can be negative too.
In the Cartesian plane, let 𝑃 be a point initially on the positive 𝑥-axis, so that the line segment 𝑂𝑃 has length
𝑟 > 0. Then any general angle can be represented as a rotation of the line segment 𝑂𝑃 about the origin 𝑂,
where a positive angle is represented by an anticlockwise rotation, and a negative angle is represented by a
clockwise rotation.
For a general angle so represented, the quadrant where the line segment 𝑂𝑃 lies after the rotation is referred
to as the quadrant where the angle lies. The reference angle (or the basic angle) for the general angle is the
positive acute angle between the 𝑥-axis and the line segment 𝑂𝑃.

Example: For each of the following angles, sketch it on separate axes and state both the quadrant where it lies
and its reference angle:
a) 120°
3𝜋
b) −
4
7𝜋
c)
3
d) −800°
Solution
𝑦 𝑦
a) 𝑃 b)
60° 120°
𝑥 𝑂 𝑥
𝜋
𝑂 −3𝜋
4
4
𝑃
𝜋
2nd quadrant; 60° 2nd quadrant;
4
𝑦 𝑦
c) 𝑃 d)
𝜋
7𝜋 −800°
3
3
𝑥 𝑥
𝑂
𝑂 80°
𝑃
𝜋
1st quadrant; 2th quadrant; 80°
3

Six Trigonometric Ratios for a General Angle

For a general angle 𝜃 of any magnitude and of either signs, represent it in the Cartesian plane by a rotating
line segment 𝑂𝑃 of length 𝑟 > 0 as described previously, and let the coordinates of 𝑃 be (𝑥, 𝑦). Then the six
trigonometric ratios of 𝜃, namely, sine (sin 𝜃), cosine (cos 𝜃), tangent (tan 𝜃), secant (sec 𝜃), cosecant
(cosec 𝜃), and cotangent (cot 𝜃), are given by:
𝑌
𝑦 1
sin 𝜃 = sec 𝜃 = (cos 𝜃 ≠ 0)
𝑟 cos 𝜃
r 𝑥
y 1
cos 𝜃 = cosec 𝜃 = (sin 𝜃 ≠ 0)
𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑋 𝑦 1
x 𝑂 tan 𝜃 = (𝑥 ≠ 0) cot 𝜃 = (tan 𝜃 ≠ 0)
𝑥 tan 𝜃
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
∴ tan 𝜃 = cot 𝜃 =
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
Note that when 𝜃 is acute or obtuse, the above definition for trigonometric ratios of 𝜃 are consistent with the
definitions for trigonometric ratios of acute or obtuse angles, Hence, the above definitions are extensions of the
definitions for trigonometric ratios of acute or obtuse angles to general angles.
Six and Values of Trigonometric Ratios of a General Angle

The signs of the trigonometric ratios of a general angle are determined by the quadrant in which the general
angle lies. Only the following trigonometric ratios of a general angle are positive for the respective quadrants:
You may use the word “CAST” to help memorize
𝑦
Sine & its Reciprocal All the six ratios

𝑥
𝑂 Cosine & its Reciprocal
Tangent & its Reciprocal
The modulus of a trigonometric ratio of a general angle is equal to the same trigonometric ratio of its reference
angle.
For any general angle 𝜃, let 𝛼 be its reference angle. Then
sin 𝛼 if 𝜃 is in the 1st or 2nd quadrant
sin 𝜃 = {
−sin 𝛼 if 𝜃 is in the 3rd or 4th quadrant
cos 𝛼 if 𝜃 is in the 1st or 4th quadrant
cos 𝜃 = {
− cos 𝛼 if 𝜃 is in the 2nd or 3rd quadrant
tan 𝛼 if 𝜃 is in the 1st or 3rd quadrant
tan 𝜃 = {
− tan 𝛼 if 𝜃 is in the 2nd or 4th quadrant

For any general angle 𝜃, 𝜃 and – 𝜃 have the same reference angle, but they lie in adjacent quadrants on
opposite sides of the 𝑥-axis. Thus,
For any general angle 𝜽,
𝐬𝐢𝐧(−𝜽) = − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝐜𝐨𝐬(−𝜽) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝐭𝐚𝐧(−𝜽) = − 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽
Exact Values of Trigonometric Ratios for Special Angles

𝜃 0° = 0 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
30° = 45° = 60° = 90° =
6 4 3 2
sin 𝜃 √0 √1 1 √2 1 √3 √4
=0 = = =1
2 2 2 2 √2 2 2
cos 𝜃 √4 √3 √2 1 √1 1 √0
=1 = = =0
2 2 2 √2 2 2 2
tan 𝜃 0 1 √3 1 √3 undefined
=
√3 3
Principal Values of 𝐬𝐢𝐧 −𝟏 𝐱, 𝐜𝐨𝐬 −𝟏 𝐱 and 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝐱

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
− ≤ sin−1 𝑥 ≤ , 0 ≤ cos −1 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋, − < tan−1 𝑥 <
2 2 2 2

Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

The Sine Curve
Graph of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥
Note:
1. Maximum value of sin 𝑥 is 1, and minimum value of sin 𝑥 is -1, i.e.,
−1 ≤ sin 𝑥 ≤ 1 for any angle 𝑥.
2. The sine curve is periodic, i.e., the curve keeps on repeating in the same pattern. One such complete
pattern is called one cycle. The period of a periodic function is the length of any interval over which
its graph makes one cycle. ∴ 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 sin 𝑥 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎° = 2𝜋.
3. The amplitude of periodic function, if applicable, is given by:

1
𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = 2 (𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)
1
∴ 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 sin 𝑥 = 2 (1 − (−1)) = 1.
4. sin 𝑥 = 0 when 𝑥 = 𝑛(180°) = 𝑛𝜋, where 𝑛 is any integer.
5. sin 𝑥 = 1 (the maximum value)

𝜋
When 𝑥 = 𝟗𝟎° + 𝑛(𝟑𝟔𝟎°) = 2 + 2𝑛𝜋, where 𝑛 is any integer.
6. sin 𝑥 = − 1 (the minimum value)

3𝜋
When 𝑥 = 𝟐𝟕𝟎° + 𝑛(𝟑𝟔𝟎°) = + 2𝑛𝜋, where 𝑛 is any integer.
2
7. The graph of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 is symmetrical about the origin, i.e. whenever the point (𝑎, 𝑏) is on the graph,
the point (−𝑎, −𝑏) will also be on the graph. This corresponds to the fact that sin(−𝜃) = − sin 𝜃.

The Cosine Curve

Graph of 𝑦 = cos 𝑥
Note:
1. The graph 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 can be obtained from the graph of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 by shifting horizontally
𝜋
𝟗𝟎° = to the left. This corresponds to the fact that
2
𝜋
cos 𝑥 = sin(𝑥 + 90°) or cos 𝑥 = sin(𝑥 + ) .Hence most of the following properties of cos 𝑥
2
follow from the corresponding properties of sin 𝑥.
2. Maximum value of cos 𝑥 is 1, and minimum value of cos 𝑥 is -1, i.e.,

−1 ≤ cos 𝑥 ≤ 1 for any angle 𝑥.
3. cos 𝑥 is also periodic, and with the same period and amplitude as sin 𝑥.
𝜋
4. cos 𝑥 = 0 when 𝑥 = 𝟗𝟎° + 𝑛(𝟏𝟖𝟎°) = 2 + 𝑛𝜋, where 𝑛 is any integer.
5. cos 𝑥 = 1 (the maximum value)

When 𝑥 = 𝑛(𝟑𝟔𝟎°) = 2𝑛𝜋, where 𝑛 is any integer.
6. cox 𝑥 = − 1 (the minimum value)

When 𝑥 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎° + 𝑛(𝟑𝟔𝟎°) = (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋, where 𝑛 is any integer.
7. The graph of 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 is symmetrical about the 𝑦-axis, i.e., whenever the point (𝑎, 𝑏) is on the
graph, the point (−𝑎, 𝑏) will also be on the graph. This corresponds to the fact that
cos(− 𝜃) = cos 𝜃.

The Tangent Curve

Graph of 𝑦 = tan 𝑥
Note:
1. tan 𝑥 has neither maximum nor minimum value, tan 𝑥 can take any real value.
2. tan 𝑥 is also periodic. Period of tan 𝑥 = 180° = 𝜋. Amplitude is not applicable for tan 𝑥.
3. tan 𝑥 = 0 when 𝑥 = 𝑛(180°) = 𝑛𝜋, where 𝑛 is any integer.
𝜋
4. tan 𝑥 = 1 when 𝑥 = 45° + 𝑛(180°) = 4 + 𝑛𝜋, where 𝑛 is any integer.
3𝜋
5. tan 𝑥 = −1 when 𝑥 = 135° + 𝑛(180°) = + 𝑛𝜋, where 𝑛 is any integer.
4
𝜋
6. The lines 𝑥 = 90° + 𝑛(180°) = + 𝑛𝜋, when 𝑛 is any integer, are vertical asymptotes for
2
the graph of y = tan 𝑥. tan 𝑥 is undefined for these values of 𝑥. Whenever 𝑥 is close to
(but not equal to) any one of these values, |tan 𝑥| will be very large.
7. The graph of 𝑦 = tan 𝑥 is symmetrical about the origin, i.e., whenever the point (𝑎, 𝑏) is on
the graph, the point (−𝑎, −𝑏) will also be on the graph. This corresponds to the fact that
tan(−𝜃) = tan 𝜃.

Graphs of 𝒚 = 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒃𝒙) + 𝒄 and others
In the two tables below, 𝑎 is any nonzero real number, 𝑏 is any positive integer, and 𝑐 is any integer.
Graph of 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin(𝑏𝑥) + 𝑐 𝑎 cos(𝑏𝑥) + 𝑐 𝑎 tan(𝑏𝑥)

Amplitude |𝑎| N.A
Number of cycles in 360°(= 2𝜋) 𝑏 2𝑏
Period in Degrees 1 1
(360°) (180°)
𝑏 𝑏
Period in Radians 1 1
(2𝜋) (𝜋)
𝑏 𝑏
Maximum Value |𝑎| + 𝑐 N.A
Minimum Value −|𝑎| + 𝑐 N.A
Graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑥
𝑎 sin ( ) + 𝑐 𝑎 cos ( ) + 𝑐
𝑏 𝑏
Amplitude |𝑎| Note that
Number of cycles in 360°(= 2𝜋) 1
𝑏 𝑎, 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 ≥ 0
|𝑎| = {
Period in Degrees 𝑏(360°) −𝑎, 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 < 0
Period in Radians 𝑏(2𝜋)
Maximum Value |𝑎| + 𝑐
Minimum Value −|𝑎| +𝑐

Important Trigonometric Identities

Each of the following trigonometric identities is true for all values of the angles involved, for as long as
each trigonometric function in the identity is defined for that value of its respective angle, and that there is
no division by zero. These identities are very important and most of which should be memorized by heart.
𝐁𝐚𝐬𝐢𝐜 𝐈𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐞𝐬
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜽 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝜽 = 𝟏
𝟏 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝜽 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝜽
𝟏 + 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝟐 𝜽 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝜽
Note: sin2 𝜃 denotes (sin𝜃)2 .
𝑛 is any integer
Angles in Degrees & Angles in Radians
sin[𝜃 + 𝑛(360°)] = sin 𝜃, sin[𝜃 + (2𝑛𝜋)] = sin 𝜃

cos[𝜃 + 𝑛(360°)] = cos 𝜃, cos[𝜃 + (2𝑛𝜋)] = cos 𝜃
tan[𝜃 + 𝑛(180°)] = tan 𝜃, tan[𝜃 + (𝑛𝜋)] = tan 𝜃
sin(90° ± 𝜃) = cos 𝜃 cosec(90° ± 𝜃) = sec 𝜃
cos(90° ± 𝜃) = ∓ sin 𝜃 sec(90° ± 𝜃) = ∓cosec 𝜃
tan(90° ± 𝜃) = ∓ cot 𝜃 cot(90° ± 𝜃) = ∓tan 𝜃
sin(180° ± 𝜃) = ∓ sin 𝜃 sin(270° ± 𝜃) = − cos 𝜃

cos(180° ± 𝜃) = − cos 𝜃 cos(270° ± 𝜃) = ± sin 𝜃
tan(180° ± 𝜃) = ± tan 𝜃 tan(270° ± 𝜃) = ∓ cot 𝜃
Angle Sum and Difference Formulae (Addition Formulae)

sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵
sin(𝐴 − 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵
cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
tan 𝐴 + tan 𝐵
tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) =
1 − tan 𝐴 tan 𝐵
tan 𝐴 − tan 𝐵
tan(𝐴 − 𝐵) =
1 + tan 𝐴 tan 𝐵

Double Angle Formulae
sin 2𝐴 = 2 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴

cos 2𝐴 = cos2 𝐴 − sin2 𝐴 = 1 − 2 sin2 𝐴
2 tan 𝐴
tan 2𝐴 =
1 − tan2 𝐴
Half Angle Formulae

𝐴 1 − cos 𝐴 𝐴 1 + cos 𝐴 𝐴 1 − cos 𝐴
sin ( ) = ±√ , cos ( ) = ±√ , tan ( ) = ±√
2 2 2 2 2 1 + cos 𝐴
𝐴
Note: For any single value of A, any one of the above three trigonometric ratios of 2 can only take on
one single value, either the positive or the negative of the respective square root, depending on the
𝐴
quadrant in which 2 lies.
R-Formulae
If both 𝑎, 𝑏 > 0, then
𝑎 sin 𝜃 + 𝑏 cos 𝜃 = 𝑅 sin(𝜃 + 𝛼)

𝑎 sin 𝜃 − 𝑏 cos 𝜃 = 𝑅 sin(𝜃 − 𝛼)
𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 cos(𝜃 − 𝛼)
𝑎 cos 𝜃 − 𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 cos(𝜃 + 𝛼)
𝑏
Where, 𝑅 = √𝑎 2 + 𝑏2 , and 𝛼is an acute angle such that tan 𝛼 = 𝑎.
For easy reference, following are important trigonometric identities which were already shown
previously.
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
tan 𝜃 = , cot 𝜃 =
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
sin(−𝜃) = − sin 𝜃,
cos(−𝜃) = cos 𝜃 ,
tan(−𝜃) = − tan 𝜃

Solving Trigonometric Equations
Example: Solve the equation 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = −0.62 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0° ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 360° .
Solution: Since sin x < 0, so x is in the 3rd or 4th quadrant.
As sin 𝛼 = 0.62, we have
Reference angle, 𝛼 ≈ 38.316°
 𝑥 = 180° + 𝛼, 360° − 𝛼
≈ 218.316°, 321.684
≈ 218.3°, 321.7°. (𝑡𝑜 1 𝑑. 𝑝. )

Proofs in Plane Geometry

Two Straight Lines and a Transversal
A transversal is a straight line which intersects two or more straight lines.
Theorem Converse
Parallel lines have alternate equal angles. Lines with alternate angles equal are parallel.
𝑅 𝑆 𝑅 𝑆
𝑑 𝑏
𝑐
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎
𝑄 𝑃 𝑄
𝑃
If any pair of alternate angles are equal, for

If 𝑃𝑄 // 𝑅𝑆, then ∠𝑎 = ∠𝑐, and ∠𝑏 = ∠𝑑. example, ∠𝑎 = ∠𝑏, then 𝑃𝑄 // 𝑅𝑆.
Parallel lines have corresponding angles equal. Lines with corresponding angles equal are
parallel.
𝑑 𝑐 𝑏
𝑅 𝑆 𝑅 𝑆
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎
𝑃 𝑄 𝑃 𝑄
If 𝑃𝑄 // 𝑅𝑆, then ∠𝑎 = ∠𝑑, and ∠𝑏 = ∠𝑐. If any pair of corresponding angles are equal,
for example, ∠𝑎 = ∠𝑏, then 𝑃𝑄 // 𝑅𝑆.

Parallel lines have interior Lines with interior supplementary

angles supplementary. angles are parallel.
𝑅 𝑆 𝑅 𝑆
𝑑
𝑐 𝑏
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎
𝑃 𝑄 𝑃 𝑄
If 𝑃𝑄 // 𝑅𝑆, then ∠𝑎 + ∠𝑑 = 180° and If any pair interior angles are supplementary, for
∠𝑏 + ∠𝑐 = 180°. example, ∠𝑎 + ∠𝑏 = 180°, then 𝑃𝑄 // 𝑅𝑆.
Congruent Triangles
Two triangles are congruent if they have exactly the same shape and size. When two triangles are
congruent, their corresponding sides are equal in lengths, and their corresponding angles are equal.
Each of the following conditions is sufficient to prove that two triangles are congruent:
Abbreviation Conditions
SSS There are three pairs of corresponding sides with equal lengths.
SAS There are two pairs of corresponding sides with equal lengths, and the included
angles are equal
AAS (or ASA) There is a pair of sides with equal length, and there are two pairs of equal angles.

RHS The two triangles are right-handed with the hypotenuses and another pair of sides
that are equal in lengths.
Similar Triangles
Two triangles are similar if they have exactly the same shape. When two triangles are similar, their
corresponding angles are equal, and their three pairs of corresponding sides are in the same ratio.
Each of the following sets of conditions is sufficient to prove that two triangles are similar:
Abbreviation Conditions
AA There are two pairs of equal angles.
SSS There are three pairs of sides in the same ratio.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑧
= =
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
𝑦
𝑐

SAS There are two pairs of sides in the same ratio, and the included angles are equal.
𝑎
𝑎 𝑏
= 𝑦
𝑥 𝑦
𝑏 𝑥
Note: When two triangles are similar,
Ratio of corresponding heights = Ratio of corresponding sides.
Two Common Structures

Given
𝐴
𝐶 𝐷
𝐸
𝐷 𝐸
𝐵 𝐶 𝐴 𝐵
Then ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 is similar to ∆𝐴𝐷𝐸 (𝐴𝐴) ∆𝐴𝐵𝐸 is similar to ∆𝐷𝐶𝐸 (𝐴𝐴)
𝐴𝐷 𝐴𝐸 𝐷𝐸 𝐴𝐸 𝐵𝐸 𝐴𝐵
= = = =
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶 𝐵𝐶 𝐷𝐸 𝐶𝐸 𝐷𝐶
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ∆𝐴𝐷𝐸 𝐴𝐷 2 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ∆𝐴𝐵𝐸 𝐴𝐸 2
=( ) =( )
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ∆𝐷𝐶𝐸 𝐷𝐸

Midpoint Theorem
In ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶, if 𝐷 is the midpoint of 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐸 is the midpoint of 𝐴𝐶,
1
then 𝐷𝐸//𝐵𝐶 and 𝐷𝐸 = 2 𝐵𝐶.
𝐷 𝐸
𝐵 𝐶
Angle Properties of a Circle

Theorem Converse (Optional)
Angles in the same segment of a circle are

equal.
𝑑 𝑐
𝑏
𝑏
𝑎 𝑎
∠𝑎 = ∠𝑏 If ∠𝑎 = ∠𝑏, then points 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅, 𝑆 are concyclic.

∠𝑐 = ∠𝑑
Angles in a semicircle is a right angle.
𝐶
𝑎
𝐴 𝐵
𝑂 𝑂
If ∠𝐶 = 90°, then points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 lie in the

semicircle with 𝐴𝐵 as the diameter

Angle at the center is twice the angle at the circumference subtended by the same arc.
𝑏
𝑏
𝑂 𝑂 𝑏 𝑂 𝑂
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎
∠𝑎=2∠𝑏
Angle Properties of a Cyclic Quadrilateral

Angles in opposite segments of a circle are Exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral and its
supplementary. interior opposite angle are equal.
𝑑
𝑐 𝑏
𝑎
𝑎
𝑏
∠𝑎 + ∠𝑐 = ∠𝑏 + ∠𝑑 = 180° ∠𝑎 = ∠𝑏
Properties Involving Chord(s) of Circle(s)

Equal chords are equidistant from center(s) of their circle(s)
These two circles have the same radius
𝐴 𝐴
𝑃 𝑂 𝐶 𝑂2
𝑃 𝑂1 𝐶
𝑄
𝑄
𝐵 𝐵
𝐷
𝐷
If 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐷, then 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑂𝑄 If 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐷, then 𝑂1 𝑃 = 𝑂2 𝑄

A radius of a circle perpendicular to a chord bisects the chord.
𝑂 𝐴
𝐹
𝑃
𝐵
𝐼𝑓 𝑂𝑃 ⊥ 𝐴𝐵, then 𝐴𝐹=𝐵𝐹
Properties Involving Chord(s) of Circle(s)

The line segment joining the center of a circle and the midpoint of a chord is perpendicular to the chord.
𝑂 𝐴
𝑀
𝐵
If 𝐴𝑀=𝐵𝑀, then 𝑂M ⊥ 𝐴𝐵.

Properties Involving Tangent(s) to a Circle
𝑂 A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius at the point of contact.
Two tangents to a circle from a common external point form adjacent sides of two congruent right-
angled triangles as shown.
𝑆
∆𝑂𝑃𝑆=∆𝑂𝑃𝑇
In particular, 𝑂 𝑃
𝑃𝑆=𝑃𝑇,∠𝑃𝑂𝑆=∠𝑃𝑂𝑇, ∠𝑂𝑃𝑆=∠𝑂𝑃𝑇.
𝑇
Tangent-Chord Theorem (Alternate Segment Theorem)
𝑐 𝑐
𝑏
𝑑
𝑎
𝑏
𝑎
∠𝑎 = ∠𝑐 ∠𝑎 = ∠𝑐
∠𝑏 = ∠𝑑 ∠𝑏 = ∠𝑐

Differentiation
Notations for Derivatives
𝑑𝑦
If 𝑦=𝑓(𝑥), then the (first) derivative of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 is denoted by 𝑑𝑥 or 𝑓′(𝑥).
𝑑𝑦
The second derivative of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 is the derivative of 𝑑𝑥 with respect to 𝑥, and is denoted by
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦
or 𝑓′′𝑥. i.e., 𝑑𝑥 2=𝑑𝑥 (𝑑𝑥 ).
𝑑𝑥 2
Higher order derivatives are similarly defined and denoted.
The process of finding a derivative is called differentiation.

𝑑𝑦
To differentiate 𝑦, with respect to 𝑥 is to find 𝑑𝑥
Basic Rules of Differentiation

Let 𝑘 be any real number. Product Rule
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
(𝑘) = 0 (𝑢 × 𝑣) = 𝑢
𝑑𝑥 +𝑣
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑢 Quotient Rule
(𝑘 𝑢) = 𝑘
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑 𝑢 𝑣 −𝑢
𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 ( )= 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(𝑢 + 𝑣) = + 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑣2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Chain Rule
𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
(𝑢 − 𝑣) = − 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
Derivative of Common Functions

Derivative of Power Functions
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑛 be any real numbers.

𝑑 𝑛 𝑑
(𝑥 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
In particular,
𝑑
(𝑥) = 1
𝑑𝑥

Derivative of Trigonometric Functions

Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be any real numbers.
Important: 𝑥 must be in radians
𝑑 𝑑
(sin 𝑥) = cos 𝑥 , [sin(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)] = 𝑎 cos(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
(cos 𝑥) = −sin 𝑥 , [cos(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)] = −𝑎 sin(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
(tan 𝑥) = sec 2 𝑥 , [tan(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)] = 𝑎 sec 2 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Derivative of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

𝑑 𝑥 𝑑 1
(𝑒 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 , (ln 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝑑 𝑎
(𝑒 ) = 𝑎 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 , [ln(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)] =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
Note: Those derivatives involving 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 can be obtained from the Chain Rule together with those
derivatives involving just 𝑥 by itself.
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
Some Graphs of Increasing Functions
Some Graphs of Decreasing Functions

Test for Increasing/Decreasing Functions

Let 𝑦=𝑓(𝑥), where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are any real numbers and 𝑎<𝑏.
If 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚
>0 for all 𝑎<𝑥<𝑏 <0 for all 𝑎<𝑥<𝑏
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
Sketch of Tangent
Then 𝑦 is increasing for 𝑎<𝑥<𝑏 𝑦 is decreasing for 𝑎<𝑥<𝑏
For example, consider 𝑦 = 1.5(𝑥 − 2)2 − 1. 𝑦

Since,
𝑑𝑦
= 3(𝑥 − 2), we have 𝑦 = 1.5(𝑥 − 2)2 − 1
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦
< 0 for 𝑥 < 2,
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
and > 0 for x > 2. 1
𝑑𝑥
∴ 𝑦 is decreasing for 𝑥 < 2,
𝑥
and 𝑦 is increasing for 𝑥 > 2. 0 1 2 3
The graph of 𝑦=1.5(𝑥 − 2)2 − 1 is as shown.

−1
(2, −1)
Stationary Points
𝒅𝒚
Let 𝑦=𝑓(𝑥). A point on the graph of 𝑦=𝑓(𝑥) is called a stationary point if and only if 𝒅𝒙=0 at that point. A
stationary point can be of one of the following three types:
i. A maximum point
ii. A minimum point
iii. A stationary point of inflexion

A turning point is a stationary point which is either a maximum point or a minimum point.
Test for Maximum and Minimum Points
1st Derivative Test

𝑑𝑦
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑎 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑑𝑥
𝑥= 𝑎− 𝑎 𝑎+
𝑑𝑦 >0 =0 <0
𝑑𝑥
Sketch of
Tangent
Outline (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎))

of
Graph
Conclusion Point (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) is a minimum point

𝑑𝑦 <0 =0 >0
𝑑𝑥
Sketch of
Tangent
Outline of
Graph
(𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎))
Conclusion 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭
𝑑𝑦 >0 =0 >0
𝑑𝑥
Sketch of
Tangent
Outline
of Graph
[𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)]
Conclusion Point [𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)] 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐢𝐧𝐟𝐥𝐞𝐱𝐢𝐨𝐧

𝑑𝑦 <0 =0 <0
𝑑𝑥
Sketch of
Tangent
Outline of
Graph
[𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)]
Conclusion Point [𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)] is a stationary point of inflexion
2nd Derivative Test

𝐝𝐲
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑎 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝟎 at x = α
𝐝𝐱
If Then
𝑑2𝑦 Point (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) is a minimum point

> 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝛼
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2𝑦 Point (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) is a maximum point

< 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝛼
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2𝑦 Point (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) is either a turning point, or a

= 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝛼 stationary point of inflexion
𝑑𝑥 2

Test for Maximum and Minimum Points

Note:
𝑑2 𝑦
1. When = 0, the 2nd Derivative Test is inconclusive, and you need to use the 1st Derivative Test to
𝑑𝑥 2
draw a conclusion on the nature of the stationary point.
2. On the other hand, the 1st Derivative Test is always conclusive
Gradient of Tangent and Normal to a Curve

Let 𝑎 be any real number.
For the curve of 𝑦=𝑓(𝑥).
Gradient of the Is given by the Value of
Tangent at the point [𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)] 𝒅𝒚

when 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝒅𝒙
Normal at the point [𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)] 𝟏
− when 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝒅𝒚
( )
𝒅𝒙
Rates of Change
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
is the rate of change of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑡, and 𝑡 usually represents time.
If 𝑦 is a function of 𝑥, and 𝑥 is a function of 𝑡, then 𝑦 is also a function of 𝑡, and by the Chain Rule,
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒙
= ×
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒕
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
Note: In general, it is not quite correct to write 𝑑𝑡
=
𝑑𝑦
×
𝑑𝑡
, unless 𝑥 is a function of 𝑦.

Integration
Integration as the reverse of Differentiation
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Integration is the reverse process of differentiation, i.e., given 𝑑𝑥 , to find 𝑦 is to integrate 𝑑𝑥 with respect
to 𝑥.
𝑑𝑦
𝑦=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
For example, if 𝑑𝑥 = 6𝑥
then 𝑦 = ∫ 6𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 + 𝐶 , where 𝐶 is an arbitrary constant.
∫ 6𝑥 𝑑𝑥 is an example of an indefinite integral.
6𝑥 is the derivative of 3𝑥 2 , 3𝑥 2 − 5, 3𝑥 2 + 𝜋, etc.
And 3𝑥 2 , 3𝑥 2 − 5 and 3𝑥 2 + 𝜋 are all antiderivatives of 6𝑥.
In the indefinite integral ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥) is called the integrand.
Basic Rules of Integration

Let 𝑘 be any real number. Let 𝐶 be an arbitrary constant.
∫ 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐶
∫ 𝑘 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
∫[ 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑔 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
∫[ 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑔 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝐶

Indefinite Integral of Common Functions

Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be any real numbers, 𝑎≠0,
Let 𝐶 be an arbitrary constant.
Indefinite Integral of Power Functions, If 𝑛 is any real number ≠−1:

1
∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛+1 + 𝐶, 𝑛 ≠ −1
𝑛+1
1
∫(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛+1 + 𝐶, 𝑛 ≠ −1
𝑎(𝑛 + 1)
In particular,
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝐶
(NA) If 𝒏 = −𝟏
1
∫ 𝑥 −1 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln 𝑥 + 𝐶, 𝑥 > 0
𝑥
1 1
∫(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)−1 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝐶, 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 > 0
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑎
Indefinite Integral of Trigonometric Functions (NA)

Important: 𝑥 must be in radians
1
∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 + 𝐶, ∫ sin(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = − cos(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝐶
𝑎
1
∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝐶, ∫ cos(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = sin(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝐶
𝑎
1
∫ sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + 𝐶, ∫ sec 2 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = tan(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝐶
𝑎
Indefinite Integral of Exponential Functions (NA)

∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶
1 𝑎𝑥+𝑏
∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 +𝐶
𝑎

Basic Properties of Definite Integral

Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑘 be any real numbers. Let 𝐶 be an arbitrary constant.
𝒃 𝑏
If,∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶, then,∫𝒂 𝒇 (𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = [𝐹(𝑥)] = 𝑭(𝒃) − 𝑭(𝒂)
𝑎
The following properties follow from the basic rules of integration:

𝑏 𝑏
∫ 𝑘𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
∫ [𝑓 (𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑔 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
∫ [𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑔 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝒂
∫ 0 𝑑𝑥 = 0 ∫ 𝒇 (𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = 𝟎
𝑎 𝒂
𝑏 𝒂 𝒃
∫ 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘(𝑏 − 𝑎), ∫ 𝒇 (𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = − ∫ 𝒇 (𝒙)𝒅𝒙
𝑎 𝒂 𝒂
𝒂 𝒄 𝒃
In particular,
∫ 𝒇 (𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = ∫ 𝒇 (𝒙)𝒅𝒙 + ∫ 𝒇 (𝒙)𝒅𝒙
𝑏 𝑏 𝒂 𝒂 𝒄
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑏 − 𝑎 𝒃 𝒃
𝑎 𝑎
∫ 𝒇 (𝒕)𝒅𝒕 = ∫ 𝒇 (𝒙)𝒅𝒙
𝒂 𝒂

Area Bounded by a Curve and Line(s)

Area between a Curve and the 𝑥-axis
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 be any three real numbers such that 𝑎<𝑐<𝑏.

The area 𝐴 of the region bounded by a curve 𝑦=𝑓(𝑥), the 𝑥-axis and two vertical lines 𝑥=𝑎 and
𝑥=𝑏 is given by
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑏
𝐴 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 +
if 𝑦 ≥ 0 for all 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏
𝑥
𝑎 𝑏
𝒂 𝒃
𝒙
𝑏
(NA) 𝐴 = |∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥|
𝑎
if 𝑦 ≤ 0 for all 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏
𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙)
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑐 𝑏
+
(NA) 𝐴 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + |∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥|
𝑎 𝑐 =
𝑏
𝑥
if 𝑦 ≥ 0 for all 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑐 𝑎 𝑐
and 𝑦 ≤ 0 for all 𝑐 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 −
(NA)
𝑐 𝑏
𝐴 = |∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥| + ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
+
𝑎 𝑐
if 𝑦 ≤ 0 for all 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑐 𝑎 𝑥
𝑐 𝑏
and 𝑦 ≥ 0 for all 𝑐 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏
−
=

Area between a Curve and the 𝒚-axis

Let 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 be any three real numbers such that 𝑎<𝑐<𝑏.
The area 𝐴 of the region bounded by a curve 𝑥=𝑔(𝑦), the 𝑦-axis and the two horizontal lines 𝑦=𝑎 and
𝑦=𝑏 is given by
𝑏 𝑏
𝐴 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝐴 = |∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑦|
𝑎 𝑎
if 𝑥 ≥ 0 for all 𝑎 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑏 if 𝑥 ≤ 0 for all 𝑎 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑏
𝑦 𝑦
𝑏 𝑏
𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦)
+ −
𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦)
=
𝑎
𝑎
𝑐 𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
𝐴 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 + |∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑦| 𝐴 = |∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑦| + ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑐
if 𝑥 ≥ 0 for all 𝑎 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑐 if 𝑥 ≤ 0 for all 𝑎 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑐
and 𝑥 ≤ 0 for all 𝑐 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑏 and 𝑥 ≥ 0 for all 𝑐 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑏
𝑦 𝑦
𝑏
𝑏
− +
= =
𝑐 𝑐
𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦) 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦)
−
+ =
= 𝑎
𝑎

Area of a Region Bounded by a Curve and Lines Parallel to the Coordinate Axes (I)
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 be any three real numbers such that 𝑎<𝑐<𝑏. Let 𝑘 be any real number.
The area 𝐴 of the region bounded by a curve 𝑦=𝑓(𝑥), the horizontal line 𝑦=𝑘 and the two vertical lines
𝑥=𝑎 and 𝑥=𝑏 is given by
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑏
𝐴 = ∫ (𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑘) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
if 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑘 for all 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏

𝑦=𝑘
𝑥=𝑎 𝑥=𝑏
𝑦=𝑘
𝑏
𝐴 = ∫ ( 𝑘 − 𝑓(𝑥))𝑑𝑥
𝑎
if 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑘 for all 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥=𝑏
𝑥=𝑎
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑐 𝑏
𝐴 = ∫ [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑘]𝑑𝑥 + ∫ [ 𝑘 − 𝑓(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑐 𝑥=𝑏
𝑦=𝑘
if 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑘 for all 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑐 (𝑐, 𝑘)
𝑥=𝑎
and 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑘 for all 𝑐 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏
𝑐 𝑏
𝐴 = ∫ [𝑘 − 𝑓(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 + ∫ [ 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑘]𝑑𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑎 𝑐
𝑥=𝑎
if 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑘 for all 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑐
𝑦=𝑘
(𝑐, 𝑘)
and 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑘 for all 𝑐 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 𝑥=𝑏

Area of a Region Bounded by a Curve and Lines Parallel to the Coordinate Axes (II)
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 be any three real numbers such that 𝑎<𝑐<𝑏. Let 𝑘 be any real number.
The area 𝐴 of the region bounded by a curve 𝑥=𝑔(𝑦), the vertical line 𝑥=𝑘 and the two horizontal lines
𝑦=𝑎 and 𝑦=𝑏 is given by
𝑏 𝑏
𝐴 = ∫ [𝑔(𝑦) − 𝑘]𝑑𝑦 𝐴 = ∫ ( 𝑘 − 𝑔(𝑦))𝑑𝑦
𝑎 𝑎
if 𝑔(𝑦) ≥ 𝑘 for all 𝑎 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑏 if 𝑔(𝑦) ≤ 𝑘 for all 𝑎 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑏
𝑥=𝑘 𝑥=𝑘
𝑦=𝑏 𝑦=𝑏
𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦) 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦)
𝑦=𝑎
X=k 𝑦=𝑎
𝑐 𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
𝐴 = ∫ [𝑔(𝑦) − 𝑘]𝑑𝑦 + ∫ [ 𝑘 − 𝑔(𝑦)]𝑑𝑦 𝐴 = ∫ [𝑘 − 𝑔(𝑦)]𝑑𝑦 + ∫ [ 𝑔(𝑦) − 𝑘]𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑐
if 𝑔(𝑦) ≥ 𝑘 for all 𝑎 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑐 if 𝑔(𝑦) ≤ 𝑘 for all 𝑎 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑐
and 𝑔(𝑦) ≤ 𝑘 for all 𝑐 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑏 and 𝑔(𝑦) ≥ 𝑘 for all 𝑐 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑏
𝑥=𝑘 𝑥=𝑘
𝑦=𝑏 𝑦=𝑏
(𝑘, 𝑐)
(𝑘, 𝑐)
𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦) 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦)
𝑦=𝑎
𝑦=𝑎

Area Enclosed by a Curve and an Intersecting Line

Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be any two real numbers with 𝑎<𝑏.
Let 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑚 and 𝑘 be any real number.
Suppose a curve 𝑦=𝑓(𝑥) and a line 𝑦=𝑚𝑥+𝑐 intersect at the two points (𝑎, 𝑠) and (𝑏, 𝑡).
Then the area 𝐴 enclosed by the curve 𝑦=𝑓(𝑥) and the line 𝑦=𝑚𝑥+𝑐 is given by
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
(𝑎, 𝑠)
(𝑏, 𝑡) 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 (𝑏, 𝑡)
(𝑎, 𝑠)
𝑏
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝐴 = ∫ [ 𝑓(𝑥) − (𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐)]𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑏
𝐴 = ∫ [ (𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐) − 𝑓(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥
if 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 for all 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 𝑎
if 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 for all 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏
Suppose a curve 𝑥=𝑔(𝑦) and a line 𝑥=𝑘𝑦+𝑑 intersect at the two points (𝑠, 𝑎) and (𝑡, 𝑏).
Then the Area 𝐴 enclosed by the curve 𝑥=𝑔(𝑦) and the line 𝑥=𝑘𝑦+𝑑 is given by
(𝑡, 𝑏) (𝑡, 𝑏)
𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦) 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦)
𝑥 = 𝑘𝑦 + 𝑑
𝑥 = 𝑘𝑦 + 𝑑
(𝑠, 𝑎) (𝑠, 𝑎)
𝑏 𝑏
𝐴 = ∫ [ 𝑔(𝑦) − (𝑘𝑦 + 𝑑)]𝑑𝑦 𝐴 = ∫ [ (𝑘𝑦 + 𝑑) − 𝑔(𝑦)]𝑑𝑦
𝑎 𝑎
if 𝑔(𝑦) ≥ 𝑘𝑦 + 𝑑 for all 𝑎 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑏 if 𝑔(𝑦) ≤ 𝑘𝑦 + 𝑑 for all 𝑎 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑏
******

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THE ULTIMATE GUIDE

MASTER A MATH IN LESS THAN 30 DAYS!

BY PRI M US LE ARN I N G CEN T RE

We wish you all the best,

PRIMUS LEARNING CENTRE 1

PRIMUS LEARNING CENTRE 2

Exponential Functions ........................................................................................................................................................... 28

Proofs in Plane Geometry ...................................................................................................................................... 49

PRIMUS LEARNING CENTRE 3

Basic Rules of Differentiation .............................................................................................................................................. 57

PRIMUS LEARNING CENTRE 4

Indices and Surds

If a is a real number and n is a positive integer, then aⁿ denotes ⏟

6. 𝑎0 = 1 (Note that 0° is not defined.)

PRIMUS LEARNING CENTRE 5

Note that 𝑎√𝑏 = 𝑎 × √𝑏

Rules for Operations with Surds

3. 𝑚√𝑎 + 𝑛√𝑎 = (𝑚 + 𝑛)√𝑎

For example, √4 + √9 = 2 + 3 = 5,whereas √4 + 9 = √23

−3 + √5 and −3 − √5 are pairs of conjugate surds.

PRIMUS LEARNING CENTRE 6

Rationalizing the Denominator

Solving Equations Involving Surds

Step 5: Check the solution obtained from Step 4.

Nature of Roots of Quadratic Equations

𝑫 = 𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 is the discriminant quadratic equation.

Quadratic Equation has

Example: For what values of b does −2𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 1 = 0 have real solution(s)?

PRIMUS LEARNING CENTRE 7

Intersection of a Line and a Curve

𝐷>0 the line intersects the curve at two points.

Always Positive/Negative Quadratic Expressions

Its discriminant D is given by 𝐷 = 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐.

The quadratic expression is always positive/negative if 𝑫 ˂ 𝟎.

PRIMUS LEARNING CENTRE 8

PRIMUS LEARNING CENTRE 9

Relationships between Roots and Coefficients of a Quadratic Equation

𝑥 2 -(Sum of Roots) 𝑥 +(Product of Roots) =0

𝑥 2 − (α + β)𝑥 + αβ = 0 is equivalent to (𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − β) = 0

A Few Useful Identities

(𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 4𝛼𝛽

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Interaction between Discriminant, Quadratic, Graph, Expression, Equation, Equalities

If 𝐷 ≥ 0, then 𝛼 and 𝛽 are real with 𝛼 ≥ 𝛽

Signs of Can be positive,

Solutions of 𝑥 < 𝛼 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 𝛽 𝑏 𝑏 𝑥∈ℝ

Solutions of 𝑥 ≤ 𝛼 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 𝛽 𝑥∈ℝ 𝑥∈ℝ

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Solutions of 𝑥 < 𝛼 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 𝛽 𝑏 𝑏 𝑥∈ℝ

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Quotient𝑄(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 22, remainder 𝑅 = −39.

When the division is linear, the remainder is just a constant.

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Example: Find the remainder when 3𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 − 2 is divided by

Solution: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 16𝑥 4 − 24𝑥 3 + 89𝑥 2 − 120𝑥 + 45.

Factorization of Sum or Difference of Two Cubes

Note that both expressions 𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏2 and 𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏2 cannot be factorized into real

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Rational Root Theorem (OPTIONAL)

In the polynomial 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 = 0 , where 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0, the numbers 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 , … , 𝑎1 , 𝑎0 are

Rational Root Theorem

An immediate consequence is,

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