20.

1) Biotechnology and genetic engineering

 Biotechnology is the application of biological organisms,

systems or processes to manufacturing and service
industries.
 Genetic engineering involves the transfer of genes from
one organism to (usually) an unrelated species.
 Both processes often make use of bacteria because of their
ability to make complex molecules (eg. proteins) and their
rapid reproduction rate.
 Bacteria are useful in biotechnology and genetic engineering
because they can be grown and manipulated without raising
ethical concerns.
 They have a genetic code that is the same as all other
organisms, so genes from other animals or plants can be
successfully transferred into bacterial DNA.
 Bacterial DNA is in the form of a circular strand and also
small circular pieces called plasmids.
 Scientists have developed techniques to cut open these
plasmids and insert sections of DNA from other organisms
into them.
 When the bacterium divides, the DNA in the modified
plasmid is copied, including the ‘foreign’ DNA.
This may contain a gene to make a particular protein such as
insulin, which can be extracted and used as a medicine to treat
diabetes.

20.2) Genetic engineering

Genetic engineering: is changing the genetic material of an
organism by removing, changing or inserting individual genes.

Examples of genetic engineering:

  The insertion of human genes into bacteria to produce
human insulin.
 The insertion of genes into crop plants to confer resistance
to herbicides and insect pests.
 The insertion of genes into crop plants to provide additional
vitamins.

Bacterial production of a human protein such as insulin:

1. Isolation of the DNA making up a human gene using
restriction enzymes, forming sticky ends.
2. Cutting of bacterial plasmid DNA with the same RE, forming
complementary sticky ends.
3. Insertion of human DNA into bacterial plasmid DNA using
ligase enzymes to form a recombinant plasmid.
4. Insertion of plasmid into bacteria.
5. Replication of bacteria containing recombinant plasmid
which make human protein as they express the gene.
  Restriction enzymes cut DNA at specific sites, rather than
just in random places along the DNA molecule. Eg. between
the A and the T in the sequence GAA-TTC.
 ligase enzymes join pieces of DNA together at specific
sites.
 The plasmids are said the be vectors that carry the human
DNA into the bacteria and the techniques are sometimes
called gene-splicing.
 The bacteria are cultured in special vessels called
fermenters and the insulin that they produce can be
extracted from the culture medium and purified for use in
treating diabetes.

Golden rice:
Advantages
 Produces beta carotene which is needed by humans in order
to make vitamin A.
 Used in areas where vitamin A deficiency is common, so it
can help prevent night blindness.
Disadvantages
 beta carotene levels in golden rice may not be high enough
to make a difference.
 there are fears that it will cross-breed with and contaminate
wild rice.
 there are concerns that food from GM plants might harm
people.
 seed for GM plants can be expensive.

Soya and Maize:

Disadvantages
 Can contain pesticide residues or substances that causes
allergies (allergens).
Herbicide-resistant crops:
Disadvantages
 The potential development of herbicide-resistant weeds.
Loss of biodiversity because fewer weeds survive – resulting in
reduced food and shelter for animals.